Module 1 Production of Materials

5
Uses of polystyrene:
Polystyrene is electrically insulative and very hard and rigid due to the presence of the
large side group benzene rings along the polymer chains. This makes it suitable for car
battery cases and tool handles.
The minimal chain branching also makes polystyrene very crystalline, so it can be formed
into clear, transparent objects such as drinking glasses and CD cases.
If gas is bubbled through the polymer as it forms, styrofoam is formed. Styrofoam is used
for insulation and packaging as it is a good heat insulator and shock absorber.
1.1.9 Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to compare the reactivities of
appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in bromine water
Aim: To compare the reactivity of cyclohexane and cyclohexene bromine water.
Equipment: two test tubes, cyclohexane, cyclohexene, 0.01 bromine water.
Method:
1. 2 of cyclohexane was added to one test tube and 2 of cyclohexene was added to the
other test tube.
2. 1 of bromine water was added to each liquid and the test tubes were shaken to the same
extent.
3. The test tubes were left to settle, and then observed.
Cyclohexene and cyclohexane were used (instead of ethylene or propene) because:
C1 to C4 are gases at room temperature and would be hard to manage. Cyclohexene is a
clear, colourless liquid and bromine water is an aqueous brown/yellow solution.
Cyclohexene/cyclohexane is more stable, less toxic and has a longer shelf-life than
hexene/hexane.
Results: It was observed that the cyclohexene immediately decolourised the bromine water
from yellow to colourless, while the cyclohexane remained yellow. This showed which
hydrocarbon decolourised the bromine water, allowing them to be distinguished from each other.
The cyclohexene reacted with the bromine water, forming 1,2-dibromocyclohexane.

()

()

()


Risk Assessment:
Safety goggles were worn to protect from splashing of any solutions.
Organic hydrocarbons (cyclohexene and cyclohexane) are highly volatile and flammable so
they were kept away from heat sources or flames at all times. They also release moderately
toxic vapour, so only small quantities were used and a fume cupboard was used to perform
the experiment. Experimental time was kept to a minimum.
Bromine water is highly toxic if ingested and is slightly corrosive.
Module 2 The Acidic Environment

24
2.5.4 Describe the purpose of using acid in esterification for catalysis
Concentrated sulfuric acid (

) is used as a:
Catalyst to increase the rate of reaction by lowering the activation energy and allowing
equilibrium to be reached faster. The catalyst itself does not participate in the reaction.
Dehydrating agent to increase yield by absorbing the product water to favour the forward
reaction, shiftin equilibrium to the riht (Le Chateliers principle).
2.5.5 Explain the need for refluxing during esterification
Refluxing is the process of heating a liquid mixture with a condenser attached vertically above
the reaction vessel, in order to prevent the loss of volatile reactants or products. It allows the
reaction to be brought about at a higher temperature than would otherwise be possible.
Esterification is a slow reaction so heat is required to increase the rate of reaction (by increasing
the kinetic energy of molecules).
However, the reactants and products are
organic compounds which are volatile, and
readily vaporise on heating.
To avoid loss of material from the reaction
vessel, a condenser is attached to the flask.
Cold water circulates to cool the vapours, which
condense back into liquid and fall back into the
reaction mixture.
A water bath ensures even heating and safety
(as organic compounds are volatile and
flammable and must be kept away from naked
flames).
Boiling chips encourage the mixing of reactants
to distribute heat. They prevent bumpin as
they provide a large surface area on which
vaporisation can occur without the risks of
sudden superheating of liquids and explosive
ejection of vapours.
2.5.6 Outline some examples of the occurrence, production and uses of esters
2.5.7 Process information from secondary sources to identify and describe the uses of esters
as flavours and perfumes in processed foods and cosmetics
Esters occur naturally in living things. They have strong flavours and odours, so they are produced
for use as flavours and perfumes in processed foods and in cosmetics.
Uses of esters:
Flavourings: Many esters are used as flavourings and perfumes due to their pleasant, fruity
odours (e.g. pineapple - butyl butanoate; apple ethyl pentanoate).
Solvents: Domestic uses of esters include ethyl ethanoate for nail polish remover and scents
for perfumes.

Module 3 Chemical Monitoring and Management

7
3.3 Chemical Analysis
3.3.1 Deduce the ions present in a sample from the results of tests




Sample
Pb
2+

add HCl white ppt no ppt
add H2SO4
white ppt no ppt
add NaF(aq)
white ppt no ppt
add NaOH
blue ppt (dissolves to
form deep blue solution
when NH3 is added)
brown ppt green ppt
Ba
2+
Ca
2+
Fe
3+
Fe
2+
Cu
2+
KSCN solution
turns blood
red
KMnO4 solution
decolourises from
purple to colourless
Confirmaion ess
Solutions tested should have a
minimum concentration of 0.1M
Sample
CO3
2-
add HNO3 (aq) bubbles form no bubbles
add Ba(NO3)2 (aq)
no ppt white ppt
add AgNO3(aq)
white ppt (darkens
under light)
no ppt
PO4
3-
Cl
-
SO4
2-
add NH3 until pH is 8-10, then add
more Ba(NO3)2 (aq)
white ppt
Solutions tested should have a
minimum concentration of 0.1M
keep adding HNO3
until bubbling
stops (to remove
all CO3
2-
)
Anions
Confirmaion ess
Addition of ammonium molybdate
solution (NH4)2MoO4 produces a
yellow ppt
Cations
Module 4 Industrial Chemistry

13
Diaphragm Cell:
This cell was developed to produce sodium hydroxide by electrolysis, without the problems
caused by using mercury. It also uses less energy than the mercury cell.
It produces sodium hydroxide, hydrogen and chlorine in one stage.
To keep the products separate:
A slight positive pressure is maintained on the anode chamber to prevent the migration
of

from the cathode to the anode chamber. The level of electrolyte in the anode
compartment is higher than the catholyte level, to reduce mixing of

and

by
diffusion which would produce hypochlorite.
A barrier separates the hydrogen and chlorine gases which are produced and collected
separately and compressed into cylinders.
The porous diaphragm separates the two compartments. Traditionally the diaphragm
was made of asbestos, which caused problems for worker safety and the environment.
Sodium ions migrate from the anode chamber through the diaphragm to the cathode
chamber to balance the charge of the

ions formed there. Small amounts of

migrate in the reverse direction.

ions diffuse into the cathode chamber, so after

some time there is in it.
The electrolyte in both compartments is saturated, purified brine.
The anode is titanium; chloride ions are oxidised to chlorine gas:

The cathode is steel mesh; water is reduced to hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions:

Overall cell reaction:

The is produced in the cathode chamber (not in a separate decomposer) so it must be
separated from any unused solution (i.e. product is contaminated with ).
The solution is fractionally crystallised by cooling; is less soluble than and so
precipitates out, leaving a solution of 50% and 1% .
The main advantage of the diaphragm cell is that it produces large quantities of sodium
hydroxide and chlorine (high-demand industrial chemicals) at reasonable costs and purity.