Sequence stratigraphic modelling and reservoir architecture of the
shallow marine successions of Baram field,West Baram Delta, offshore
Sarawak, East Malaysia
Sequence stratigraphic modelling and reservoir architecture of the
shallow marine successions of Baram field,West Baram Delta, offshore
Sarawak, East Malaysia
Sequence stratigraphic modelling and reservoir architecture of the
shallow marine successions of Baram field,West Baram Delta, offshore
Sarawak, East Malaysia
Sequence stratigraphic modelling and reservoir architecture of the
shallow marine successions of Barameld, West Baram Delta, offshore Sarawak, East Malaysia Abdul Hadi Abd. Rahman a , David Menier a, b, * , Md. Yazid Mansor a, c a Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Bandar Seri Iskandar, 31750 Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia b GMGL, UMR 6538 CNRS, University of South Brittany, France c Petronas Carigali Sdn Bhd (PCSB), PETRONAS Twin Tower, KLCC, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Received 13 July 2013 Received in revised form 8 March 2014 Accepted 14 March 2014 Available online xxx Keywords: Sequence stratigraphy Modelling Baram Delta South China Sea a b s t r a c t The Baram Delta Province is located in the northern part of Sarawak (West Baram Delta) and extends north-eastward into Brunei and further into the south-western part of Sabah (East Baram Delta). The delta is a Neogene basin which developed over an accretionary wedge implying Cretaceous to Eocene sediments during the Late Eocene to Late Miocene times (Tongkul, 1991; Hutchison et al., 2000; Morley et al., 2003; Sapin et al., 2011). Facies and well log analyses were carried out on core and well data for the Late Miocene successions of Baram eld, a medium-sized oileld located in the north-eastern ank of the Baram Delta Oil Province, offshore Sarawak. A numerical model of sea-level uctuations and progradational basin-ll was generated using the Clastic Modeling Program (Hardy and Waltham, 1992a and 1992b; Waltham, 1992) software to evaluate the possible controls of sea-level changes in the development of the siliciclastic successions and their bounding surfaces. This model was based on four lines of evidence, namely core data, eldwide wireline logs correlation, seismic sections and average thickness variations across the eld. Cored intervals of the Upper Cycle V (Late Miocene) display reservoir successions dominated by thick swaley cross-stratied (SCS) sandstones, thin hummocky cross-stratied sandstones and other shallow marine, wave and storm-dominated facies, interbedded with laminated shelfal mudstones. The vertical facies organisation suggests deposition during shoreface progradation associated with a fall of relative sea level. Analysis and correlation of well logs reveal stacking patterns comprising three scales of depositional cyclicity: the parasequences (w10ew30 m thick), the parasequence sets (w45ew130 m thick) and the major cycles (w600e800 m thick). Field-wide, dip-oriented seismic sections show very well-developed horizontal to slightly upward convex layers traceable over great distances, which suggests a ramp-type margin, in which the basin oor dipped gradually seaward and lacked a distinct shelf-slope margin. The evidences gathered demonstrate that the deposition and build-up stratigraphy of the Late Miocene sedimentary successions could have been strongly controlled by superimposed short-term, medium-term and long-term sea-level changes. The simulated sea level and sedimentary basin-ll model, generated by the Clastic Modelling Program, match to the well log correlation. This model illustrates that high frequency sea-level uctuations enable sands to be distributed over large areas within a shallow, low gradient shelf. Our study shows that in- tegrated studies incorporating cores, well logs, seismic sections and simulated models can be employed as important tools for correlation and reservoir modelling. 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction The focus of this study is a medium-sized oil eld situated on the north-eastern part of the Baram Delta province, offshore north of Miri town, Sarawak (Fig. 1). In this article, we document the * Corresponding author. Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Bandar Seri Iskandar, 31750 Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia. E-mail addresses: hadi_rahman@petronas.com.my (A.H. Abd. Rahman), david. menier@petronas.com.my, dmenier5@gmail.com (D. Menier), yazidm@petronas. com.my (Md.Y. Mansor). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Marine and Petroleum Geology j ournal homepage: www. el sevi er. com/ l ocat e/ marpet geo http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010 0264-8172/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (2014) 1e17 Please cite this article in press as: Abd. Rahman, A.H., et al., Sequence stratigraphic modelling and reservoir architecture of the shallow marine successions of Baram eld, West Baram Delta, offshore Sarawak, East Malaysia, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010 Figure 1. . (A) Location map of the study area (A) Tectonic elements of Northwest Borneo. (B) Structural framework of the Baram Delta Province in offshore Sarawak and (C) Wells location map of Baram eld. A.H. Abd. Rahman et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (2014) 1e17 2 Please cite this article in press as: Abd. Rahman, A.H., et al., Sequence stratigraphic modelling and reservoir architecture of the shallow marine successions of Baram eld, West Baram Delta, offshore Sarawak, East Malaysia, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010 characteristics of facies and facies associations of the cored interval belonging to the Upper Cycle V (Late Miocene) of the Baram eld and illustrate the stratigraphic architecture of the area. The core intervals are limited to the reservoir intervals and our description and interpretation are supported by well log analyses and corre- lation, evaluation of seismic data and comparisonwith other earlier work within the deltaic province. The aims of this article are: (i) to document the facies characteristics and stratigraphic architecture of the shallow marine, Late Miocene sedimentary succession, (ii) to evaluate the possible controls of sea level uctuations on strati- graphic architecture, and (iii) to illustrate how this understanding can be used to support future correlation work and evaluation/ prediction of reservoir facies architecture and rock quality distri- bution within the shallow marine complex. Shallow marine sedimentary environment comprises a contin- uum of sub-environments which are laterally gradational, and they are all affected by a complex interaction of geological processes (Walker and Plint, 1992). The sedimentary sequences deposited within the shallowmarine setting reect this complexity of process mixing through space and time (Yoshida et al., 2007), and this is further complicated by their sensitivity to uctuations of sea level (Walker and Plint, 1992). Deposits of these environments are characterised by sedimentary structures form in response to uni- directional and oscillatory (wave) currents; structures include rip- ples and dunes, hummocky cross stratied thin-bedded sandstones and thickly-bedded swaly cross stratied sandstones (Harms, 1975; Leckie and Walker, 1982; Walker and Plint, 1992). Shallowmarine stratigraphic architecture is formed by the basic building block referred to as parasequence e upward-coarsening, upward-shoaling facies successions (van Wagoner et al., 1990). Two types of parasequences have been recognised e a gradational- based prograding shoreface parasequence and a sharp-based shoreface parasequence (high frequency sequence) (Plint, 1988; Walker and Plint, 1992; Storms and Swift, 2003). In West Baram Delta Province, coarsening upward progradational parasequences or high frequency sequences (w20e50 m thick) are common (Johnson et al., 1989; Tan et al., 1999). These are commonly overlain by thinner, muddy retrogradational intervals (w7e15 mthick). The progradational sand bodies display high lateral continuity with good eld-wide correlation. The preservation of these well- developed progradational and retrogradational parasequences was linked to high subsidence and sedimentation rates within the Baram Delta Province (Johnson et al., 1989). Numerical modelling of depositional sequences has been used as a tool to simulate, explain and predict the behaviour and pattern of sediment dispersal systems and the resulting stratigraphic archi- tecture (Storms and Swift, 2003). Sedimentary simulations do not provide unique solutions to the sources and controls of sediment geometry and stratigraphic architecture; however, they can be used as a tool to test hypotheses that describes the effects of interplay of eustatic sea level change, tectonic deformation and subsidence, and uctuations in sedimentation rates (Kendall et al., 2012; Storms and Swift, 2003; Steckler, 1999). Sequence stratigraphy has been suc- cessfully used as a tool for well correlation and reservoir modelling. In this paper, we evaluated cores, well logs and seismic data from a Middle Miocene shallow marine reservoir succession, interpret and propose a sequence stratigraphic framework for the succession, and compare the results with computer generated numerical models. The aim is to evaluate the usefulness of numerical models in sequence stratigraphic analyses and reservoir modelling of shallow marine sequences. This exploratory approach is an attempt to scrutinize the possible controls exerted by high frequency sea level uctuations on the development of the thick shallow marine suc- cession of Baram delta in general. We assume a history of areally uniform subsidence, at least across the eld, which was conducive for the accumulation of substantial thickness of areally extensive shallow-marine sediments. Further research on Baram delta should be focussed on the control of subsidence on sedimentation. 2. Geological setting The Baram Delta Province is a sub-basin of the larger, Neogene Sarawak foreland basin (Fig. 1A). The Middle Miocene to Recent deltaic province is spread from the northern part of Sarawak and extends north-eastward through Brunei and into the southern part of Sabah (Fig. 1). The delta is a Neogene basin which developed over an accretionary wedge implying Cretaceous to Eocene sediments during the Late Eocene to Late Miocene times (Tongkul, 1991; Hutchison et al., 2000; Morley et al., 2003; Sapin et al., 2011). The Sarawak part of the delta, known as the West Baram Delta, covers an area of about 7500 square km: 2500 square km of it is onshore (Ho Kiam Fui, 1978; Rijks, 1981). The West Baram Line, a major northeast-hading fault zone forms the western margin of the province. This line separates the delta from the older, and more stable, Balingian and Central Luconia Province (Fig. 1A). The eastern margin is marked by the Morris Fault e Jerudong Line in Brunei, which separates the Neogene delta from the older, more deformed rocks of the Inboard Belt, offshore NW Sabah (Tan et al., 1999). An estimated thickness of about 6000e9000 m (20,000e 30,000 ft) Neogene clastic sediments, of coastal to coastal uvio- marine sands andshales, formthe stratigraphyof the deltaic province (Johnsonet al.,1989). InWest BaramDelta, depositionis characterized bytheoutbuildingof northwardprogradational sequences whichwas initiated sometime in Middle Miocene times. The stratigraphic ar- chitecturewasconstructedbythickandsandyprogradational shallow marine-deltaic sequences which are separated by transgressive ma- rineshaleintervals (Tanet al.,1999). HoKiamFui (1978) denedeight, Upper EocenetoPleistocene, sedimentarycycles for theneighbouring Balingian and Central Luconia Province of offshore Sarawak. These cycles, which are also developed within the Baram Delta, comprise pulsesof clasticorcarbonatesuccessionseparatedbyprominent shale layers deposited during rapid transgression (Johnson et al., 1989). These have been dated through biostratigraphic zonation based on planktonic foraminifers, larger benthonic foraminifers and spor- amorphs (pollen and spores) (Ho Kiam Fui, 1978). This early strati- graphic framework has been the reference tool for regional correlation and facies mapping throughout the Sarawak basin. 3. Dataset The eld under investigation covers an area of about 100 square km and comprises two separate fault-bounded dip closures in the intermediate to deep reservoir levels of Late Miocene age. This is within the depth interval between 1220 and 2135 m (4000e 7000 ft; Fig. 4.1). Two wells of the eld, Wells BX8-1 and BX16-2, have core intervals from the Upper Miocene (w5.0e8.0 Ma) reservoir sections. Well BX8-1 has a total of w54.00 m (177.0 ft) of cores from 4 cored intervals; well BX16-2 has about w70.00 m (233.0 ft) cores divided into six (6) core intervals. Well logs from thirteen wells and representative seismic sections were also examined. The wireline logs record geophysical properties of rock succession between w1740 m and 2320 m (5710 fte7610 ft) of the Upper Cycle V (Late Miocene) of the Baram eld. 4. Sedimentological and sequence stratigraphic analysis 4.1. Core facies analysis Based on the analyses of 125 m (410 ft) of cores from the Upper Cycle V (Late Miocene) reservoir sections from two wells from A.H. Abd. Rahman et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (2014) 1e17 3 Please cite this article in press as: Abd. Rahman, A.H., et al., Sequence stratigraphic modelling and reservoir architecture of the shallow marine successions of Baram eld, West Baram Delta, offshore Sarawak, East Malaysia, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010 F i g u r e 2 . ( A ) S t r a t i g r a p h i c l o g o f t h e s h a l l o w e r c o r e d i n t e r v a l o f W e l l B X 8 - 1 ; ( B ) S t r a t i g r a p h i c l o g o f t h e d e e p e r c o r e d i n t e r v a l o f W e l l B A X 8 - 1 . A.H. Abd. Rahman et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (2014) 1e17 4 Please cite this article in press as: Abd. Rahman, A.H., et al., Sequence stratigraphic modelling and reservoir architecture of the shallow marine successions of Baram eld, West Baram Delta, offshore Sarawak, East Malaysia, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010 F i g u r e 3 . . ( A ) S t r a t i g r a p h i c l o g o f t h e s h a l l o w e r c o r e d i n t e r v a l o f W e l l B X 1 6 - 2 ; ( B ) S t r a t i g r a p h i c l o g o f t h e d e e p e r c o r e d i n t e r v a l o f W e l l B X 1 6 - 2 . A.H. Abd. Rahman et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (2014) 1e17 5 Please cite this article in press as: Abd. Rahman, A.H., et al., Sequence stratigraphic modelling and reservoir architecture of the shallow marine successions of Baram eld, West Baram Delta, offshore Sarawak, East Malaysia, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010 Barameld, twelve (12) lithofacies based on lithology, sedimentary structures, bioturbation index and geometry (thickness and basal/ top surface contact) (Abdul Hadi Abd. Rahman, 1995; Tan et al., 1999). These are summarised in Figures 2A and 2B, 3A and 3B, and briey described below: 1. Hummocky cross-stratied (HCS) facies e thin-bedded (<30 cm), ne-to-very ne grained sandstones, with parallel-to-low angle laminations, interbedded with thin mudstones, interpreted to be hummocky beds. Most beds are sharp-to-erosively based, and commonly bioturbated near the top. Trace fossils identied are Ophiomorpha nodosa, Chondrites, Planolites and Skolithos linearis (?). These are interpreted as lower shoreface storm beds. 2. Swaley cross-stratied (SCS) facies e thick-bedded and amalgamated (3e10 m), ne-to-very ne grained sand- stones, with no interbedded mudstone. Trace fossils are not common; these include O. nodosa, Ophiomorpha irregulaire, Planolites and Teichicnus. This facies is interpreted as storm and fairweather middle to upper shoreface deposit. 3. Massive coarse sandstone e well-sorted, medium-to-coarse, sandstone. Interbedded with mudstone and bioturbated siltstone. This facies commonly occur above ooding surfaces and is interpreted as a transgressive lag deposit. 4. Ripple cross-laminated sandstone-siltstone-mudstone interbedding. A thin-bedded and well-laminated heterolithic facies. The thin sandstone layers (1e70 cm) are sharp-based, laminated and often ripple cross-laminated. Bioturbation is rare. These rippled beds are interpreted as offshore transition zone deposit. 5. Interbedded laminated sandstone and bioturbated mudstone. Within this facies, thin laminated sandstone/ siltstone (2e10 cm) is interbedded with intensely bio- turbated mudstone (5e15 cm). The laminated sandstones are sharp-based and laminated; the mudstone is intensely bio- turbated and mottled. The intensity of the bioturbation re- ects starvation of the basin and condensation of the bed. This is a transgressive, condensed interval. 6. Laminated mudstone facies. This dark grey laminated mudstone facies is marked by the presence of thin (mm) to hairline silt and sand layers which are commonly laminated and ripple cross-laminated. This is an offshore transition zone to offshore deposit. 7. Bioturbated silty mudstone and siltstone facies. Several notably thick layers (1.5e3.0 m) of well-to-intensely bio- turbated mudstones and siltstones occur above ooding surfaces and also interbedded with HCS beds. These are interpreted to be bioturbated condensed section related to the transgression. 8. Laminated, ning-upward sandstone facies with shell frag- ments. This interval displays distinct internal stratication. The basal contact is erosional. Its lower part is planar lami- nated sand with thin layers of calcareous shell fragments. It grades upward into thin light grey, low angle-to-parallel laminated ne sandstone and capped with a ripple lami- nated sandy interval. This interval is interpreted to be gutter cast, storm deposit. 9. Heterogeneous sandstone facies. This sandy facies exhibit clay clasts, wavy and rippled sandstone-mudstone inter- bedded layers and is sparsely bioturbated. Trace fossils include O. nodosa, O. irregulaire, Palophycus and Thalassi- noides. The presence of irregular mud layers, and associated aser beds suggest some form of tide-inuenced process within the environment. 10. Flaser bedded sandstone facies. This is ne-to-medium grained sandstone with simple to bifurcate asers. This facies is also interpreted to be the product of tide-inuenced processes. 4.1.1. Facies associations and depositional environments Three environmentally signicant facies associations were identied based on the core facies analysis. These are: I. Gradational, upward-coarsening HCS-SCS shoreface succes- sion (FA-1). This succession consists of a lower interval of interbedded bioturbated mudstone, laminated mudstone and thin, planar-to-ripple laminated sandstone. Upwards, the sandstone layers thicken and the HCS beds may amal- gamate to form thick SCS. The gradational vertical facies Figure 4. . Schematic diagram showing the interpreted locations for the development of the different parasequences of the cored intervals of BX8-1 and BX16-2. A.H. Abd. Rahman et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (2014) 1e17 6 Please cite this article in press as: Abd. Rahman, A.H., et al., Sequence stratigraphic modelling and reservoir architecture of the shallow marine successions of Baram eld, West Baram Delta, offshore Sarawak, East Malaysia, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010 organisation suggests a progressive, gradual shallowing of the environment, reective of a prograding, wave-dominated shoreface (Fig. 2A). II. Sharp-based, upward-coarsening SCS shoreface succession (FA-2). This facies association is characterised by the occur- rence of thick (w7e10 m) SCS beds abruptly above a mud- dominated, thinly interbedded HCS sandstones and mud- stones. The thick SCS middle-to-upper shoreface sandstone is interpreted to be deposited during a period of rapid fall of relative sea level, resulting in shoreface progradation into mud-dominated inner shelf areas, thus resulting in the sharp-based characteristic (Fig. 2B). III. Fining-upward tidal succession (FA-3). This interval displays a ning-upward, shallowing-upward succession of tide- inuenced facies. The succession may have been deposited due to the slight shallowing of the sub-tidal, tide-inuenced environment. This facies association is less well developed; the thickness and occurrence of this unit suggest periods of localised and restricted tide-inuenced sedimentation within a wave-dominated setting. 4.2. Well log interpretation and correlation Figure 7 shows the location of the wells of the Baram eld analysed for this part of the study. The thirteen (13) wells analysed in this study show spacing of 0.7 kme5.0 km. All the wells are located within the Baram eld. The Upper Cycle V of Baram Delta has been dated from 5.3 Ma to about 7.8 Ma by Sarawak Shell Berhad (Table 1). The Upper boundary of the Upper Cycle V is shown to be the boundary between the plantktonic foraminiferal A B Figure 5. (A). Sedimentological and stratigraphic interpretation of the well logs for the Upper Cycle V (Late Miocene) section of Well BX8-1. (B). Sedimentological and stratigraphic interpretation of the well logs for the Upper Cycle V (Late Miocene) section of Well BX16-2. A.H. Abd. Rahman et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (2014) 1e17 7 Please cite this article in press as: Abd. Rahman, A.H., et al., Sequence stratigraphic modelling and reservoir architecture of the shallow marine successions of Baram eld, West Baram Delta, offshore Sarawak, East Malaysia, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010 zones SN 17 and SN 18. The SSB Well Penetration Chart for Baram Delta Province (1983) shows this boundary between the Globor- otalia dutertrei zone and Globorotalia margaritae zone (Table 2). SSB Well Penetration Chart (1983) gave a younger age of 7.1 Ma for the lower boundary of the Upper Cycle V, while Hageman (1987) x the boundary at about 7.5 Ma. None of the Barameld wells penetrated beyond the lower boundary. Table 3 shows the penetrated thick- nesses of Upper Cycle V in the 13 wells analysed. We employ sequence stratigraphic methods in the analyses and correlation of the well logs. The term parasequence has been dened as a relatively conformable succession of genetically related beds or bedsets bounded by marine ooding surfaces or their correlative surfaces (van Wagoner et al., 1988; van Wagoner et al., 1990). We use the term parasequence (PS) here to describe any coarsening upward and ning upward succession of genetically related strata, regardless of the inferred magnitude and duration of sea-level change involved in its genesis. The inuence and interaction of relative sea-level change and sediment ux/ sedimentation rate on the eld-wide stratal pattern is discussed in later sections. 4.2.1. Vertical facies relationships in parasequences Four types of facies successions are recognised from core-to- gamma ray log calibration, gamma-density-sonic log interpretation and eldwide log correlation of the Upper Cycle V of Baram eld. These are illustrated in Figures 2 and 3, and described below. 1. Gradational-based shoreface parasequence, PS-1; 2. Shallow marine, sharp-based shoreface sandstone para- sequence, PS-2; 3. Progradational-retrogradational parasequence, PS-3; 4. Coastal-plain sandstones and mudstone parasequence, PS-4 PS-1 and PA-2 are dened by core-gamma ray log calibration of the cored intervals of wells BX8-1 and BX16-2 (Figs. 2 and 3). They are recognisable from gamma-density log patterns. PS-3 and PS-4 are dened from the analyses of gamma ray, density and sonic logs of the Upper Cycle V of wells BX8-1 and BX16-2, and are also recognisable throughout the eld. Field-wide log correlation of these parasequences improves their denition. 4.2.1.1. Gradational-based shoreface parasequence, PS-1. The gen- eral shape of the gamma log curves for PS-1 is of abrupt top funnel shape, which reects the gradual coarsening-upward trend of the grain size and sandier-upward facies sucession (Fig. 2B). These parasequences coarsen upward from thin-bedded sandstone and mudstone interbedding, through HCS sandstone and mudstone Figure 6. (A). Sandstone thicknesses variation with depth for the upper cycle V of Well BX8-1. The short arrows represent parasequence sets. (B). Sandstone thicknesses variation with depth for the upper cycle V of Well BX16-2. The short arrows represent parasequence sets. A.H. Abd. Rahman et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (2014) 1e17 8 Please cite this article in press as: Abd. Rahman, A.H., et al., Sequence stratigraphic modelling and reservoir architecture of the shallow marine successions of Baram eld, West Baram Delta, offshore Sarawak, East Malaysia, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010 into thick SCS sandstone. The gradational vertical relationship be- tween the different facies of PS-1 is interpreted to be the result of a progressive, gradual shallowing within a prograding wave- dominated shoreface environment (Fig. 4). Similar shoreface suc- cessions have been reported by Plint (1988) and Walker and Plint (1992). The inferred water depth change, implied by the facies successions of PS-1 of well BX16-2, is from 50 m to subtidal (w10 m) or sea level (w0 m). 4.2.1.2. Shallow marine, sharp based shoreface sandstone para- sequence, PS-2. PS-2 is a sharp-based, upward-coarsening shore- face succession, best displayed in Figure 2A. The sharp contact between the thick SCS sandstone and the underlying interbedded lower shoreface HCS sandstone and shelfal mudstone is marked by an overall decrease in the gamma reading (Fig. 4). The para- sequence boundary is indicated by abrupt change in lithology, from sandstones below the boundary to mudstone above the boundary; by abrupt decrease in bed thickness and abrupt deepening of depositional environment across the boundary. PS-2 are similarly identied from logs of uncored intervals of wells BX8-1 and BX16- 2, and other wells of Baram eld. The facies association within this upward-coarsening para- sequence shows evidence of rapid decrease in water depth indi- cated by the thick SCS sandstone unit which abruptly overlies the self mudstone. The interpreted water-depth change for PS-1 is from 50 m for the shelf mudstone to a depth of between 20 and 5 m for the SCS sandstone, depending on the thickness of the sand unit. 4.2.1.3. Coastal sandstone and mudstone parasequence, PS-3. PS-4, when present, usually occurs immediately on top of a thick PS-2 (Fig. 4.23). it exhibits a very distinctive, funnel shape log signature. A similar facies succession was described by Johnson et al. (1989) from neighbouring Betty eld in Baram Delta. They described it as retrogradational sands which form during the early part of the incoming transgression. van Wagoner et al. (1990) identied and interpreted similar log patterns as coastal-plain sandstone and mudstones. This rare parasequence may reach a thickness of 25 m, but the interpreted thicknesses of the sandstones never exceed 10 m. 4.2.1.4. Progradational/retrogradational parasequence, PS-4. PS-3 show symetrical gamma-log shape interpreted as amalgam- ated coarsening-upward and ning-upward units (Figs. 3 and 4). This is possibly an offshore-to-offshore transition zone para- sequence. It is interpreted to be the result of sedimentationwithin a rising relative sea level (retrogradational-to-aggradational para- sequence). The lower upward-coarsening section represents the short period of progradation, while the upper ning upward part records period when the rising sea-level overwhelmthe lowrate of incoming sand. The depositional water-depth is interpreted to change froman initial w30 mto w10 to 5 mand eventually back to w30 m. 4.2.2. Lateral facies relationship in parasequences Parasequences PS-1, PS-2, PS-3 and PS-4 are genetically related, and thus showclose vertical and lateral relationship (Fig. 4). PS-1 is interpreted to form during a normal progressive phase of a sub- siding and prograding wave-dominated shoreface. The formation of the parasequences is the result of the impact of relative sea-level uctuations and their location within the shallow marine zone; PS-1 represent a shoreface progradational phase while PS-2 in- volves a more rapid relative sea-level fall accompanied by active progradation. PS-3 is interpreted to have formed in more proximal, coastal part and showslight coarsening-upward log pattern, while PS-4 is visualised to have formed in the more distal, offshore part of the complex, thus resulting in the serrated and near-symmetrical shape log pattern (Fig. 4). Figure 7. . Map of Baram eld and well location and graphical logs of sandstone thicknesses against relative depth. A.H. Abd. Rahman et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (2014) 1e17 9 Please cite this article in press as: Abd. Rahman, A.H., et al., Sequence stratigraphic modelling and reservoir architecture of the shallow marine successions of Baram eld, West Baram Delta, offshore Sarawak, East Malaysia, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010 4.2.3. Field wide wireline log correlation 4.2.3.1. Parasequence, parasequence sets and major cycles. The li- thology and sequence stratigraphy of the Upper Cycle V for wells BX8-1 and BX16-2 is interpreted based on the recognition and interpretation of the parasequences supported by the rock-log calibration (Fig. 5A and B). Figure A shows the lithological inter- pretation of well BX8-1. The whole Upper Cycle V succession is dominated by parasequence types PS-1 and PS-2, with subordinate occurrences of PS-3 and PS-4. This suggests that during this period, Baram eld was dominated by shallow marine, wave and storm sedimentation with minor tidal inuence. A total of 67 para- sequences can be identied and these can be grouped into 17 larger cycles of thickening-upward parasequence sets. A similar pattern is shown in well BX16-2 (Fig. 5B). A total of 78 parasequences are recognised; these can be grouped into 17 para- sequence sets. In general, each parasequence sets presents a shal- lowing upward trend of individual parasequences, which suggest an overall regressive trend. The younger parasequences in any particular parasequence set tend to be thicker than the older par- asequences in the set, indication good accommodation and high Table 1 Stratigraphic division of Sabah and Sarawak (Borneo). A.H. Abd. Rahman et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (2014) 1e17 10 Please cite this article in press as: Abd. Rahman, A.H., et al., Sequence stratigraphic modelling and reservoir architecture of the shallow marine successions of Baram eld, West Baram Delta, offshore Sarawak, East Malaysia, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010 sediment inux. This pattern corresponds to progradational para- sequence set stacking pattern. Progradational parasequence sets form during periods when the rate of deposition is greater than the rate of accommodation, this results in successively younger para- sequences being deposited farther basinward (van Wagoner et al., 1990). 4.2.3.2. Sandstone thicknesses variation with depth. Sandstone thicknesses were estimated by way of well log interpretation. These thicknesses were plotted against well depth (Fig. 6A and B). For well BX8-1, a maximum of 17 cycles, which corresponds to para- sequence sets, are identied, while well BX16-2 exhibit 16 of these cycles which are dominated by thick PS-1, with sandstone thick- nesses reaching 15e20 m. For both wells, only the upper (younger) major-cycle is complete. Sandstone thicknesses variation with depth was plotted for the other wells of Baram eld (Fig. 7). This yield similar results; the total number of upward- thickening parasequence sets for all the wells ranges from 15 to 24 sets. The two major cycles can also be recognised in most of the wells. The upper (younger) major cycle is complete in most wells. No complete lower cycle is recorded in any of the wells. All the logs are tied to a regionally extensive upper datum of Upper Cycle V (5.3 Ma). 4.2.4. The Upper (younger) major cycle The Upper major cycle looks complete in wells BX24-1, BX7, BX32-1 and BX42 in the western block of the eld. The thickest and uppermost sandstone layer in all these wells ranges from 10 to 15 m. This cycle is complete but less pronounced in wells BX4, BX8-1, BX3, BX9-1 and BX16-2. The thickness of the up- permost sandstone is also reduced to between 20 and 40 m. The cycles in wells BX2, BX27, BX5 and BX23 are marked by the occurrence of a thick, sandstone layers in the middle part of the cycle. This may be due to thicker sedimentation post-Upper Major Cycle in these more basinward part of the delta, differential sub- sidence or because the sandy zone of the upper cycle did not extend into these areas. Table 3 Thicknesses of Cycle V. Baram eld cycle V e Upper major cycle (w5.3e6.3 Ma) Recorded thicknesses across the eld Wells Total thickness (ft/m) BA-X24 2040/621.8 BA-X7 2010/612.6 BA-X32 1965/598.9 BA-X42 2090/637 BA-X4 2140/652 BA-X8 2120/646 BA-X3 1825/556 BA-X16 2320/707 BA-X9 2030/618 BA-X2 1975/601 BA-X27 2045/623 BA-X5 2045/623 BA-X23 1740/530 Table 2 Sedimentary cycle of Sarawak with Planktonic foraminifera and palynological zonation. EPOCH GEO CHRONO Ma PLANKTONIC FORAMINIFERAL ZONATIO GEOLOGICAL, LAB 1977 PALYNOLOGICAL ZONATION SEDIMENTARY CYCLE PLIESTOCENE 2.85 3.3 5. 2 5.4 7.2 8.5 Globorotalia truncatulinoids Globorotalia tosaensis Pv 2 581 Pv 3 481 VIII VII PLIOCENE Globoquadrina altispira Globorotalia margaritae Globorotalia dutertrei Globorotalia acostaensis Globorotalia lenguasensis Pv 2 128 Po 3 46 Sa 35 Scz 230 P02 327 Pco 69 Pv 2 391 upper middle VI lower upper middle V LATE MIOCENE Sa 300 A.H. Abd. Rahman et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (2014) 1e17 11 Please cite this article in press as: Abd. Rahman, A.H., et al., Sequence stratigraphic modelling and reservoir architecture of the shallow marine successions of Baram eld, West Baram Delta, offshore Sarawak, East Malaysia, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010 4.2.5. The Lower (older) major cycle None of the wells show a complete lower cycle. Note that the uppermost thick parasequences of this lower cycle (PS-2) are better developed and generally thicker throughout the eld compared to the top parasequence of the upper cycle. The stacking of shallowing-upward, shallow-marine para- sequences indicates uctuations in depositional water depths, which in turn implies cycles of relatives sea-level rise and fall. Employing the values of the interpreted change in depositional depths for the different parasequences, plots of depositional depths change against depths are constructed for all the wells of Baram eld. Figures 8A and B shows these plots for wells BX8-1 and BX16- 2 (see Fig. 9). The plots obtained essentially show the same small-scale, in- termediate and major cycles like the sand thicknesses vs depth plots (Fig. 8A and B). A single small-scale cycle begins at a depositional depth of 50 m, and shoals upward to sea level. As soon as the shallowest depth is reached, this cycle is abruptly terminated by a transgression, represented by a return to depth of 50 m. This termination also becomes the beginning of the next cycle. An intermediate cycle comprises a group of small-cycles (the numbers range from 4 to 7 small-scale cycles) that progressively shallows upward. This intermediate-cycle is a parasequence-set, and indicates a more pronounced relative sea-level fall than a small cycle. The major-cycles can also be recognised here. The tops of most of these cycles are occupied by thick PS-1. These represent a major progradation phase which may be due to a relative sea level fall. It is interesting to note that the intermediate cycle thicknesses show very little variation, which may suggest some temporal regularity of these cycles. Figure 9. . Dip-oriented well logs correlation of Baram Field. Figure 8. . Plots of depositional depths uctuation against well depths for two wells (BX8-1 and BX16-2). A.H. Abd. Rahman et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (2014) 1e17 12 Please cite this article in press as: Abd. Rahman, A.H., et al., Sequence stratigraphic modelling and reservoir architecture of the shallow marine successions of Baram eld, West Baram Delta, offshore Sarawak, East Malaysia, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010 4.3. Seismic data Limited seismic data was made available for this work. Figure 10 shows a north-south dip oriented section of part of the eld. Flat, low lying and laterally correlatable reectors can be clearly seen in this section, with minor disturbance. The section display very well developed horizontal to slightly upward convex layers traceable to great distances. This is indicative of ramp-type margin, inwhich the basin oor dipped gradually seaward and lacked a distinct shelf- slope margin. The interpreted shallow marine succession exhibit laterally uniform facies and thicknesses. This may be indicative of a history of areally uniform subsidence, at least across the eld, that facilitates the accumulation of such a thick succession of shallow- marine sediments. 4.4. Simulation of sediment dispersal trend and sedimentary ll in Baram eld 4.4.1. Mechanisms for relative sea level change The three different scales of cycles of Baram eld are formed as the result of relative sea-level rises and falls, which can be produced by three different mechanisms, namely, I) autocyclic delta-lobe switching, ii) intermittent, jerky subsidence, and iii) eustasy. 4.4.1.1. Autocyclic processes. This is a well-documented mechanism in which the relatively rapid sea-level rise is caused by compaction of prodelta mudstones in a delta lobe, following distributary channel avulsion (Frazier, 1967; van Wagoner et al., 1990). Elliot (1974) noted that this drowning event will produce an abrupt, planar and erosional surface with little or no preserved trans- gressive lag lying above it. This rapid rise in relative sea level will also create a parasequence boundary in the form of a marine ooding surface with the areal extent equivalent to the areal extent of the lobe itself. However, possible major problems with invoking this mecha- nism are the slow rate of compaction itself, and the implied regu- larity of its occurrence, to produce thick multiple-stacked successions of shallow marine sandstones and mudstones. van Wagoner et al. (1990) also argued against the case for rapid deltaic progradation as a mechanism for sequence boundary formation. He noted that preserved deltas and delta lobes show distributary-channel deposits encased in stream-mouth bar and delta-front deposits, and lack the subaqueous, sandy deltaic deposit beneath the sequence boundary. 4.4.1.2. Intermittent, jerky subsidence. Rapid rise in relative sea- level caused by subsidence along tectonically active faults can also form parasequence boundaries (van Wagoner et al., 1990). This kind of subsidence along low-lying shorelines can drown large coastal areas and produce areally extensive marine ooding sur- faces. However, it is thought unlikely that spasmodic subsidence associated with faulting could yield regional, high-frequency cycles. It also looks almost impossible for intermittent subsidence to support the formation of cycles with such a narrow range of thicknesses like those of Baram eld. 4.4.1.3. Eustasy. The depositional cycles of the Baram eld are in the form of parasequences, parasequence sets and major-cycles. These parasequences and parasequence sets can appropriately be termed high-order sequences and sequence sets of Mitchum and van Wagoner (1991). The hierarchy of sequences forms as a response to relative sea- level uctuations, which can be the result of rise and fall of sea- level itself. Sea-level cycles are classied according to the dura- tion of the cycle: third order cycles (1e10 millions years); fourth order cycles (200,000 0 500,000 yr) and fth order cycles (10,000e 200,000 yr) (Plint et al., 1992). High-frequency cyclicity of fourth order and higher has long been recognised in carbonate rocks (Fisher, 1964, 1986; Goldhammer et al., 1987; Koerschner and Read, 1989). Koerschner and Read (1989) argued that sea-level uctuation is the simplest mechanism to form regional high-order cycles. This is because there is an actualistic model that is the Milankovitch climate- forcing, which is able to cause the sea-level uctuations with the required high frequencies. Milankovitch climatic uctuations with roughly w20 k.y., w40 k.y. and w100 k.y. (and possibly longer periods, e.g. w400 k.y.) periods have been shown to have occurred at least back into the Mesozoic and Late Palaeozoic (Olsen, 1986; Anderson, 1986). By developing statistical approaches to measuring and estimating frequencies of interpreted Milankovitch cycles in carbonates, Goldhammer et al. (1987) and Koerschner and Read (1989) recognised important frequencies at about 100,000 and 20,000 years, which are superposed on the third order frequencies. In the Muskiki and Marshybank Formations (Cretaceous) of the Alberta Foreland Basin, Canada, Plint (1991) identied 15 regionally traceable siliciclastic high-order sequences, each of which appar- ently lasted about 100,000 years. He suggested an orbitally forced glacio-eustatic mechanisms for the formation of the 100,000 year frequency cycles. Figure 10. . NortheSouth dip-oriented seismic section. A.H. Abd. Rahman et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (2014) 1e17 13 Please cite this article in press as: Abd. Rahman, A.H., et al., Sequence stratigraphic modelling and reservoir architecture of the shallow marine successions of Baram eld, West Baram Delta, offshore Sarawak, East Malaysia, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010 4.4.2. Modelling Late Miocene eustatic changes and the deposition of Baram eld cycles Parasequence stacking patterns in Upper Cycle V of Baram eld suggest that deposition and build-up stratigraphy were controlled by superimposed short-term and long-term uctuations in relative sea level. The control of third order cycles of durations of 1e10 m.y. is problematic and controversial. Haq et al. (1988) and Vail et al. (1977) suggest control of third-order cycles by the waxing and waning of continental ice masses. However, growth and decay of continental ice masses takes place over much shorter periods of time (Plint et al., 1992). Analysis of the stable oxygen isotope record for the Cenozoic suggests that third-order changes may be driven by a combination of glacio-eustatic sea-level and ocean paleo- temperature changes (Williams, 1988). However, to date, there is still no consensus on the driving mechanism of third order cycles. Fourth and fth-order cycles, widely documented in many Phan- erozoic shallow marine and pelagic rocks, are readily explained by changes in climate driven by different cyclic perturbations of the Earths tilt and orbit (Plint et al., 1992). These are the Milankovitch cycles. According to the Milankovitch theory, the principal control on the growth and decay of Quaternary ice sheets is the uctuation in the seasonal distribution of incoming solar radiation (Raymo et al., 1989). Thus, fourth and fth-order sea level changes may be easily produced by the alternate accumulation and melting of continental ice caps, in response to Milankovitch cycles (Plint et al., 1992). Sequence stratigraphic well log interpretation has made possible the estimation of approximate dates of the terminations of the 2 major cycles of Baram eld. These are the 5.3 Ma and 6.3 Ma lowstands, which corresponds to the eustatic falls of Haq et al. (1988). The Messinian Upper Major Cycle comprises w10 cycles of 100 Ky Milankovitch cycle. The 6.3 Ma boundary shows better developed sandstone layers. This is probably due to a longer period of lowstand as also indicated on Haq et al. (1988) curve (Fig. 11). The seismic sections suggest that the Messinian sequence of Barameld is a Type -2 sequence deposited in a ramp margin setting. Fifth-order cycles (parasequences) of Barameld are dominated by thin sand PS-1, suggesting an appreciable fall of relative sea level. The interpreted change in water depths is from w50 m for shelf mudstones to between w40 and w30 m for lower shoreface SCS sandstones; a fall ofw10ew20 m of relative sea level. Fourth- order cycles (parasequence sets) are characterised by thicker PS-1 and PS-2, indicating a greater fall of relative sea level. A fall of w20ew40 m of relative sea level is assigned for these cycles. The vertical organisation of the major, third-order cycles of Barameld, commonly marked by very thick PS-2 and PS-1 at the top, suggests a fall of relative sea level between w40 and w50 m. This corre- sponds to a change from mud-dominated shelfal environments (w50 m) to shallow shoreface (w10), and possibly even intertidal, supratidal and non-marine environments (w0 m). Figure 11. . Correlation of Baram sequence and sequence to Haq et al. (1988) sea-level curve. Sea level at start : 50 m Rate of linear rise ( ) : 0.05 m/ky Period (Ky) Amplitude (m) 1000 50 100 25 20 10 Sea level at start : 50 m Rate of linear rise ( ) : 0.05 m/ky Period (Ky) Amplitude (m) 1000 50 100 25 20 10 10 3 A.H. Abd. Rahman et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (2014) 1e17 14 Please cite this article in press as: Abd. Rahman, A.H., et al., Sequence stratigraphic modelling and reservoir architecture of the shallow marine successions of Baram eld, West Baram Delta, offshore Sarawak, East Malaysia, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010 Clastic 2.0 (Hardy and Waltham, 1992a,b; Waltham, 1992) is a Macintosh program to simulate the growth and development of a clastic depositional system through time. This program produces plots of time lines of the growth of a clastic wedge and facies markers based upon the general grain-size distribution (sand, silt, mud) of a given sedimentary interval (arbitrary thickness). The development of the system is controlled by user-supplied param- eters of sediment supply, erosion-rate and sea level variation. Using Clastic 2.0, two simulated models of the growth and development of the Late Miocene BaramDelta was generated using the parameters obtained from sequence stratigraphic interpreta- tion of the Baram eld. The Baram Delta during this period con- stitutes a very low-gradient shelf which slopes northward to a depth of more or less 50 m in 100 km. Similar shelf geometry has been suggested for extensive shelf sandstone complexes (Brenchley et al., 1986; Plint, 1991). Default values of sediment supply and erosion-rate were used (Table 4.5 a and b). The rst model (Model 1) was generated with the following value of sea level variation : The second model (Model 2) was generated with an additional, higher frequency sea level change (10 Ky; 3 m amplitude): Figure 12A shows the 1000 Ky run of Model 1. The simulated model shows that the bulk of sediments remain close to the initial coastline. This plot displays stratigraphic surfaces (multi-coloured lines) at 1.0 Ky increment. The dark lines are chronostratigraphic (time) lines, here drawn at 20 Ky. Intervals. The 1000 Ky Run (Fig. 12A) plot display stratigraphic surfaces (coloured lines) every 10 Ky and time lines (dark lines every 100 Ky). It shows that with further fall of relative sea level, the delta or shoreface has pro- graded further basinward, to a distance of at least 15.0 km away from the initial coastline. The 500 Ky Run of Model 2 is shown in Figure 12B. Stratigraphic lines are shown at 5.0 Ky Interval, while the dark time lines are drawn for every 100 Ky. In this model, the introduction of addi- tional, higher order sea-level uctuation enables more sediments to be spread further basinward. This plot shows howparasequences developed through time within the pre-set sea level variation scheme. These are preliminary, exploratory models to test how realistic are the interpretation of high-frequency relative sea-level oscilla- tions for Late Miocene BaramDelta. The models are based on broad assumptions of initial shelf geometry, the rate of sediment inux and erosion rates; thus, they have many limitations. The plots ob- tained, however, do show close similarities to the stratal charac- teristics fromwireline logs correlations. In particular, the basinward and landward swinging movements of thick shoreface sand- stones are quite apparent in Model 2. More denite parameters need to be obtained, and rigorous testing be carried out, in order to construct a more realistic model for the Late Miocene Baram Delta. 5. Conclusion I. Facies analysis of the cored intervals of the Upper Cycle V (Late Miocene) of Baram eld recognized ten lithofacies characteristics of wave and storm-dominated, shallow ma- rine deposits. The stacking pattern of these lithofacies, marked by the repeated occurrences of SCS and HSC sand- stones, suggests shoreface progradation into shelfal envi- ronments within the background of relative sea level fall. The presence of minor tidal facies suggests localised process- mixing within the environment. II. Three environmentally signicant facies associations were recognised based on the core facies analysis. These are: i) Gradational, upward-coarsening HCS-SCS shoreface succes- sions. The gradational, coarsening-upward shallowing-up- ward vertical facies organisation suggests a progressive, Figure 12. . Schematic and simulated models illustrating the evolution of the Baram eld cycles in relation with the sea-level change. The two gures (A - Model 1; B - Model 2) show how the distribution of sand-rich facies (HCS and SCS) changes with changes in the pattern of sea level uctuations. A.H. Abd. Rahman et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (2014) 1e17 15 Please cite this article in press as: Abd. Rahman, A.H., et al., Sequence stratigraphic modelling and reservoir architecture of the shallow marine successions of Baram eld, West Baram Delta, offshore Sarawak, East Malaysia, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010 gradual shallowing of the environment, reective of a pro- grading, wave-dominated shoreface; ii) Sharp-based, up- ward-coarsening SCS shoreface succession. The thick SCS middle-to-upper shoreface sandstone is interpreted to be deposited during a period of rapid fall of relative sea level; iii) Fining-upward tidal succession displays a ning-upward, shallowing-upward succession of tide-inuenced facies. The thickness and occurrence of this unit suggest periods of localised and restricted tide-inuenced sedimentation within a wave-dominated setting. III. The vertical organization of parasequences (well logs) of the Upper Cycle V of Baram eld show progradational para- sequence set stacking pattern, with the younger para- sequences in any particular parasequence set generally thicker than the older parasequences in the set. This suggests that sedimentation occurred when the rate of depositionwas greater than the rate of accommodation, resulting in suc- cessively younger parasequences being deposited farther basinward. IV. Sequence stratigraphic well log interpretation of the Late Miocene section of Baram eld dene three (3) scales of depositional cycles: i) upward-coarsening small scale cycles, the parasequences, which show average thicknesses ranging between w10 and w 30 m; ii) the medium-scale cycles (parasequence sets) comprise four to seven parasequences showing upward-thickening trend, and bounded by major marine-ooding surfaces. These small and medium-scale cycles are interpreted to have formed as the result of the glacio-eustatic controlled w20 Ky and w100 Ky Milanko- vitch cycles, respectively. The large-scale cycles, which generally consist of nine to eleven parasequence sets, closely correlate with Haq et al. (1988) third-order cycle. V. Simulated models of the growth and development of the Late Miocene Baram eld sedimentary cycles show close simi- larities to the stratal characteristics from wireline log corre- lations. The basinward and landward to-and-fro, swinging movements of thick shoreface sandstones are well modelled. With more denite parameters and rigorous testing, simu- lation models can be well employed as a complimentary tool for correlation and reservoir modelling. Acknowledgements This paper was partly based on an earlier study by Abdul Hadi Abd. Rahman (1995) and Tan et al. (1999). The authors would like to thank Petronas for permission to present and publish this paper. 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