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Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,

Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal, INDIA
BASIC ELECTRONICS
BY
H V Balachandra Achar
Senior Lecturer
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal, INDIA
Syllabus for module 1
Semiconductor Theory
Energy bands
Classification of materials based on energy bands
Intrinsic semiconductor
Covalent bonding
Conduction in semiconductors
Doping, Extrinsic semiconductor
Conduction in extrinsic semiconductor
Drift and Diffusion current
2
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Classification of materials
Insulators,
Semiconductors and
Metals
Insulator
poor conductor of
electricity
Metal
good conductor of
electricity
Semiconductor
conductivity lies
between above two
Energy band diagram
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Classification of materials
Diamond crystal (insulator)
E
G
6 eV (1 eV = 1.6 10
19
J)
Valence band is full, Conduction band is empty
Even with applied electric field, energy will not be
sufficient to put the electrons in the conduction band,
crossing the forbidden gap
Hence diamond is insulator
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Classification of materials
Semiconductor
Silicon : E
G
1.21 eV at 0 K (1.1 eV at 300 K)
Germanium : E
G
0.79 eV at 0 K (0.67 eV at 300 K)
At 0 K, valence band is full, conduction band is empty
Si and Ge are insulators at 0 K
Conductivity increases (or resistivity decreases) with
increase in temperature
Semiconductors possess negative temp coeff of resistance
At room temp and above, Si and Ge are semiconductors
i.e., some electrons are present in conduction band
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Classification of materials
At room temperature, some valence electrons acquire thermal
energy sufficient to cross the forbidden gap
These electrons are now free to move under the influence of
small electric field
Now the material begins to conduct. Hence the name
semiconductor
When an electron leaves the valence band and enters
conduction band, a vacancy called hole is created in valence
band
Parent atom now has less number of negatively charged
electrons than positively charged protons ionization
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Classification of materials
Metal
The valence band and conduction band overlap
Even at 0 K, conduction band has electrons
So metals are good conductors of electricity
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Intrinsic Semiconductors
Semiconductors such as Si and Ge have 4 electrons
(tetravalent) in the outermost shell
In crystal structure of these materials, atoms are
arranged in tetrahedron structure with one atom at
each vertex
Each atom contributes 4 valence electrons to the
crystal; Each atom shares one electron each from its
4 neighbors, thus forming covalent bond
Because of covalent bonding, electrons are tightly
bound to crystal not available for conduction
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Intrinsic Semiconductors
Bond structure of Si and Ge at 0 K
Si Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si Si Si
Covalent
bond
Valence
electrons
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Intrinsic Semiconductors
Bond structure of Si and Ge at 300 K
Si Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si Si Si
Covalent
bond
Valence
electrons
Free
electron
Hole
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Intrinsic Semiconductors
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Intrinsic Semiconductors
Free electrons are free to wander throughout the crystal
Hole is the absence of an electron in the covalent bond
In intrinsic semiconductor, each free electron gives rise to one
hole.
Concentration of holes and free electrons are same. Denoted as
n
i
(called intrinsic charge concentration)
Free electrons and holes are now available for conduction
A hole may get filled up by another electron liberated from
another covalent bond effective movement of hole
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Intrinsic Semiconductors
Hole effectively moves in opposite direction as that of free
electron
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Conduction in semiconductors
Both free electrons and holes contribute to current flow
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Conduction in semiconductors
Let concentration of free electrons = n
Let concentration of holes = p
In intrinsic semiconductor, n = p = n
i
Current density = conductivity electric field intensity
J = E (Ohms law)
Conductivity is given by: = n q
n
+ p q
p
= n
i
q (
n
+
p
)

n
is mobility of free electrons

p
is mobility of holes (
n
>
p
)
q is electronic charge = 1.6 10
19
C
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Conduction in semiconductors
5.0 10
22
4.4 10
22
Concentration of atoms in crystal
(cm
3
)
2300 0.45 Intrinsic resistivity (-m)
1.5 10
16
2.5 10
19
Intrinsic Concentration n
i
(m
3
)
0.05 0.18 Hole mobility
p
(m
2
/V-s)
0.13 0.38 Electron mobility
n
(m
2
/V-s)
Si Ge Some properties at 300 K
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Conduction in semiconductors
Determine the conductivity and resistivity of pure germanium
at 300 K. If the length of the Ge is 4 cm and cross section area
is 1 cm
2
, then what is its resistance? If a potential difference of
5 V is applied between the two ends of semiconductor, what is
the amount of current that flows?
Resistivity = 1/
Resistance R = L / A
Repeat the above calculations with silicon.
L
V
I
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Conduction in semiconductors
Velocity of charge particle = mobility electric field
v = E
Free electron velocity is v
n
=
n
E
Hole velocity is v
p
=
p
E
What is the electron velocity and hole velocity in a bar of
silicon at room temperature (300 K), when an electric field of
1800 V/m is applied across it? (Ans: 234, 90 m/s)
A bar of intrinsic Ge, 6 cm long, has a potential difference of
12 V applied across its ends. If the electron velocity in the bar
is 76 m/s, what is the electron mobility? (Ans: 0.38 m
2
/V-s)
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Conduction in semiconductors
A bar of pure silicon at 300 K is applied with electric field
of 500 V/m. Determine:
a) Component of current density in bar due to free electrons
b) Component of current density in bar due to holes
c) Total current density in the bar (Ans: 156, 60, 216 mA/m
2
)
A bar of silicon has cross sectional area of 310
4
m
2
. How
long the bar should be in order that current in it be 1.2 mA,
when 9 V is applied across its ends. (Ans: 0.972 mm)
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Conduction in semiconductors
As noted from previous examples, conductivity is very low
What is the reason for low conductivity?
For silicon, n
i
= 1.5 10
16
m
3
atom concentration in crystal is 5.0 10
22
cm
3
= 5.0 10
28
m
3
i.e., approximately 3 free electrons for every 10
12
Si atoms !!
For germanium, situation is only slightly better
approximately 2 free electrons for every 10
9
Ge atoms !!
Concentration of free electrons, and thereby conductivity can
be increased by a process called Doping
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Doping
Addition of small percentage of foreign atoms into the crystal
lattice of silicon or germanium in order to change its electrical
properties is called Doping
Atoms used for doping are called dopants
Two types of dopants Donors and Acceptors
Donor Pentavalent (5 electrons in outermost shell)
Examples: Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As),
Antimony (Sb), and Bismuth (Bi)
Donates one electron to the crystal lattice
One free electron per donor atom
Concentration of free electrons increases
Concentration of holes decreases
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Doping
N-type semiconductor
P Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si Si Si
Free electron
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Doping
Semiconductor doped with donor impurity is called N-type
semiconductor, because free electrons are in majority than
holes (thermally generated)
Donor energy level is just below the conduction band
Conduction band
Valence band
0.05 eV (0.01 for Ge)
1.1 eV
Donor energy level
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Doping
Acceptor Trivalent (3 electrons in outermost shell)
Examples: Boron (B), Aluminum (Al),
Gallium (Ga) and Indium (In)
Accepts one electron from the crystal structure
One hole per acceptor atom
Concentration of holes increases
Concentration of free electrons decreases
Resulting semiconductor is called P-type semiconductor,
because holes are in majority than free electrons (thermally
generated)
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Doping
P-type semiconductor
B Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si Si Si
Hole
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Doping
Acceptor energy level is just above the valence band
Most valence electrons can easily jump (hop) into the hole
even at lower temperatures
Conduction band
Valence band
0.05 eV (0.01 for Ge)
1.1 eV
Acceptor energy level
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Charge densities
In intrinsic (pure) semiconductor, concentration of free
electrons is equal to concentration of holes (n = p = n
i
)
In extrinsic N-type semiconductor, n >> p
In extrinsic P-type semiconductor, p >> n
Under thermal equilibrium, product of negative and positive
charge concentrations is a constant, equal to square of intrinsic
concentration called law of Mass Action
n p = n
i
2
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Charge densities
Suppose that a semiconductor is doped with both donor and
acceptor impurities
Let donor atom concentration = N
D
Let acceptor atom concentration = N
A
After donating one free electron to the crystal structure, donor
atom now has deficit of one negative charge (i.e., net positive)
Similarly, after accepting one electron from crystal structure,
acceptor atom now has one extra electron (i.e., net negative)
Total negative charge concentration = n + N
A
Total positive charge concentration = p + N
D
Under equilibrium condition, n + N
A
= p + N
D
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Charge densities
In N-type semiconductor, N
A
= 0. Hence
n = p + N
D
But n >> p. Hence n N
D
Now, p = n
i
2
/n = n
i
2
/ N
D
Similarly in P-type semiconductor, N
D
= 0. Hence
p = n + N
A
But p >> n. Hence p N
A
Now, n = n
i
2
/p = n
i
2
/ N
A
Note: If N
D
= N
A
then, semiconductor behaves like intrinsic
If N
D
> N
A
then semiconductor is N-type
If N
A
> N
D
then semiconductor is P-type
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
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Conduction in Extrinsic Semiconductors
A bar of silicon with intrinsic concentration of 1.5 10
16
m
3
is doped until the hole density becomes 8.5 10
21
m
3
. The
mobilities of free electrons and holes are 0.13 and 0.05 m
2
/Vs
respectively. Determine free electron concentration and
electrical conductivity. (Ans: 2.65 10
10
m
3
, 68 S/m)
How many free electrons are present in a bar of extrinsic
germanium measuring 5mm50mm2mm, if the extrinsic hole
density is 7.8510
14
m
3
, given that intrinsic concentration is
2.510
19
m
-3
? (Ans: 3.9810
17
electrons)
Determine the concentrations of free electrons and holes in p-
type Ge at 300 K, if conductivity is 100 S/cm. (Ans: ?)
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Conduction in Extrinsic Semiconductors
What is the current density in an extrinsic silicon whose hole
density is 4.510
18
m
3
when an electric field of 8 kV/m is
applied. Given that for silicon, n
i
= 1.510
16
m
3
,
n
and
p
are
0.13 and 0.05 m
2
/Vs respectively. (Ans: 288 A/m
2
?)
For a pure silicon sample, indium is added at the rate of 1 atom
per 210
8
silicon atoms. Find the nature of the material and
charge carrier concentration given that n
i
= 1.510
16
m
3
,
concentration of Si atoms in the crystal is 5.010
28
m
3
.
(a) Find the conductivity of pure germanium at 300K.
(b) If donor impurity is added at the rate of 1 per 10
7
Ge
atoms, then find the conductivity.
(c) If acceptor impurity is added at the rate of 1 per 10
7
Ge
atoms, then find the conductivity. (Ans: 2.24, 267.52, 126.72 S/m)
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Drift and Diffusion currents
Drift current
Motion of charge carriers due to applied electric field
Free electrons move towards positive potential
Holes move towards negative potential
Conduction so far discussed is due to drift mechanism
Drift current densities given by:
Electron drift current density
Hole drift current density
E nq J
n n
=
E pq J
n p
=
17
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Drift and Diffusion currents
Diffusion current
Results due to flow of charge
carriers from the region of
higher concentration to the
region of lower concentration
Suppose that hole-
concentration varies with
distance x, then concentration
gradient is dp/dx
If dp/dx is negative, then it
results in a current in positive x
direction
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Drift and Diffusion currents
Hole diffusion current density is:
Electron diffusion current density is:
D
p
and D
n
are diffusion constants
Diffusion constants are related to mobilities
V
T
is volt-equivalent of temperature
T is temperature in kelvin
dx
dp
qD J
p p
=
dx
dn
nD J
n n
=
T p p
V D =
T n n
V D =
11600
~
T
q
T k
V
T
=
18
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Drift and Diffusion currents
So, total current density is the sum of drift current density and
diffusion current density
Overall total current density due to both holes and free
electrons is:
dx
dp
qD E pq J
p p p
=
dx
dn
qD E nq J
n n n
+ =
dx
dp
qD E pq J
p p p
=
dx
dn
qD E nq J
n n n
+ =
n p
J J J + =
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End of module 1
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Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal, INDIA