Ceramics:

“It is an inorganic non-metallic material whose formation is due to the action of

heat called ceramic.”
For example: traditional clays, pottery, bricks, tiles, cements and glass.
• Ceramics are usually hard, porous and brittle material.

Raw materials for ceramics:

1- Clay:
It consists of Al2O3, SiO2 and H2O. MgO, CaO & K2O3 are also present in its
composition.
For traditional ceramics, percentages of MgO, CaO & K2O3 are not specified
or ignored.
It provides workability to ceramic material.

2- Feldspar:
Alumino-silicates and Na, K, Ca silicates are present in it. It acts as a filler
material or binder or adhesive and also used for high temperature
applications due to its high melting point.
In engineering ceramics percentages of these silicates are maintained to get
the desired properties for high temperature applications or treatments.

Types:
There are two types of ceramics.
1- Engineering ceramics
2- Traditional ceramics

Traditional ceramics:
In traditional ceramics table ware, tiles, sanitary ware and electric porcelain
are major classes.

Properties of traditional ceramics:

• High strength
• High fracture toughness
• Non-magnetic
• Low thermal conductivity
• High hardness
• Excellent wear resistance
• Good frictional behavior
• Anti-static
 • Corrosion resistant in acid and alkalis
• Excellent surface finish
• Modulus of elasticity similar to steel
• Thermal expansion Co-efficient similar to cast iron

Electric Porcelain:
It is attached with wires to insulate them and reduce heat energy losses due to
electric and magnetic fields.

Uses:
Traditional ceramic is generally a term that covers:
1- Table ware
2- Sanitary ware
3- Floor, roof and wall tiles
4- Stone ware
5- Earthen ware made from clay, quartz & feldspar

Engineering ceramics:
There are three types on the basis of raw materials:
1- Oxides: Alumina and zirconia
2- Non-oxides: Carbides, borides, nitrides, silicates
3- Composites: Particulate reinforced, combinations of oxides and non-
oxides
Major class is refractory ceramics.
There are three types of bricks:
1- Acidic: Al2O3 and SiO2 ( fire clay bricks and cheapest one)
2- Basic: Zr2O3 and Cr2O3 (not so expansive)
3- Neutral: Graphite and boron
• Alumina M.P is 17000C

Applications:
• Aerospace: Space shuttles, thermal barriers, high temperature glass
windows and fuel cells etc
• Computer: Insulators, super conductor, semi conductors, resistors,
capacitors, micro electronic packaging.
• Piezoelectric materials are made of Lead zirconate titanate. They convert
electrical energy into mechanical energy or vice versa.
• Abrasive materials or cutting tools are hard, shock resistant, good impact
strength and temperature resistant.
Properties:
• High wear and corrosion resistance
• Low density
• Thermal insulation and heat resistant
• High strength
• High stiffness

Micro crack detection in ceramics:

Brittle fracture occurs in ceramics which are sudden and some times catastrophic
failures. So by applying a high electric voltage gradient an intensification of the
electric field takes place at the discontinuities which can be detected”

Ceramic production:
1) Material preparation:
Ceramic in particulate or powder form is mixed with water and organic binders
if necessary.

2) Forming methods:
a) Pressing:
I. Dry pressing:
It is a uni-axial compaction of a granular powder during
confined compression in a die.

II. Isostatic pressing:

Granular powder is loaded into a flexible air tight container,
placed in a closed pressure vessel filled with liquid and
compacted by increasing the pressure with in the vessel.
The pressure change takes place through out the liquid, thus,
exerting a uniform applied pressure over the entire surface
area of the air tight container. In this way the material is
uniformly compacted and will retain the general shape of the
flexible container and any internal tooling profile.

III. Hot pressing:

This forming technique is the simultaneous application of
external pressure and temperature to enhance densification.
It is conducted by placing either powder or a compacted
perform into a suitable die, typically graphite, and applying uni-
axial pressure while the entire system is held at an elevated
temperature e.g. 20000C for SiC.

IV. HIP: Hot Isostatic Pressing:

 This technique involves sintering a compact at high
temperature in a pressurized gas atmosphere. The compact
must be either impermeable to the pressurizing gas or be
encapsulated in a gas tight container.
The use of hot Isostatic pressing leads to additional
densification and increased strength.

b) Slip casting:
Slip casting refers to the filling of a mold, a negative of the desired
shape, with a slip consisting of a suspension of micrometer size
ceramic particles in liquid. Ceramic mould is made up of plaster of
Paris. When slip is poured in the mould then excess water comes up
and is removed from the top. The slip becomes hard in the mould after
drying and then ejected out from the mould or removed.

c) Extrusion:
This forming process consists of forcing a plastic mix of a ceramic
powder through a constricting die to produce elongated shapes that
have a constant cross-section.

3) Thermal treatment:
a. Drying:
Water is removed at 1000C. This process continues for 24 hrs. Due to the
removal of water shrinkage will occur.
b. De-binding:
At temperature 200 – 3000C binder is removed. De-binding is done to prevent
ceramic from cracking at firing stage.
c. Sintering:
It is a solid state processing in which air traps and vacancies are removed at
a temperature below the M.P of ceramic (16000C) that is 1200 – 14000C.

Q: Why vacancies are removed at high temperature?

A: Due to the high temperature the diffusion will occur and vacancies will be
removed. When this temperature is maintained for longer time the smallest
particles will combine to form large particles.

Glass:
“Glass is a super cooled liquid, meaning that it is rigid and static but does not
change molecularly between melting and solidification into a desired shape.”

Thermodynamics of glass:
Many solids have a crystalline structure on microscopic scales. The
molecules are arranged in a regular lattice. As the solid is heated the
molecules vibrate about their position in the lattice until, at the melting point,
 the crystal breaks down and the molecules start to flow. The molecules then
have a disordered arrangement, but sufficient cohesion to maintain some
rigidity. In this state it is often called an amorphous solid or glass.

• Manufactured glass is a material formed when a mixture of sand, soda

and lime is heated to a high temperature and stays in a molten, liquid
state. On cooling it does not forms crystals, instead it becomes a
“super cooled liquid” which is in amorphous state with its molecules
arranged randomly.
• Besides the manufactured glass there exist many forms of naturally
formed glass.
• Sand in its pure form exists as a polymer. Normally it softens up to
20000C, where it starts to degrade (at 17130C most of the molecules
can already move freely). Adding soda will lower its M.P to 10000C
making it more manageable.
• Lime stone, calcium carbonate is found naturally as limestone marble
or chalk. The soda makes the glass water soluble, soft and not very
durable. Therefore lime is added which increases the hardness and
chemical durability insolubility of the materials.
• Other materials can be added to improve properties, produce different
effects and colors etc.

Production method:

1) Glass blowing:
Glassblowing is the process of forming glass into useful shapes
while the glass is in a molten, semi-liquid state. A person who blows glass is
called a glassblower, glass smith, or gaffer.

Glassblowing involves three furnaces.

• The first, which contains a crucible of molten glass, is simply
referred to as "the furnace."
• The second is called the "Glory Hole", and is used to reheat a piece
in between steps of working with it.
• The final furnace is called the "lehr" or "annealer", and is used to
slowly cool the glass, over a period of a few hours to a few days,
depending on the size of the pieces. This keeps the glass from
cracking due to thermal stress.

2) Sheet production:
In this process molten liquid is poured on the flat mould having liquid “Tin”
surface. Then the liquid is pressed and glass sheet is formed.

3) Crown glass:
In this process, glass was blown into a "crown" or hollow globe. This was then
flattened by reheating and spinning out the bowl-shaped piece of glass
 (bullion) into a flat disk by centrifugal force, up to 5 or 6 feet (1.5 to 1.8
meters) in diameter. The glass was then cut to the size required.

Properties of glass:
There are the main characteristics of glass:
1) Solid and hard material
2) Disordered and amorphous structure.
3) Easily breakable into sharp pieces.
4) Transparent to visible light
5) Inert and biologically inactive material
6) Insulator
7) Good thermal conductor
8) Refractive index
9) High strength
10)It is 100% recyclable and one of the safest packaging materials due to
its composition and properties.

Uses:
It is used for:
• Architecture applications
• Illumination
• Electrical transmission
• Domestic tools
• Textiles
• Chemical/lab ware
• Instruments for scientific research
• Optical instruments

Disadvantages:
1) Impact resistant is less
2) Intricate shapes are difficult to make

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