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I.

C Diagram

Pearlite &
Ferrite Ferrite & Pearlite 100% Pearlite
Cementite
 Every point in I.C diagram represents a specific point (T.C), i.e.
specific temperature and composition.
 Pure iron is soft, less hard, greatly ductile, less brittle and much
tough.
 Lathe machine is used to determine the temperature-composition
points for I.C diagram.

Plane carbon steel:-


In plane carbon steel the properties are mainly because of carbon. Silicon
(Si), Carbon (C), Sulphur (S), Phosphorus (P) and Manganese (Mn) are
the main alloying elements which imparts certain properties to steel.

Alloy steel:-
In alloy steel the properties are mainly because of alloying elements other
than carbon. e.g. stainless steel: Nickel (Ni) 8%, Chromium (Cr) 18%,
Molybdenum (Mo) less ratio and Iron (Fe) 70%.

Cast Iron:-
Carbon percentage is 2 – 6.67.It is more brittle and has more strength but
less tensile strength. Its corrosion resistance and wear resistance (i.e.
scratching) is much better. It is used to make drain pipes.
 Brittle materials have shiny surface.
 Ductile materials have dull surface.

Benefits of I.C diagram:-


Properties of steels and cast iron can be changed by changing carbon
composition, alloying elements and by using heat treatment.

Lever rule:-
Lever rule is used to estimate the relative phase at different temperature.

Method:-
Pearlite (AB) = BC/AC = 6.67 - 4 / 6.67 - 0.8 = 2.67 / 5.9 = 0.45 approx.

Heat treatment:-
Heat Treatment is the controlled heating and cooling cycle of metals to
alter their physical and mechanical properties without changing the product
shape.
Heat Treatment is often associated with increasing the strength of material,
but it can also be used to alter certain manufacturability objectives such as
improve machining, improve formability, and restore ductility after a cold
working operation. Thus it is a very enabling manufacturing process that
can not only help other manufacturing process, but can also improve
product performance by increasing strength or other desirable
characteristics.
Steels are particularly suitable for heat treatment, since they respond well
to heat treatment and the commercial use of steels exceeds that of any
other material.

Types:-
 Annealing
 Normalizing
 Quenching

1- Annealing:-
“It is a process that alters the microstructure of a material by heating and
maintaining at a suitable temperature, and then cooling very slowly”.

Process:-
There are several phases in the annealing process, with the first being the
recovery phase, which results in softening of the metal through removal of
crystal defects and the internal stresses which they cause. The second
phase is recrystallization, where new grains nucleate and grow to replace
those deformed by internal stresses.
If annealing is allowed to continue once recrystallization has been
completed, grain growth will occur, in which the microstructure starts to
coarsen and may cause the metal to have less than satisfactory
mechanical properties.

The Thermodynamics of Annealing:-


Annealing occurs by the diffusion of atoms within a solid material, so that
the material progresses towards its equilibrium state. Heat is needed to
increase the rate of diffusion by providing the energy needed to break and
form new bonds.
The movement of atoms has the effect of redistributing and destroying the
dislocations in metals and (to a lesser extent) in ceramics. This alteration
in dislocations allows metals to deform more easily, so increases their
ductility.
It is used to induce softness, relieve internal stresses, refine the structure
and improve cold working properties.

Uses:-
 In the semiconductor industry, silicon wafers are annealed, so that
dopant atoms, usually boron, phosphorus or arsenic, can be
incorporated into substitutional positions in the crystal lattice,
resulting in drastic changes in the electrical properties of the semi
conducting material.
 In the cases of copper, steel, and brass this process is performed by
substantially heating the material (generally until glowing) for an
extended period of time and allowing it to cool slowly. In this fashion
the metal is softened and prepared for further work such as shaping,
stamping, or forming.
 It is used to induce softness, relieve internal stresses, refine the
structure and improve cold working properties.
 Annealing typically results in a max. grain size, max. ductile and min.
brittle metal.

2- Normalizing:-
“Normalizing is a heat treatment process in which heating above the re-
crystallization phase, followed by a cooling process at a controlled pace
results in a relatively uniform microstructure of material”.
The normalizing process often takes place in open air at room
temperature. Normalized metal generally has greater strength than metal
that has been annealed.

Uses:-
 The objective of the treatment is to counter the effects of prior
processes, such as casting, forging or rolling, by refining the existing
non-uniform structure into one which enhances
machinability/formability or, in certain product forms, meets final
mechanical property requirements.
 Most metal fabricators prefer to work with metal in this state.
 A relatively good ductility is obtained without reducing the hardness
and strength.
 The steel is heated to 800-900oC according to analysis, held at
temperature to allow a full soak and cooled in still air. The tensile
strength and the yield point of the normalized steels are higher than
the annealed steels.
 Normalizing results in a medium grain size metal. Its ductility
decreases, hardness and brittleness increases.

Problems:-
In air, alloys are subject to discoloration or scaling depending on the alloy
and temperature used.
Normalizing is usually performed in air on semi-finished steel products
where scaling and decarburization pose no problems because they are
removed by subsequent machining. A protective medium may sometimes
be necessary; e.g. when normalizing final-size products prior to localized
surface hardening.
3- Quenching:-
“Quenching is generally done by cooling at a sufficiently high rate to lock it
into a hard crystal structure and avoid undesirable internal microstructure
as well as to ensure uniform mechanical properties, minimize residual
stresses, and avoids warpage (twisting or turning out of shape).

Hot metal parts (gears, plates, slabs, billets, etc) are quenched using air,
water, oil, or liquid polymers.

Process:-
 Quenching is a complex process and involves three distinct stages:
formation of a vapour film around the parts, boiling phase involving
nucleate boiling, and convection phase. The most critical of these
stages is the vapour phase as a vapour blanket around the parts
reduces the efficiency. This vapour blanket can be broken by
sufficient agitation near the parts.
 If a precipitation hardened alloy is quenched, its alloying elements
will be trapped in solution, resulting in a soft metal. Tempering a
"solutionized" metal will allow the alloying elements to diffuse
through the microstructure and form intermetallic particles. These
intermetallic particles will fall out of solution and act as a reinforcing
phase, there by increasing the strength of the alloy. This process is
called "artificial aging".
 Conversely, some alloys may be "naturally aged" in which the
intermetallic particles form at room temperature. Naturally aging
alloys are often stored in a freezer to prevent them from aging until
needed.
 The main challenges face by the industry is to maintain a uniform
quench rate together with a required agitation near all the surfaces
of all the parts. Non-uniform cooling would lead to residual stresses
and then to warpage of the parts.

Uses:-
Quenching is used to give a min. grain size, min. ductile and max. brittle
metal.
Casting of Metals
Casting:-
“It is a process to convert a molten material (metal or plastic) into a desired
shape.” e.g. statues.

Explanation:-

Casting is a manufacturing process by which a molten material such as metal or


plastic is introduced into a mold, allowed to harden within the mold, and then
ejected or broken out to make a fabricated part.

Uses:-

Casting is used for making parts of complex shape that would be difficult or
uneconomic to make by other methods such as cutting from solid
material.
 Casting may be used to form hot, liquid metals or meltable plastics
called thermoplastics, or various materials that cold set after mixing
of components such as certain plastic resins e.g. epoxy, water
setting materials such as concrete or plaster, and materials that
become liquid or paste when moist such as clay, which when dry
enough to be rigid is removed from the mold, further dried, and fired
in a kiln.
 Casting may be used to create artistic sculptures.

Types:-

The casting process is subdivided into two distinct subgroups:

 Expendable mold casting.


 Nonexpendable mold casting.

Expendable mold casting:-


Expendable mold casting includes:

 Sand casting.
 Plaster casting of metals.
 Casting of plaster, concrete or plastic resin.
 Shell molding.
 Investment casting.

All of these involve the use of temporary and non reusable moulds, and
need gravity to help force molten fluid into casting cavities. In this process
the mold is used only once.

1- Sand casting:-
“Molten metal is converted in desired shape by molding it in a mould of
sand.”

Mould requirements:-
 Refractory: withstand high temperature.
 Strength: should not deform.
 Permeability: ability to escape gases.
 Cheap.
 Easy to handle.
 Easily available.
Sand fullfils all these requirements.
Green sand is also used instead of just simple sand (silica and clay 5–
20%) and binder. Green sand is an aggregate of sand, bentonite clay,
pulverized coal and water. Green sand is not green in color, but "green" in
the sense that it is used in a wet state.

Binder:-
Molasses is used to bind sand to give it enough strength.

Casting flask:-
A casting flask is a wooden or metal frame, used in a foundry to contain
molding sand used to make a mold.
A simple flask has two parts. Upper part is called cope and the lower part
is called drag. More elaborate flasks may have three or even four parts.

Pattern:-
Pattern is simply the exterior of final shape i.e. negative of desired form.
Wood; soft or hard is used for pattern. Pattern must be slightly larger than
the finished product because the metal to be cast will shrink somewhat
during solidification. This shrinkage may be non uniform due to uneven
cooling.
 It must be used before casting.
 It should have good surface finish.
Gating system:-
Gating system consists of a sprue or runner and a riser.

Sprue or runner:-
Sprue is the passage through which metal is poured into a mold.

Riser:-
A riser or feeder is a reservoir built into a casting mold to prevent cavities
due to shrinkage. Because metals are less dense as liquids than as solids
(with some exceptions), castings shrink as they cool. This can leave a
void, generally at the last point to solidify. Risers prevent this by providing
molten metal at the point of likely shrinkage, so that the cavity forms in the
riser, not the casting. This only works if the riser cools after the rest of the
casting.

Procedure:-
 Green sand or casting sand is packed in through a vibratory process
called ramming. The surface of the sand may then be stabilized with
a sizing compound.
 The pattern is placed on the sand and another molding box segment
is added. Additional sand is rammed over and around the pattern.
 Finally a cover is placed on the box and it is turned and unlatched,
so that the halves of the mold may be parted and the pattern with its
sprue and vent patterns removed.
 Additional sizing may be added and any defects introduced by the
removal of the pattern are corrected. The box is closed again.
 This forms a "green" mold which must be dried to receive the hot
metal. If the mold is not sufficiently dried a steam explosion can
occur that can throw molten metal about. In some cases, the sand
may be oiled, which makes possible casting without waiting for the
sand to dry.
 With a completed mold at the appropriate moisture content, the box
containing the sand mold is then positioned for filling with molten
metal—typically iron, steel, bronze, brass, aluminum alloy, or various
pot metal alloys, which often include lead, tin, and zinc.
 After filling with liquid metal the box is set aside until the metal is
sufficiently cool to be strong. The sand is then removed revealing a
rough casting that, in the case of iron or steel, may still be glowing
red.
 When casting with metals like iron or lead, which are significantly
heavier than the casting sand, the casting flask is often covered with
a heavy plate to prevent a problem known as floating the mold.
Floating the mold occurs when the pressure of the metal pushes the
sand above the mold cavity out of shape, causing the casting to fail.
 The metal from the sprue and risers is cut from the rough casting.
Various heat treatments may be applied to relieve stresses from the
initial cooling and to add hardness—in the case of steel or iron, by
quenching in water or oil. The casting may be further strengthened
by surface compression treatment—like shot peening—that adds
resistance to tensile cracking and smoothes the rough surface.

Casting product:-

 Casting products are related to agricultural industry.


 Cast iron, steel, aluminium and copper can be casted in sand
moulds.

Shrinkage problem:-
Temperature is controlled to keep the metal in runner and riser not to
solidify before the metal in the cavity otherwise the desired shape of mould
will not be attained.

2- Plaster casting of metals:-


Plaster casting is similar to sand molding except that plaster is
substituted for sand.

Mould composition:-
Plaster compound is actually composed of 70-80% gypsum and 20-30%
strengthener and water. It gives very high surface resolution and fine
tolerances.

Uses:-
 Plaster casting is normally used for nonferrous metals such as
aluminium, zinc or copper-based alloys.
 It cannot be used to cast ferrous material because sulphur in
gypsum slowly reacts with iron.
 Once used and cracked away, normal plaster cannot easily be
recast.

Procedure:-
Prior to mold preparation the pattern is sprayed with a thin film of parting
compound to prevent the mold from sticking to the pattern. The unit is
shaken so plaster fills the small cavities around the pattern. The form is
removed after the plaster sets.

Plaster casting represents a step up in sophistication and requires skill.


The automatic functions easily are handed over to robots, yet the higher-
precision pattern designs required demand even higher levels of direct
human assistance.
3- Investment casting:-
Investment casting, known as lost-wax process, yields a finely detailed and
accurate product, with excellent metallurgical properties.
Polystyrene foam is also used in investment casting as a mould.

Procedure:-

 The process starts by creating an injection die to the desired


specifications. This die will be used to inject wax to create the
patterns needed for investment casting. The patterns are attached to
a central wax sprue, creating an assembly, or mold. The sprue
contains the fill cup where the molten metal will be poured into the
assembly.
 The wax assembly is now dipped multiple times in ceramic slurry,
depending on the shell thickness desired. A layer of fine sand
usually zircon is added on top of each ceramic layer. This process
will be repeated until the desired shell is created.
 After the shell is created to the specifications desired, the wax must
be removed; this is normally achieved using an autoclave. This is
where the name "lost-wax process" comes from. This leaves an
impression of the desired castings, which will be filled with metal.
 Before being cast, however, the shells must be heated in a furnace
so they do not break during the casting process.
 Next, the desired metal is poured into the hot ceramic shell. The
metal fills each part on the assembly, and the central sprue cavity
and fill cup. The individual parts will be removed after the mold cools
and the shell is removed. The shell is generally removed with water-
blasting, although alternate methods can be used. What remains are
the cast metal parts, but they are still attached to the sprue
assembly. The individual parts are removed by cold-break i.e. by
dipping in liquid nitrogen and breaking the parts off with hammer and
chisel or with large cutoff saws.
 Most investment castings need some degree of post casting
machining to remove the sprue and runners, and improve surface
finish. Grinding operations are performed to remove the gate. Parts
are also inspected to make sure they were cast properly, and if not
are either fixed or scrapped.

Casting product:-
Investment casting yields exceedingly fine quality products made of all
types of metals. It has special applications in fabricating very high-
temperature metals such as alloy steels or stainless steels, especially
those which cannot be cast in metal or plaster molds and those which are
difficult to machine or work.
Jewellery, teeth, bones and surgical instruments like scissors are made by
this casting.

Uses:-
Investment casting is often used in the aerospace and power generation
industries to produce single crystal turbine blade, which exhibit superior
creep resistance to equiaxed castings. It is also used by gold jewelers,
dentists and orthopedists.

Single crystal castings:-


A combination of slow cooling rates, seed crystals, and an elaborate sprue
and runner system referred to as a "pigtail" are used to produce single
crystal castings.
Non expendable mold casting:-
Non expendable mold casting includes:

 Permanent mold casting.


 Die casting.
 Centrifugal casting.
 Continuous casting.

Nonexpendable mold casting differs from expendable processes in that the


mold need not be reformed after each production cycle.

1- Permanent mold casting:-


Steel cavities are coated with refractory wash of acetylene soot before
processing to allow easy removal of the work piece and promote longer
tool life. Permanent molds have a life which varies depending on
maintenance of after which they require refinishing or replacement. Cast
parts from a permanent mold generally show 20% increase in tensile
strength and 30% increase in elongation as compared to the products of
sand casting.
The only necessary input is the coating applied regularly.

Process Characteristics:-

 Molten metal is introduced under gravity or low pressure.


 Often uses close-grained cast iron as mold material.
 Can produce good dimensional accuracy and smooth surface
finishes.
 Castings have reasonable strength with low porosity.
 Complex or irregular shapes are difficult to produce.

Uses:-
 Typically, permanent mold casting is used in forming iron,
aluminium, magnesium, and copper-based alloys.
 Typical example of permanent mould casting is piston.
 The process is highly automated.

2- Die casting:-
Die Casting is the process of forcing molten metal under high pressure into
the cavities of steel molds.

Moulds:-
The molds are called dies. Dies range in complexity to produce any non-
ferrous metal parts, that need not be as strong, hard or heat-resistant as
steel, from sink faucets to engine blocks including hardware, component
parts of machinery, toy cars, etc.

Purposes:-
The die must fulfill four primary purposes:

 It must hold molten metal in the shape of the final casting.


 The die must also provide a path for the molten metal to reach the
casting cavity.
 The die is designed to remove heat from the casting.
 Finally, a die must be able to eject the solidified casting.

Since die sets open and shut along a parting line of the casting, design
features such as undercuts cannot be cast without the addition of
movable slides in the die set. Otherwise these features must be added
more expensively by secondary machining operations.

Procedure:-

 The mold is sprayed with lubricant and closed. The lubricant both
helps control the temperature of the die and it also assists in the
removal of the casting.
 Molten metal is then injected into the die under high pressure. The
high pressure assures a casting as precise and as smooth as the
mold. Typically it is around 100 mega pascals.
 Once the cavity is filled then the pressure is maintained until the
casting has become solid though this period is usually made short
as possible by water cooling the mold.
 Finally, the die is opened and the casting is ejected.
 Equally important as high-pressure injection is high-speed injection,
required so the entire cavity fills before any part of the casting
solidifies. In this way, discontinuities (spoiling the finish and even
weakening the casting) are avoided even if the design requires
difficult-to-fill very thin sections.

Die casting machines:-

There are two main categories that die casting machines fall into:

 Hot chamber machines for zinc and lower melting-point metals.


 Cold chamber machines for aluminum and higher melting-point
metals.

Cold chamber die casting

Hot chamber die casting


Casting product:-

Common metals used in die casting include zinc and aluminum. These are
usually not pure metals; rather are alloys which have better physical
characteristics.
Engine parts are also made using die casting process.

Advantages:-

If several machining operations would be required or assembly of several


parts would be required to make a finished part, die casting is probably far
more economical. This level of versatility has placed die castings among
the highest volume products made in the metalworking industry

3- Centrifugal casting:-
Centrifugal casting is the casting process specifically adapted to the
production of cylindrical parts.

Mould:-
In this case the mold is a long, hollow tube partially closed at the ends, and
lined with a centrifugally applied refractory material in slurry form, which is
subsequently dried and baked.

Procedure:-

 The lined mold is spun rapidly about its central axis, which is
horizontal in the case of true centrifugal casting.
 True centrifugal casting: Gates, risers and cores are eliminated in
this process.
 Semi-centrifugal casting: This requires both the runner and the
riser.
 The molten metal is poured into the spinning mold and spinning
continued until the metal solidifies.
 The centrifugal action assists in the purification of the metal by
forcing the less dense non-metallics to the inside. The casting
solidifies from the outside and the inner surface feeds the necessary
metal to the remainder of the casting as required. The cleaning
processes of blasting and grinding remove the loosely adhering non-
metallics from the inside of the cylindrical part.
 Centrifugal castings, similar to other castings, have non-directional
grain orientation and consequently possess non-directional
mechanical properties.

Uses:-
Small art pieces such as jewelry are often cast by this method using the
lost wax process, as the forces enable the rather viscous liquid metals to
flow through very small passages and into fine details such as leaves and
petals. This effect is similar to the benefits from vacuum casting, also
applied to jewellery casting.
It is also used to cast crank shaft, simple articles of automobiles like gears.

Cooling rate:-
 The rate at which a casting cools affects its microstructure, quality,
and properties.
 The cooling rate is largely controlled by the molding media used for
making the mold.
 When the molten metal is poured into the mold, the cooling down
begins. This happens because the heat within the molten metal
flows into the relatively cooler parts of the mold. Molding materials
transfer heat from the casting into the mold at different rates.
 For example, some molds made of plaster may transfer heat very
slowly, while a mold made entirely of steel would transfer the heat
very fast. This cooling down ends with solidification where the liquid
metal turns to solid metal.
 At its basic level a foundry may pour a casting without regard to
controlling how the casting cools down and the metal freezes within
the mold. However, if proper planning is not done the result can be
gas porosities and shrink porosities within the casting.
 Where heat should be removed quickly, the engineer will plan the
mold to include special heat sinks to the mold, called chills. Fins may
also be designed on a casting to extract heat, which are later
removed in the cleaning also called fettling process. Both methods
may be used at local spots in a mold where the heat will be
extracted quickly.
 Where heat should be removed slowly, a riser or some padding may
be added to a casting. A riser is an additional larger cast piece which
will cool more slowly than the place where is it attached to the
casting.
 Generally an area of the casting which is cooled quickly will have a
fine grain structure and an area which cools slowly will have a
coarse grain structure.

Shrinkage:-
Like nearly all materials, metal is less dense as a liquid than a solid, and
so a casting shrinks as it cools -- mostly as it solidifies, but also as the
temperature of the solid material drops.
Shrinkage occurs in two ways:
 Volumetric shrinkage.
 Linear shrinkage.

Volumetric shrinkage:-
The shrinkage caused by solidification can leave cavities in a casting,
weakening it. Risers provide additional material to the casting as it
solidifies. The riser, sometimes called a "feeder", is designed to solidify
later than the part of the casting to which it is attached. Thus the liquid
metal in the riser will flow into the solidifying casting and feed it until the
casting is completely solid. In the riser itself there will be a cavity showing
where the metal was fed. Risers add cost because some of their material
must be removed, by cutting away from the casting which will be shipped
to the customer. They are often necessary to produce parts which are free
of internal shrinkage voids.
Sometimes, to promote directional shrinkage, chills must be used in the
mold. A chill is any material which will conduct heat away from the casting
more rapidly that the material used for molding. Thus if silica sand is used
for molding, a chill may be made of copper, iron, aluminum, graphite,
zircon sand, chromites or any other material with the ability to remove heat
faster locally from the casting. All castings solidify with progressive
solidification but in some designs a chill is used to control the rate and
sequence of solidification of the casting.

Linear shrinkage:-
Shrinkage after solidification can be dealt with by using an oversized
pattern designed for the relevant alloy. Pattern makers use special "shrink
rulers" to make the patterns used by the foundry to make castings to the
design size required. These rulers are 2 - 6% oversize, depending on the
material to be cast. Using such a ruler during pattern making will ensure an
oversize pattern. Thus, the mold is larger also, and when the molten metal
solidifies it will shrink and the casting will be the size required by the
design.
Corrosion
“Decay of metal surface due to electrochemical or environmental attack is
called corrosion”.

Electrochemical reaction:-
Electrochemical corrosion consists of two partial processes:
 An anodic reaction (oxidation).
 Cathodic reaction (reduction).
In the absence of any external voltages, the rates of the anodic
and cathodic reactions are equal, and there is no external flow of current.

Anodic reaction:-
The loss of metal that is the usual manifestation of the
corrosion process is a result of the anodic reaction, and can be
represented by the following reaction:

Diagram of a corrosion cell showing the anodic and cathodic partial processes.

This reaction represents the oxidation of a metal (M) from the


elemental (zero valence) state to an oxidation state of Mn+ with the
generation of n moles of electrons (e?). The anodic reaction may occur
uniformly over a metal surface or may be localized to a specific area. If the
dissolved metal ion can react with the solution to form an insoluble
compound, then a buildup of corrosion products may accumulate at the
anodic site.

Cathodic reaction:-
In the absence of any applied voltage, the electrons generated
by the anodic reaction are consumed by the cathodic reaction. For most
practical situations, the cathodic reaction is either the hydrogen-evolution
reaction or the oxygen-reduction reaction. The hydrogen-evolution reaction
can be summarized as:

In this case, protons (H+) combine with electrons to form


molecules of hydrogen (H2). This reaction is often the dominant cathodic
reaction in systems at low pH. The hydrogen-evolution reaction can itself
cause corrosion-related problems, since atomic hydrogen (H) may enter
the metal, causing embrittlement, phenomena those results in an
attenuation of the mechanical properties and can cause catastrophic
failure.

 Corrosion rates are usually expressed in terms of loss of thickness per


unit time.
 Corrosion can also be accelerated in situations where two dissimilar
metals are in contact in the same solution. This form of corrosion is
known as galvanic corrosion. The metal with the more negative
potential becomes the anode, while the metal with the more positive
potential sustains the cathodic reaction. In many cases the table of
equilibrium potential can be used to predict which metal of galvanic
couple will corrode.
 Some materials resist corrosion naturally; others can be treated to
protect them (e.g., by coating, painting, galvanizing, or anodizing).
 Placement of a thin coat of a metal such as zinc over iron or steel to
protect the latter from rust. Galvanized metals typically appear shiny. If
the coating is damaged, the iron or steel acts as cathode and continues
to be protected by sacrificial corrosion, a phenomenon in which
atmospheric oxidation spares the iron and affects the zinc which acts as
anode.

Corrosion of different materials:-


 Metals, polymers and ceramics are usually easily corroded.
 Stainless steel corrodes in chlorine environment.
 Brass does not corrode in atmosphere but in ammonia conditions.
 Corrosion happens because everything tends to remain in the lowest
energy state, so corrosion stops when any of the anodic or cathodic
reaction is ceased.
 Corrosion happens on the anode or the paint.
Forging & Rolling
Forging:-
“Forging is the process by which metal is heated and is shaped by plastic
deformation by suitably applying compressive force. Usually the
compressive force is in the form of hammer blows using a power hammer
or a press”.
Forging changes the size and shape, but not the volume, of a
part. The force must be strong enough to make the material deform. It
must not be so strong, however, that it destroys the material. Forging uses
the exertion of pressure to shape the metal.
Forging helps to improve the mechanical properties of metal. It
gives directional, structural and impact strengths to the metal. This makes
it more compact, ductile, tough and fatigue resistant.

Forgeability:-
“Forgeability is defined as the capability of a material to undergo
deformation without cracking”.
Metal to be forged must have this property.

Forging operations:-
Forging involves, basically, three different operations:
 The first is drawing. This is increasing the length of the metal while
decreasing the cross-sectional area.
 The second operation is upsetting. This involves reducing the
length of the metal while increasing the cross-sectional area.
 The third operation is squeezing. This will lengthen the metal, but
will not increase the cross-sectional area.
In fact, the cross sectional area is usually decreased as the metal
changes shapes. These three can only be achieved when the flow stress is
reached. Drawing and squeezing are not major considerations in forging,
however, upsetting is.

Forging grain flow:-


 The process of kneading the metal produces a very beneficial grain
flow. Grain flow is the direction of the pattern that the crystals take
during plastic deformation. So when the force is applied on metal
then atoms will elongate showing the flow of grain. Forging refines
the grain structure and improves physical properties of the metal.
 When a part is machined, the grains are cut, resulting in short,
broken grain lines. However, in forging the grains remain unbroken
and will assume the contour of the part.
 With proper design, the grain flow can be oriented in the direction of
principal stresses encountered in actual use.
 Therefore physical properties such as strength, ductility and
toughness are much better in a forging than in the base metal, which
has, crystals randomly oriented.

Uses:-
As forging yields parts that have high strength to weight ratio-thus are
often used in the design of aerospace parts, military equipments and
aircraft frame members.

Advantages:-
Forgings are consistent from piece to piece, without any of the porosity,
voids, inclusions and other defects. Thus, finishing operations such as
machining do not expose voids, because there aren't any. Also coating
operations such as plating or painting are straightforward due to a good
surface, which needs very little preparation.

Thus advantages of strength, fatigue resistance, reliability, and high quality


combine into economic benefits like:
 Material Savings
 Machining Economies
 Reduced Rejection Rates
 Production Efficiencies

Types:-
There are two basic types of forging.
 Open die forging.
 Closed die forging.

1- Open die forging:-


“Forging in which the metal being shaped is not completely confined
during the process”.

Procedure:-
 It is the mechanical forming of metals between flat or shaped dies
where flow of the metal is not completely restricted.
 This involves the shaping of heated metal parts between a top die
attached to a ram and a bottom die attached to a hammer anvil or
press bed.
 Metal parts are worked above their recrystallization temperatures
and gradually shaped into the desired configuration through the
skillful hammering or pressing of the work piece.
 Large forgings can be formed by successive applications of force on
different parts of the material.
Steps to produce a typical spindle-shaped part:

1 2

3 4

Tools and Dies:-


Most open die forgings are produced on flat dies. However, round swaging
dies, V-dies, mandrels, pins and loose tools like hammers are also used
depending on the desired part configuration and its size, usually using
repeated strokes and continuous manipulation.

Products:-
Open-die forging lends itself to very short runs and is appropriate for art
smithing and custom work. Some of the common shapes produced with
this technique are rings, discs, blocks, bars, and step-down shafts or
spindles.
Discs, Blocks, Bars & Shafts or Spindles Rings

Advantages:-
Open die forging gives us following advantages:
 It is a cheap process.
 It can form a wide variety of simple shapes with the same dies such
as square or cylindrical etc.
 It is useful for preparing material for other forms of forging or
machining.
 It can handle large items (35 tons).
 It gives good strength to forged metal.
 It gives wide range of sizes of forged products.

Problems:-
It has following problems:
 Barreling of shape due to high friction.
 Limited to simple shapes.
 Low production rates.
 High skill required.
 Poor tolerances

Open Die Forging and Cogging


2- Closed die forging:-
“Forging in which the metal is shaped completely inside the walls of two
dies that come together”.

Procedure:-
 In closed die forging, a negative image of the part to be made is
sunk into a die-steel block or pair of blocks.
 The die set is clamped into a press or hammer which supplies the
energy for the deformation.
 As the top and bottom dies press together, the material is forced to
fill the impressions.
 Flash, or excess metal, is squeezed out between the dies.
 Flash is metal that has been expelled from the die cavity during
forging. It’s not necessarily waste material but becomes trapped in
the flashline between the dies and aids in filling the die cavity by
creating a restriction that tends to keep the bulk of the metal in the
cavity.

Stages in Closed Die Forging

 This process usually requires one hit through a die cavity for the
metal to be forged.
Gear blank dies
Machines:-
Hydraulic presses and forging machines are both employed in closed die
forging.

Products:-
A great many common objects like wrenches, crankshafts and gears are
produced by closed-die forging, which is well suited to mass production.
Closed-die forging is more expensive for mass production than is casting,
but produces a much stronger part, and is therefore used for tools, high-
strength machine parts and the like.

Stages in the forging of a crank shaft


Advantages:-
 Closed-die forging can produce parts with more complex shapes
than open-die forging.
 The operator requires less skill.
 It produces forged metal near net shape.
 Metal properties tailored to application.
 It gives high rates of production, better properties and good
tolerances and accuracy.

Disadvantages:-
There are two big disadvantages of this forging:
 High die costs
 Highly skilled labor required
 Machining necessary.

Temperature based types:-


Metal can be forged hot or cold as:
 Hot forging.
 Cold forging.

(i)- Hot forging:-


“A process which deforms plastically an alloy at a temperature above its
recrystallization point that is high enough to avoid strain hardening”.

Temperature control:-
The temperature used for hot forging is specific to the
recrystallization temperature of the metal being used i.e. 0.4 – 0.7 of the
melting point of the metal.
For example: the melting point of steel is 1535O C, so its temperature range
for hot working is 900 – 1100O C which is 0.7 of its M.P.
In some instances the metal and the dies are heated to the same
temperature in a process known as isothermal forging.
The control of temperature is necessary because of two reasons:
 Scaling.
 Work hardening.

Scaling:-
In hot forging by increasing temperature, sometimes oxidation of metals
occur which causes scaling i.e. forming of a thick layer of metallic oxide on
metals at high temperatures.
Work hardening:-
Work hardening is the increase in strength due to the application of load.
Iron and its alloys are almost always forged hot. This is for two reasons:
 First, if work hardening were allowed to progress, hard materials
such as iron and steel would become extremely difficult to work with.
 Secondly, most steel alloys can be hardened by heat treatments
rather than cold forging.

Thermodynamics of Hot forging:-


The specific temperature required by this forging process causes
deformation, in which the grains of the metal elongate and assume a
fibrous structure of increased strength along the direction of flow.

Advantages:-
By using warm forging methods manufacturers see benefits such as lower
tooling and press loads, increased steel ductility, and as-forged properties
that eliminate heat treatment. Over 90% of forging processes are hot.
Hot forging makes metal easier to shape and less likely to fracture.

Problems:-
There are a few problems which renders the continuity of this process:
 Hot forging machines are highly expensive.
 They require high skilled labor.

Hot Forgings

(ii)- Cold forging:-


“A method of imparting plastic deformation to a metal or alloy at a
temperature below recrystallization to produce hardness and strength
increases through strain hardening”.
The process is performed when the metal, usually carbon and
standard alloy steels; at room temperature goes through true closed die
forging. The dies used in cold forging are usually circular and require
lubricant.
As in cold forging the metal is not heated so it is generally limited
to relatively soft metals. Cold forging is done at low temperatures.

Uses:-
Cold Forging is used in the production of parts that are symmetrical and
weigh 25 lbs or less i.e. smaller parts may be forged cold.
The end products are draftless, close-tolerance parts.

Advantages:-
Cold forging typically gives better surface finish than hot forging and
improves mechanical properties of the finished pieces; however the
improvement isn’t necessarily useful in many applications.

Rolling:-
“Roll forging is shaping stock between power driven rolls that incorporate
contoured dies; used for performing and to produce finished parts”.

Procedure:-
 Roll-forging is an efficient way to produce long or thin metal parts,
and the design of rolling die is a sophisticated problem due to the
complex relative motions of dies and forging piece.
 So the motion of both the rolls is set in opposite direction to each
other.
 This forging is accomplished by compressing a piece of heated
metal between the two rollers.
 The rollers have a die embedded in them, and as they compress the
metal, they will force it to conform to the die.
 This is a type of draw forging, because the piece is slowly drawn out
into the needed shape.
 Roll forging is a popular forging technique because it can be made
continuous with the use of multiple rollers and dies. A mill having
four rolls is called Four High Rolling Mill. Similarly a mill containing
n numbers of rollers is called cluster mill.
 The rolls except the working rolls in a cluster mill are called backup
rolls. The diameter of working rolls is always less than the backup
rolls. The working rolls are fixed on roller stand.
 Larger rolls cause greater lateral spread and less elongation
because of the greater frictional difference in the arc of contact,
whereas smaller rolls elongate more. Lateral spread can be reduced
and elongation promoted by using specially shaped rolls.

Roll Forging Roll forging using specially shaped rolls

Products:-
Almost all structural steels are rolled by this process. This process gives
the products like:
 Sheets
 Rods/bars
 T-irons/ guarders

Problem:-
In practical use, the thickness of the roll forged metal required is always less than
the roll gap because of the elastic deflection of rolls.
Thus, if
Elastic deflection of rolls = δ
Thickness of work piece = t
Then, roll gap will be = t – δ

Advantages:-
The properties of roll-forged components are very satisfactory. In most
cases, there is no flash and the fiber structure is very favorable and
continuous in all sections. The rolls perform a certain amount of descaling,
making the surface of the product smooth and free of scale pockets.

Four high rolling mill


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