Small Scale Hydro Power

Hydro power is perhaps the most long-established renewable energy technology. The first water
wheels - used in irrigation - were developed in the far-east over two-thousand years ago. Later,
waterwheels were applied to milling (hence watermills); by the time of the Industrial Revolution the
use of waterwheels was extensive: working the bellows in foundries and forges, driving the
machinery of factories. Mechanical outputs ranged from a few hundred watts to a few tens of
kilowatts. Towards the middle of the 19th Century the first water turbines were developed. The
turbine was distinct from the wheel in that it was smaller, more compact, more efficient, and ran at
a higher speed. The latter qualities made the water turbine particularly suited to use in electricity
generation.

Technology

Continuous improvements in small turbine and generator technology mean that 'Micro' (under
100kW), and 'Small-scale'(up to 5 MW), hydro-schemes are an increasingly attractive means of
producing electricity. Useful power may be produced from anything upwards of a small stream; the
likely range is from a few hundred watts (possibly for use with batteries) for domestic schemes, to a
minimum of 25 kW for commercial schemes. The power available in a body of water depends on:
the amount of water flowing per second, the flow rate; the height through which the water falls, the
head; and the force of gravity. The actual electrical power output of a scheme will depend on how
efficiently it converts the power of the water into electrical power (maximum efficiencies of perhaps
80% are possible, but for small schemes it is more realistic to aim for 50%). P = H x Q x g x e
Where - P is power measured in kW - H is the head measured in metres, m - Q is the flow rate
measured in m3/s - g is the gravitational constant (~9.8m/s2) - e is the efficiency factor (usually
~0.5, i.e. 50%) (With very small schemes it may be convenient to measure flow in litres per second
- if this measure is used the resulting power will be in watts, W, as opposed to kW).

Components of a typical scheme

Given the expected power output, a typical micro-hydro

scheme will be constructed from a variety of
components:

• An intake, often incorporated into a weir, to

divert the flow from the water course
 • A penstock pipe to convey the water from the intake - must be of sufficient diameter to
minimise 'head-loss'
• A powerhouse, in which the turbine and generator-set convert the power of the water into
electricity
• An outflow through which the water is released back to the river or stream
• Underground cables, or overhead lines to transmit the electricity to its point of use - must
be of a sufficient size to minimise 'voltage-drop'.

Turbines

The turbine unit consists of a wheel, or runner, connected to a shaft. The shaft spins as a result of
the water acting upon the runner and drives a generator which converts the rotational power into
electricity. To suit a variety of head and flow conditions there are many different types of turbine;
they fall into two basic categories:

Impulse Turbines

A high-speed jet of water hits a series of specially shaped cups on the runner.
The cups capture neally all of the jet's energy and the water falls down into the
outflow.

Reaction Turbines

Here the water is not converted into a jet; instead, it flows over
the blades of the runner. This causes a pressure differential
across the blades, causing the runner to spin - similarly to the
movement of a windmill. Reaction runners often resemble
ship's propellers.

Environmental Aspects of using the Technology

Unlike large-scale hydro schemes, some of which have proved environmentally

disastrous, small-scale systems cause far less disturbance. With proper
management any ecological effects are negligible. It is important to consider other users of the
watercourse: a sufficient level of flow should be maintained along the section over which the water
is abstracted; a safe passage for fish may be required - possibly through the provision of fish-
ladders. Before installing a hydro scheme, a number of consents and licences may be required from
the relevant authorities. In most cases the Environment Agency will charge a small one-off fee for
the abstraction of the water; and Planning Permission may be required by the Local Authority.
Small-scale hydro power has many environmental benefits:

• It displaces generation by fossil-fuels or nuclear power, thereby reducing the Earth's

pollution burden
• It is quiet and visually unobtrusive, therefore not suffering some of the problems often
associated with other renewables, such as windpower
• The embodied energy (that used in the manufacture of the components) of a scheme is
typically equalled by the energy generated by the scheme within 9 months of
commissioning.

Costs Involved

As a rule, the capital cost per kW of installed capacity falls in proportion to the size of the scheme,
varying from around £1,000 to£3,000. In addition to 'economies-of-scale', the costs will be a
function of: the type of components used - e.g. new or second-hand; whether or not any existing
infrastructure is available; the degree to which external contractors are to be used; the reliability of
the resource - is the flow constant throughout the year?
UK Potential for Small-Hydro Power

If the small-scale hydro-electric power from all the streams and rivers in the UK could be tapped it
would be possible to produce 10,000GWh (1GWh = 1,000,000kWh) per year - enough to meet just
over 3% of our total electrical needs. The economic potential is somewhat lower; estimates range
from 500GWh to 2000GWh per year. At present, only a fraction of this is being exploited.