Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia

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[Borassus flabellifer L]

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 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia
[Borassus flabellifer L]

A. Latin name (s) ³ Borassus flabellifer L

B. English name (s) ³ fan palm, palmyrah, toddy, toddy palm, palmyra
palm, wine palm, sea apple [1]
C. Synonym ³ Borassus flabelliformis L. (1774), Borassus sundaicus
Becc. [1]
D. Other1 ³ palmier à sucre, rondier, rônier, borasse (France) [1]
- palmira (Portugal) [1] - Fächerpalme, Lontaropalme,
Palmyrapalme (Germany) [1] - lontar, siwalan, tal, tala
(Indonesia) [1] - palma da ventagli (Italy) [1] - tan bin
(Myanmar) [1] - tan (Laos) [6] - wine palm (Philippines) [6] -
lontar, tah, tai (Malaysia) [1] - not, tan, tan-yai (Thailand) [1] -
loost, noost, thoost, thoost noot (Vietnam) [1]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: etñat

Source: [3]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ thnaot, thnaôt [1], thnot [10]

G. Taxonomic position(complete)³:
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Kingdom: Viridiplantae

Phylum: Spermatophyta

Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae

Class : Dicotyledonae

Other : Arecales
Family: Arecaceae
Gunus: Borassus

Species: Borassus flabellifer

Source :[ 1]

1
H. Botanical characteristics :
[General] A large, solitary and evergreen palm tree with a height of 25 m [1] (10-20 m [2], -30 m [5],
25-40 m [6]). It can become very old (over 150 years), but its economic lifetime is about 80 years [11].
Stem massive, straight, up to 1 m [6] in diameter at base, conical up to about 4 m [6] high, thereafter
cylindrical and 40-50 cm [6] in diameter, occasionally branched, covered by leaf bases when young,
rough and ringed with leaf scars when older, fringed at the base with a dense mass of long
adventitious roots. Crown circular with fan shaped leaves. Under optimal ecological conditions 14
leaves unfurl per year, or one leaf per 26 days [11]. Less leaves are produced under marginal
conditions (8 per year or 1 per 45 days). "The Borassus, occurring in Indonesia from East Java
eastwards, differs slightly from B. flabellifer (Outer flower leaves (petals) in fruit imbricate at the base,
absence of scales on the leaf blades, less branched male inflorescence) and has been described as a
different species: B. sundaica Beccari" [6].

[Leaves]: The leaves (30-60 [5] per tree) are arranged spirally. Leaf-blade leathery, grey green, nearly
round and flat to fan-shaped, 1-1.5 m [6] (1.3 m [5]) in diameter and folded along the midrib. The
leaves are divided to the center into 60-80 regular, linear-spear-shaped, 0.6-1.2 m long [5], stiff single-
fold segments that are about 3 cm broad at base. Leaf stalks are strong and grooved, 1-1.2 m long
[5], black at the base and black-margined when young and edged with hard spines.

[Flowers]: Inflorescence located between the leaves, with flower stalk, shorter than the leaves, the
male and female dissimilar. Male and female inflorescences are carried on separate trees. The male
inflorescence is massive, up to 2 m long, consisting of about 8 partial inflorescences of three small
inflorescence axis each with are spike-like, fleshy, 30-45 cm long, bearing spirally arranged
overlapping reduced flower leaves, fused laterally and distally to form large pits, each containing
about 30 flowers, exserted singly in succession from the pit mouth. Flowers 3-merous with 6 stamens

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(=male organs). Female inflorescence unbranched or with a single first order branch, covered with
sheath-like reduced flower leaves. Flower stalk massive, fleshy, thicker than the male one, bearing
large cupular bracts, the first few empty, the subsequent ones each subtending a single female flower
with several empty reduced flower leaves above the flowers; flowers larger than male ones, 3-merous,
tricarpellate. The palm starts flowering and fruiting 12-20 years after germination, usually in the dry
season. Male palms begin to develop the inflorescence in November or December while the female
ones commence one to two months later. Each palm may bear from eight to fifteen inflorescences per
year. The male inflorescence lasts approximately 45 to 60 days and the female 60 to 70 days.
(Flowering: March to April [8], February to April [9]). Fruiting: August to September [8] (May to October
[9]).

[Fruits]: The fruit (=drupe) is coconut-like, three-sided when young, becoming rounded or more or less
oval, 12-15 cm wide [6] (17.5 cm [9]) and 1.5-2.5(-3) kg [6] in weight. The outer covering is smooth,
thin and leathery of brown color turning dark purple to black after harvest. Inside is a juicy mass of
long, tough, coarse, white fibers coated with yellow or orange fragrant pulp. Seeds are shallowly to
deeply bilobed, pointed. Within the mature seed is a solid white kernel similar to coconut meat but
much harder. When the fruit is very young, this kernel is hollow, soft as jelly, and translucent like ice,

2
 and is accompanied by a watery liquid, sweetish and potable. Each palm may bear 8-15 bunches of
fruit with a total of about 80 pieces of fruit per year.

[1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 11]

I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: The lowest 10 m of the trunk has hard and strong wood which is heavy, very
durable, with an air dry density of 1.02-1.14 g/cm³. Very resistant to termites, insect borers and decay
fungi.

[1, 6]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation :

Approximate limits: 25°N to 30°S. B.flabellifer is indigenous or naturalized throughout tropical and
subtropical South and Southeast Asia. It is particularly abundant in India, Myanmar and Cambodia,
where it is frequently planted. It is occupying large areas of wasteland, forming pure crops in the drier
parts of its geographical range, where the sugar palm (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merrill) and the
coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) cannot compete, or it is intermixed with the wild date palm (e.g. India).
Usually it can be found by the side of roads on tank bunds or on agricultural boundaries, occasionally
found in the forest areas. In Cambodia it grows wild between the paddy fields.

[1, 2, 6, 8, 9, 11]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude :

Prefers altitudes around sea level but grows up to 800 m a.s.l. [6, 11] (0-300 m [1]). It is very hardy
and can grow on the poorest conditions. B.flabellifer is usually grown in strictly seasonal tropical or
subtropical climates with a winter- or bimodal rainfall regime and an annual precipitation of 500-900
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mm/yr [6] in dry areas and up to 5,000 mm/yr [6] in per-humid areas. The palm is very adaptable,
growing well in dry areas and is quite drought resistant, tolerating a dry season length of 4-8 months
[1]. The optimum mean annual temperature is around 30ºC [6] (20-29ºC [1]), the mean maximum
temperature of hottest month 32-45ºC [1] and the mean minimum temperature of coldest month 18-
25ºC [1], but it can withstand extreme temperatures of 8ºC [1] (0ºC [11]. Seedlings and juvenile trees
are frost- and fire-sensitive.

[1, 2, 6, 11]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia :

No information available.

M. soil and site conditions :

B.flabellifer may be grown on almost all soils with light to heavy texture and acid to alkaline pH, even
on the poorest conditions regarding nutrient supply. However it prefers soils of coastal areas and
black soils, rich in organic matter wit a free drainage. It also survives waterlogging quite well.

[1, 2, 6, 8, 11]

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N. Utilization and importance :
[Wood]: The whole trunk is used by removing the soft middle part. The lowest 10 m of the trunk has
hard and strong wood which is suitable for round wood, transmission poles, posts, piles, building
poles for buildings or bridges, carpentry/joinery, engineering structures and beams. The softer middle
part can be split into boards or used for wood based materials, block board, charcoal and fuel wood.
"The whole trunk can also be made into a small boat capable of carrying at least three people" [4].

[1, 4, 11]

[Non-wood]: Every part of the palm is a useful resource. In India it is called the tree with 800 uses.

Sugar products: The most important product of the toddy palm is the sap or juice, which is obtained
from tapping the inflorescences. The naturally fermented palm juice (teck thnot chhu) is a common
alcoholic beverage especially in rural areas with 5-6% [11] alcohol content and may later be converted
into distilled ethanol (arrack) with an alcohol percentage of 20-60% or vinegar. To make vinegar the
palm wine must be kept in a cool and dark spot for some time. Sugar palm juice is traditionally
processed into three types of sugar: Liquid sugar (sugar palm syrup), crystalline palm sugar and block
sugar. The most common type consumed in rural areas is sugar palm syrup which has about 80% dry
matter. A sugar palm sap-soybean-freshwater spinach (Ipomoea acuatica) mix is commonly used to
feed pigs.

Handicrafts: Almost all households in rural areas use palm leaves not only for thatching but also for
the walls. "In Cambodia 25 to 36 leaves are harvested twice a year from the palms that are not used
for tapping" [4]. The top young leaves are made into hats, boxes to store rice, baskets, fans, etc. In

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the past they were used as writing materials, especially by the monks. The fibers of young leaves can
be woven into delicate patterns. Leafstalks are often used as poles for fencing or as fuelwood and can
be split into fiber to be used for weaving and matting. The bark is a source for making strong ropes.

Food: The edible fruits are much appreciated either for cakes or jelly. The young solid or gelatinous
endosperm of the seeds is also eaten fresh or prepared as a sweet with sticky rice and in syrup. The
top part of immature fruit is also cooked as a vegetable. The fresh pulp around the kernels is reported
to be rich in vitamins A and C. The mature fruit is soaked in water after which the wiry fibers are
extracted. The yellow pulp is mixed with rice starch, folded inside a banana leaf and later steam-
cooked. The tender mesocarp of young fruits is cooked in curry. The soft upper 10 m of the trunk
contains some starch, which may be harvested in times of food scarcity. The growing point of the
palm (palm heart or palm cabbage) is also edible. Seedlings can be peeled and eaten fresh or sun-
dried, raw, or cooked in various ways. In Myanmar they are considered a delicacy but they are slightly
toxic. "They also yield starch, which is locally made into gruel, with rice, herbs, chili peppers, fish, or
other ingredients added. It has been proposed for commercial starch production" [5]. The nectar of the
palm is also an important source for honey production.

Medicine: Many parts of B.flabellifer (fruits, roots, flowering stalks, bark and juice) are used in
traditional medicine: "The young plant is said to relieve biliousness, dysentery and gonorrhea. Young

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 roots are diuretic and anthelmintic, and a decoction is given in certain respiratory diseases. Dried
roots can also be smoked to heal nasal complaints. The ash of the flower is taken to relieve heartburn
and enlarged spleen and liver. The bark decoction, with salt, is used as a mouth wash, and charcoal
made of the bark serves as a dentifrice. Sap from the flower stalk is prized as a tonic, diuretic,
stimulant, laxative and anti phlegmatic and amebicide. Sugar made from this sap is said to counteract
poisoning and it is prescribed in liver disorders. Candied, it is a remedy for coughs and various
pulmonary complaints. Fresh toddy, heated to promote fermentation, is bandaged onto all kinds of
ulcers. The cabbage, leaf petioles, and dried male flower spikes all have diuretic activity. The pulp of
the mature fruit relieves dermatitis" [5]. "It is also useful as an anti-inflammatory and for dropsy and
gastric conditions. Also has potential immuno-suppressive action. Constituents are: gum, fat and
albuminoids" [2].

[1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11]

[Others]: In India, Myanmar and Cambodia, toddy palms are often planted as a windbreak on plains or
to delimit rice fields. The palm also provides natural shelter to animals like birds and monkeys and
plants (ferns, orchids).

[5, 6, 11]

O. Cambodian wood classification :

No Class [3]

P. Silviculture and management :

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B.flabellifer is occupying large area of wastelands, forming pure crops in the drier parts of its
geographical range, where the sugar palm (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merrill) and the coconut (Cocos
nucifera L.) cannot compete, or it is intermixed with the wild date palm (e.g. India). Usually it can be
found by the side of roads on tank bunds, or on agricultural boundaries, occasionally found in the
forest areas. Toddy palm can be planted in the full sun and does not require much attention once it
has established. It responds well to water supply and manure. The trunk grows about 30 cm [6] in
height per year. However it has a relatively long juvenile growth period (8-14 years [1]) which may
limit its usefulness. In plantations thinnings are recommended to favor more productive female trees.
"In Myanmar and Cambodia, toddy palm is usually cultivated by smallholders as a cash crop in
addition to their main product, rice. Working time has to be divided between the two crops. Rice
usually requires most labor in the wet season, toddy palm in the dry season" [6]. In Cambodia and
Myanmar smallholders own 30-40 toddy palms on average (25 male, 15 female trees) [6] but at least
10 [4]. Harvesting and tapping normally starts when the palm is 25-30 years old and may continue for
80 years [6]. Less-productive palm trees are cut for timber when they are more than 10 m high and
between 70-100 years old [4].

[Tapping]: Both male and female inflorescences are tapped for juice collection. Although both male
and female inflorescences of B. flabellifer are tapped, the latter are preferred because they also have

5
inflorescences during the rainy season allowing higher yields. "Cambodian tappers have developed a
technique to conserve inflorescences to be tapped after the normal harvest period" [4]. They use long
bamboo ladders for climbing. Every 6-12 months the ladders are removed for safety reasons. "When
the trees are located close to each other, one or two long bamboo poles are used as an aerial
'stairway' to facilitate movement between the trees, thus avoiding the need to descend and ascend
each tree and permitting the tapper to use his time more productively. The tapper must climb the palm
trunk just before the inflorescences open. To tap the inflorescences, some leaves are cut away for
easy access. In male palms a number of partial inflorescences (usually about 12) are tied together
after the flower buds have been stripped off. The stalks of these inflorescences are then
systematically squeezed with tongs daily. In female palms the inflorescences are handled individually.
Flowers are broken off and the flowering stalks are then squeezed for a number of days with larger
tongs to enhance the sap flow. After three days the tops of the stalks of the inflorescences are cut off.
The juice is channelled into a bamboo or plastic vessel, called an 'ampong', which can contain 2 to 4
kg of juice [4]. For each tree an average of four to six collection vessels are used according to the
number of inflorescences being processed at the one time. The sap flow of an individual tree may
continue for 3-6 months/year [6]. For each tapping a new slice as thin as possible is cut off from the
tapped end of the stalk with a razor- sharp knife kept especially for this purpose. The nightly flow of
sap is nearly double that of the flow in daytime. Collection is carried out twice daily (morning and
afternoon) in order to limit exposure of the juice to contamination by yeast and other fermenting micro-
organisms. Small pieces of bark from various tree species containing tannins (e.g. Shorea
cochinchinensis, Shorea roxburghii G. Don, Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merrill), or the leaves of
Anacardium occidentale L. and Schleichera oleosa (Loureiro) Oken are used as a anti-fermentation
agent and are placed in the collection vessel while the juice is being collected. Also slaked lime

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(Ca(OH)2) is put into the vessels to prevent fermentation and deterioration. However, this affects the
flavor of the sap. If bamboo buckets are used, they are placed on a fire for a moment after thorough
cleaning.

[Production] Tappers are capable of tapping 20-30 palm trees twice a day [4] (30-40 palms/working
day [6]) if an assistant is available at the base of the trunk to receive the collected juice. The more
skillful the tapper is in climbing and tapping, the better the yield. Sap yields can be as high as 6 l per
day and palm. The annual production of palm sap amounts to 100-600 l/palm [6]. Other sources
mention a production of 169-246 l/year. Palm sugar yields up to 16-70 kg/palm or 19 t/ha/year at a
density of 275 palms per ha [6]. Fruit yields are 200-350/palm (if cultivated only for fruits) or up to 130
t/year if there are 275 female trees/ha [6]. However the yield varies greatly between palms. For the
production of 1 kg palm syrup about 4 kg [4] (5 kg [6]) of fuelwood is needed. Most Cambodian
farmers continue producing palm syrup and sugar because they can still find free fuelwood and it is
their main income during the dry season. However in areas where wood is already a limiting factor
(e.g. in Myanmar and parts of Cambodia) opportunity costs for fuelwood often exceed the value of the
syrup produced. Palms are cut down when they become too tall to be climbed easily.

[Processing]: "After harvest the sap may be boiled down into brown palm sugar. It is strained through
a coconut leaf sheath sieve to remove debris and the added bark or leaf parts, and is then poured into

6
 an open pan that is heated. When the liquid thickens it is poured into half coconut shells and allowed
to cool and solidify. This sugar is highly hygroscopic, as it contains all the dry matter from the sap.
The quality of the sugar is good. In Indonesia for example, the fine toddy palm sugar from Madura is
superior to that made from Arenga in West Java and commands better prices on Javanese markets."
[6]

[1, 4, 6, 9]

Q. Propagation :
It is easily propagated by using direct sowing, natural regeneration and sometimes planting stock. The
seeds are collected from August to September and have a long viability. Seed storage is recalcitrant.
Number of seeds/kg: 15-20. Germination percentage: 80%. Plant percent: 80%. Number of
seedlings/kg seed: 12-16 [8]. As a pretreatment large healthy seeds are soaked in cow dung and
water for a week and weathered in a pit. Then they are sown 7-10 cm [8] (10 cm [6]) or hammered
deep into the soil (preferably during rain) with a spacing of 3-6 m directly in the field because
seedlings are difficult to transplant [6]. Normally when planted, seed of toddy palm starts to germinate
within 30-60 days [8] (45-60 days [6] ). During germination a tubular sprout emerges from the seed,
protected by a cotelydonary sheath and grows down into the soil up to 90-120 cm depth. When
growth continues the tuberous part sends forth roots, separates from the sheath and begins to grow
upright. In 9-12 months the tip emerges above the ground, after which true leaves follow. After a
rosette stage of 4-6 years the trunk formation starts. They are usually planted in groups, in order to
facilitate tapping.

[1, 6, 8, 11]

R. Hazards and protection :

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Toddy palm hardly suffers from diseases and pests.

[Pests]: Termites may occasionally attack seedlings. Certain beetle species (Oryctes and
Rhynchophorus) feed on dead plant material, but may at dense populations become harmful for living
palms. It is therefore necessary to clean stands of all kind of debris.

[Diseases]: Palms growing in rich black soil or soil liable to flooding may succumb to bud-rot, caused
by the fungus Phytophthora palmivora which also occurs on coconut. First symptoms are spots on
green leaf blades, which spread inwards to the bud. The bud then starts to rot and putrifies. The
fungus can successfully be combated by killing and burning diseased palms. Another fungus disease
is caused by Stigmina palmivora [1].

[Others]: Snakes and other venomous creatures sheltering in the crown may present a hazard to the
tapper.

[6]

7
S. Conservation :
"Toddy palm is under pressure in all the countries where it is grown. In areas where coconut can be
grown, toddy palm may be substituted for phytosanitary reasons. For example in Thailand stands are
nearly eradicated."

[6]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) :

Central Cambodia.

[6]

Kp, Speu, Takeo, Pursat, Kp. Chnnang, Kp. Cham, Kandal, Prey Veng, Sway Rieng, Kp. Thom,
Battambang, Siem Reap, Banteay Meanchey, Phnom Penh.

[7]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) :

[Native]: India

[10]

[Introduced (since long)]: Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam

[10]

[Introduced (recently)]: Indonesia, Sri Lanka, French Polynesia, Papua New Guinea

[1]

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V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Properties]: "Palm sugar is much more nutritious than crude cane sugar, containing 1.04% protein,
0.19% fat, 76.86% sucrose, 1.66% glucose, 3.15% total minerals, 0.861 % calcium, 0.052%
phosphorus; also 11.01 mg iron per 100 g and 0.767 mg of copper per 100 g" [5]."The fresh sap is
reportedly a good source of vitamin B complex and contains 17-20% dry matter. It has a pH of 6.7-6.9
(-7.5) and per litre contains some proteins and amino acids (360 mg N), sucrose 13-18%, P 110 mg,
K 1900 mg, Ca 60 mg, Mg 30 mg, vitamin B3.9 IU, and vitamin C 132 mg. The 7-9 g/l reducing sugars
are probably formed through enzymatic or microbiological reactions immediately after tapping. The
ash content of the sap os to 4-5g/l. A rather large, fresh fruit may weigh 2790 g (100%); perianth lobes
175 g (6.3%), exocarp 120 g (4.3%), mesocarp fiber 66 g (2.4%), mesocarp edible pulp 1425 g (51%)
and 3 seeds 1004 g (36%). The 3 seeds consist of shell 394 g, endosperm 609 g and embryo 1 g"

[11].

[World production and trade]: "Toddy palm is mainly grown for subsistence and is primarily produced
by smallholders. Surplus production may be sold on local markets. Sri Lanka (10 milion palms on
25,000 ha), India (60 milion palms), Myanmar (2.5 milion palms on 25,000 ha), Central Cambodia (1.8

8
 milion palms), Indonesia (0.5 million palms on 15,000 ha). In 1968 the toddy palm sugar production in
Cambodia was estimated at 35,000 t per year, and the national consumption at 10,000 t.

[6]

[History]: "It is almost generally assumed that B.flabellifer is a selection by man from the more
dieverse B.aethiopum Mart. of Africa. Its distribution probably followed Indian trade routes in
prehistoric times."

[11]

W. Further readings5 :
Davis TA, Johnson DV, 1987. Current utilization and further development of the palmyra palm
(Borassus flabellifer L., Arecaceae) in Tamil Nadu State, India. Economic Botany, 41(2):247-266; 27
ref.
[1]
Flach, M. & Paisooksantivatana, Y., 1996. Borassus flabellifer L. In Flach, M & Rumawas, F. (Eds.):
Plant Resources of South-East Asia No. 9. Plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates. Prosea
Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. pp. 59-63.
[6]
Gupta RK, 1993. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilization. New Delhi, India:
Oxford & IBH.
[1]
Hocking D, 1993. Trees for drylands. Trees for drylands., xiii + 370 pp.; [Originally published by
Oxford & IBH Publishing, New Delhi, India]; 12 pp. of ref.
[1]
Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Jagadeesh HN, Damodaran K, Padmanabhan S, Aswathanarayana BS, Xavier F, Kamal SZM,

Guruva Reddy H, 1993. Studies on palmyrah wood. IPIRTI Research Report, No. 69:22 pp.; 6 ref.
[1]
Jagadeesh HN, Damodaran K, Aswathanarayana BS, 1996. Palmyrah wood - a potential source of
wood raw material. Wood News, 6(2):20-23; 1 ref.
[1]
Jambulingam R, Fernandes ECM, 1986. Multipurpose trees and shrubs on farmlands in Tamil Nadu
State (India). Agroforestry Systems, 4(1):17-32; 7 ref.
[1]
Kovoor A, 1983. The palmyrah palm: potential and perspectives. FAO Plant Production and Protection
Paper, No. 52:v + 77 pp.; [6 pl.]; 90 ref.
[1]
Khieu Borin. 1996. The sugar palm tree as the basis of integrated farming systems in
Cambodia.Contribution to Second FAO Electronic Conference on Tropical Feeds. Livestock Feed
Resources within Integrated Farming Systems.
[4]

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Khieu Borin & Preston, T.R. 1995. Conserving biodiversity and the environment and improving the
well-being of poor farmers in Cambodia by promoting pig feeding systems using the juice of the sugar
palm tree (Borassus flabellifer). Livestock Research for Rural Development, (7)2: 25-30.
[4]
Khieu Borin, Preston, T.R. & Lindberg, J.E. 1996. Juice production from the sugar palm tree
(Borassus flabellifer) in Cambodia and performance of growing pigs fed sugar palm juice. In
Sustainable Tropical Animal System, p. 1-11. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala,
Sweden. (M.Sc. thesis)
[4]
Mahendran S, 1994. The activities of the Palmyrah Development Board and some aspects of
agronomic research and development needs of the organization. Journal of the National Science
Council of Sri Lanka, 22(SUP A):S47-S53; 5 ref.
[1]
Morton JF, 1988. Notes on distribution, propagation, and products of Borassus palms (Arecaceae).
Economic Botany, 42(3):420-441; [12 pl.]; 81 ref.
[1]
Reddy ANY, Yekantappa K, Somesh Korcher, 1988. Nursery technique of Borassus flabellifer Linn.
Myforest, 24(2):114-116 + 2 pl.
[1]

X. References:
[1] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

[2] Kham, L., 2004: Medicinal Plants of Cambodia - Habitat, Chemical Constituents and
Ethnobotanical Uses.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[3] FA, 2002 (draft), List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of
Commercial Woods, unpublished.

[4] Khieu Borin: Sugar palm (Borassus flabellifer): Potential feed resource for livestock in small-scale
farming systems (internet source)

[5] Morton, J.F.,1988: Notes on Distribution, Propagation and Products of Borassus Palms
(Arecaceae). Economic Botany (1988) 42(3): 420-441

[6] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database –

http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.as (Internet source)

[7] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations.

[8] Andhra Pradesh Forest Department: http://forest.ap.nic.in/Silviculture (Internet source).

[9] Auroville TDEF: http://www.auroville-tdef.info/Individual.php?id=443. (Internet source).

[10] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[11] PROSEA, 1996: Plant Resources of South East Asia 9 - Plants yielding non-seed
carbonhydrates.

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