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f
= No of bits / frame containing transmitted data
-------------------------------------------------------------
Total Number of bits / Frame
= ( 1 b
OH
/ b
T
) * 100
= ( b
T
b
OH
) * 100
-------------
b
T
15
Frame efficiency parameters
b
T
= Total Number of bits per frame
= T
f
* R
T
f
= Frame duration
R = Channel bit rate
b
OH
= Number of overhead bits /frame
= N
r
*b
r
+ N
t
*b
p
+ N
t
*b
g
+ N
r
*b
g
N
r
= Number of reference bits per frame
N
t
= Number of traffic bits per frame
b
r
= Number of overhead bits per reference burst
b
p
= Number of overhead bits per preamble in each slots.
b
g
= Number of equivalent bits in each guard time interval
16
Number of channels in TDMA System:
N = m ( B
tot
- 2 B
guard
)
------------------------------
B
c
m = Maximum number of TDMA users supported on each
radio channel.
B
guard
= Guard band to present user at the edge of the band
from bleeding over to an adjacent radio service.
17
Example:
GSM System uses a TDMA / FDD system.
The GSM System uses a frame structure where
each frame consist of 8 time slots, and each time
slot contains 156.25 bits, and data is transmitted at
270.833 kbps in the channel. Find:
a.Time duration of a bit
b. time duration of a slot
c.time duration of a frame and
d.how long must a user occupying a single slot must
wait between two simultaneous transmissions?
18
Solution
Time duration of a bit = T
b
= 1 / bit rate = 1/ (270.833 * 10
3
)
= 3.692 s
Time duration of a slot = T
slot
= 156.25 * T
b
= 0.577
s
Time duration of a frame = 8 * T
slot
= 4.615 ms
(d) A user has to wait 4.615 ms before next transmission.
19
Example
If a normal GSM timeslot consists of 6 trailing bits, 8.25
guard bits, 26 training bits, and 2 traffic bursts of 58
bits of data, find the frame efficiency.
Solution
o time slots have 6 + 8.25 + 26 + 2/58 = 156.25 bits.
o A frame has 8 * 156.25 = 1250 bits / frame.
o The number of overhead bits per frame is given by
b
OH
= 8(6) + 8(8.25) + 8(26) = 322 bits
Frame efficiency = (1250 322 ) / 1250
= 74.24 %
20
Spread Spectrum Multiple Access Technologies (SSMA)
SSMA technologies uses techniques which has a
transmission bandwidth that is >> maximum required RF
bandwidth.
This is achieved by pseudo noise (PN) sequence that
contents a narrowband signal to a wideband noise-like
signal before transmission.
SSMA provides immunity to multiple interference and
robust multiple access capability.
21
TYPES OF SPREAD SPECTRUM TECHNIQUES
Frequency Hopped Multiple Access ( FHMA )
Direct Sequence Multiple Access ( CDMA )
22
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS-SS):
Code
Frequency
time
C1
C2
C3
CN
23
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS-SS):
CDMA Transmitter:
S
1
(t)
m
1
(t)
r(t)
PN
1
(t) cos(2f
c
t +
1
)
m
k
(t)
PN
K
(t) cos(2fct +
K
)
1
K
24
Principles of operation-transmitter
The narrowband message signal m
i
(t) is multiplied by a
pseudo noise code sequence that has a chip rate >> data
rate of message.
All users use the same carrier frequency and may
transmit simultaneously. The k
th
transmitted signal is
given by;
S
k
(t) = ( 2E
S
/ T
S
)
1/2
m
k
(t) p
k
(t) cos(2f
c
t +
k
)
25
CDMA Receiver
Z
i
k
(t)
m
k
(t)
r(t)
PN
k
(t) cos(2f
c
t +
k
)
k
T
0
(.)dt
>
<
26
Principles of operation-receiver
At the receiver, the received signal is correlated with the
appropriate signature sequence to produce desire
variable.
iT
+
k
Z
i
k
(t)= r (t) p
k
(t
k
) cos [ 2f
c
(t
k
) +
k
] dt
(i-1)T
+
k
27
Message Signal
m(t) is a time sequence of non-overlapping pulses of
duration T, each of which has an amplitude (+/-) 1.
The PN waveform consists of N pulses or chips for
message symbol period T.
NT
C
= T
where T
C
is the chip period.
28
Example: Assume N = 4
m(t) 1 0 1 1
1
-1
PN wave for N=4
1
-1
PN sequence for current user is 1 -1 1 -1
29
Correlator output for first user
iT
+
1
Z
i
1
(t)= r (t) p
1
(t
1
) cos [ 2f
c
(t
1
) +
1
] dt
(i-1)T
+
1
The multiplied signal will be p
2
(t) = 1 for the correct signal
and will yield the dispersed signal and can be
demodulated to yield the message signal m
i
(t).
S
1
(t) = ( 2E
S
/ T
S
)
1/2
m
1
(t) p
1
(t) cos(2f
c
t +
1
)
30
Probability of bit error
Probability of bit error Pe = Q {1/ [(K 1)/3N + (N
0
/2E
b
)]
1/2
}
K = Number of users
N = Number of chips/ symbol
Now when, Eb/No
Pe = Q{[3N/(K-1)]
1/2
}
31
Important Advantages of CDMA
Many users of CDMA use the same frequency. Either
TDD or FDD may be used.
Multipath fading may be substantially reduced because of
large signal bandwidth.
There is no absolute limit on the number of users in
CDMA. Rather the system performance gradually
degrades for all users as the number of users is
increased.
32
Drawbacks of CDMA
Self-jamming is a problem in a CDMA system. Self-
jamming arise because the PN sequence are not exactly
orthogonal, non-zero contributions from other users in the
system arise
The near- far problem occurs at a CDMA receiver if an
undesired user has high detected power as compared to
the desired user.
33
Capacity of Cellular Systems
Channel capacity for a radio system is defined as the
maximum number of channels or users that can be
provided in a fixed frequency band spectrum efficiency
of wireless system.
For a Cellular System
m = Radio Capacity Matrix = B
t
/ (B
C
* N) Eqn.A
B
t
= Total allocated spectrum for the system
B
C
= Channel bandwidth
N = Number of cells in frequency reuse pattern
34
Channel capacity design for given C/I ratio
Recall:
CELL A
CELL A CELL A
r
CELL A
CELL A
CELL A
CELL A
35
Carrier to Interference ratio C / I = D
o
-n
/ ( 6 * D
-n
)
D
o
= Distance from desired base station to mobile
For maximum interference D = R
(C / I )
Min
= 1/6 ( R / D)
-n
(C / I )
Min
= 1/6 Q
-n
Q = Co- Channel reuse ratio
=> Q = { 6* (C / I )
Min
}
---
Also Q = ( 3 * N )
0.5
36
N = (Q)
2
/ 3
= { 6 * (C / I )
Min
}
2/n
/ 3 Eqn. B
substituting equ (B) into (A)
m = B
t
/ [ B
C
* { 6* (C / I )
Min
}
2/n
* ( 1/3 ) ]
for n = 4
m = B
t
/ B
C
*[ ( 2/3) * (C / I )
Min
]
0.5
radio channels / cell
Typical values
(C / I )
Min
= 18 dB for Analog FM (NB)
= 12 dB for Digital System (NB)
37
Equation of C/I for digital cellular system
( C / I ) = (E
b
* R
b
) / I
= (E
c
* R
c
) / I
R
b
= Channel bit rate
E
b
= Energy per bit
R
c
= Rate of channel code
E
c
= Energy per code symbol
38
Comparison of FDMA and TDMA systems
FDMA
The total bandwidth B
t
is divided into M channels, each
with Bandwidth B
c
. The radio capacity for FDMA is given
by
m = M/ [ ( 2/3) * (C / I )]
0.5
C= E
b
*R
b
I= I
o
* B
C
I
o
= interference power / Hz
39
TDMA
Assume FDMA occupies the same spectrum as a single
channel TDMA.
C
= E
b
* R
b
I
= I
o
* B
c
R
b
= Transmission rate of FDMA system
R
b
= E
b
* R
b
= (E
b
* 10
4
) / (0.333s)
I
= I
o
* B
c
= I
o
* 30 * 10
3
(C / I) = [ (E
b
* 10
4
) / (0.333s) ] * [ 1 / (I
o
* 30 * 10
3
) ]
= E
b
/ I
o
Hence, channel capacity for both systems is the same.
42
Capacity of Digital Cellular CDMA
Capacity of FDMA and TDMA system is bandwidth limited
Capacity of CDMA system is interference limited
The link performance of CDMA increases as the number
of users decreases
43
Single Cell System
The cellular network consists of a large number of mobile
users communicating with a base station.
The cell site transmitter consist of linear combiner which
adds spread signal of individual users for the forward
channel
A pilot signal is also included in the cell-site transmitter
and is used by each mobile to set its own power control
for the reverse link.
44
Capacity of single cell system
Let the number of users be N
Signal to noise ratio SNR = S / [ ( N 1) * S ]
= 1 / ( N -1)
where S signal power from each of N user.
45
Bit energy-to-noise ratio of single cell system
The bit energy to noise ratio is an important factor in
communication systems
S / R
E
b
/ N
o
= ---------------------------------------------
[ ( N 1) *( S / W) ] + ( / W)
R = Baseband information bit rate
W = Total RF bandwidth, W
= Background thermal Noise
46
Number of possible of single cell system
( W / R )
E
b
/ N
o
= ---------------------------------
( N - 1 ) + ( / S)
Number of users that can access the system
N = 1+ [ ( W / R ) ] / [ (E
b
/ N
o
) ] -- ( / S)
W / R = Processing gain
In order to increase the capacity, the interference due to
other users should be reduced. There are mainly two
techniques.
47
Techniques to improve capacity
Antenna Sectorization:
A cell site with 3 antennas, each having a beamwidth of
120
0
, has interference No, which is 1/3 of the
interference received by omni directional antenna. This
increase the capacity by a factor of 3
Monitoring or Voice activity:
Each transmitter is switched off during period of no voice
activity. Voice activity is denoted by a factor
48
SNR IMPROVEMENT
( W / R )
E
b
/ N
o
= ---------------------------------
(N
s
- 1 ) + ( / S)
N
s
= Number of users per sector
Ns = 1 + (1 / ) * [ ( W / R ) / (E
b
/ N
o
) ] -- ( / S*
)
0 < < 1,
If = 3/8 and number of sector is equal to 3 , SNR
increases by a factor of 8.
49
CDMA Power Control
In CDMA, the system capacity is controlled if each mobile
transmitter power level is controlled so that its signal
arrives at the cell site with minimum required S/I.
If the signal power of all mobile transmitters within the
area of cell site are controlled, then total signal power
received at all site from all mobile will be equal to average
received power times the number of mobiles operating in
region of coverage.
Optimal power is desired, never too weak or too strong.
50
Example
If W = 1.25 Mhz, R= 9600 bps, and a minimum acceptable
E
b
/ N
o
is 10 dB, determine the maximum number of users
that can be supported in a single cell CDMA system using
(a) omni directional base station antennas and no voice
activity detection
(b) 3 sectors at base station and = 3/8. Assume the system
is interference limited. = 0.
Solution
(a) N = 1 + [ ( W / R ) / (E
b
/ N
o
) ] -- ( / S )
= 1 + [ (1.25 * 10 )/ 9600 ]/10 - 0
= 1 + 13.02 = 14
51
(b) Ns = 1 + (1 / ) * [ ( W / R ) / (E
b
/ N
o
) ] -- ( / S* )
= 1 + ( 1/ (3/8)) [ ( 1.25 * 10) / 9600 ] / 10 - 0
= 35.7
Total amount of users N = 3 N
s
= 3 * 35.7
= 107 user /cell