Unit 1

Ideas
tio n
Coo pe ra
for
Pea ce

Chapter 1: Politics

tio n
Coo pe ra
for
en t
Dev elo pm

tio n
Coo pe ra
for
Sec ur ity

Preview...
1. What does the word
politics mean to
you?
2. Look at the pictures.
Which ones best
represent 'politics' to
you? Why?
3. Explain you choice
to a partner.

1.1

What Is Politics?

There are many different ideas about what politics is. At the most
basic level, politics is about how people make decisions in a
community. According to one thinker, politics is about who gets
what, when and how. But people disagree about the reasons and
ways that people make these decisions. Read the three ideas of
politics below and answer the questions.

Preview...
What is the relationship
between conflict and
politics?

1.1.1 - Politics as Conflict

This definition of politics says that there will always be conflict
when people have to make decisions about, who gets what, when
and how. In larger communities it is not possible for everyone
to take part in every decision. Instead, communities make rules
about who gets what, when and how that apply to every member
of the community. This means that political conflict in larger
communities is often related to making, changing or breaking rules.
Some of the most important areas of conflicts in a community
include:
C onflict ov e r R e s o u rc e s : because of scarcity, different
groups will say that they should get a bigger share of the
communitys resources. These resources might be physical like
money, land or goods, or non-physical such as respect, freedom
or safety.
C onflict ov e r O p p o r t u n i t i e s : having access to education,
employment or the ability to make decisions are areas over
which members of a community might be in conflict with each
other.

Politics - Students Book

Chapter 1
C onfli ct over I deas : diversity of beliefs about what is right or
wrong can lead to conflict in a society, different political views,
religious beliefs or values can also be a source of conflict in a
society.
Look at the timeline of events on page X and put some of the
conflicts into the right place in the Venn diagram.

Exercise

Conflict
over
Resources

Conflict
over
Opportunities

Conflict
over
Ideas

1.1.2 - Politics as Cooperation

Different opinions, different wants, competing needs and opposing
interests mean that people will disagree about the rules of a
community. On the other hand, people understand that in order to
change these rules or make sure that they are enforced, they have
to work with others. Some other important reasons for cooperation
in a community are:
P eace : In order for a community to be safe and peaceful.
Individuals and groups need to have a way of resolving conflict.
If conflict leads to violence, then the security of the whole
community is in danger. This means that politics is a way of
avoiding violent conflict.
D evelopment : Cooperation is necessary because people can
accomplish goals and solve problems by working together action
they could not achieve alone. Important examples
include the social and economic infrastructuresuch
as roads and waterways, or a reliable currency.
S ec urity : Individuals and groups would not be
safe without the forces organized for public security
provided by cooperation. Collective defence against
aggression from outside the political community (i.e.
a military) is one example. Another is defence against
aggression or exploitation from criminals (i.e. a police
force).

Politics - Students Book

Preview...
What is the role of
cooperation in politics?

Exercise
What is this cartoon
suggesting about
cooperation?

Unit 1

Ideas

Exercise
Look at the timeline of
events on page XX and
put some of the events
into the right place in the
Venn diagram.

Cooperation
for
Peace

Cooperation
for
Development

Preview...
What is the relationship
between justice and
politics?

Cooperation
for
Security

1.1.3 - Politics and the Search

for Justice

Instead of people seeing politics as either unavoidable competition

or a necessary cooperation, some people believe that politics
is about making a just community. This view sees politics as
being related to justice - with treating everyone as they deserve
according to that communitys idea of justice. Justice can be seen
in many ways, it can be related to:Some of the most important
areas of conflicts in a community include:
What people get (how resources and opportunities are
distributed);
What they are allowed, and not allowed to do (rights and
responsibilities);
What should happen to people if they disturb or damage the
community (rules and laws)?

Exercise
Look at the cartoon.
How does this relate to
the idea of politics as a
search for justice?

Equality doesn't mean Justice

Equality

Justice

Politics - Students Book

Chapter 1

Activity
After you read 1.1.3:
Choose one of these
questions and try and
think of a real life
example to illustrate that
issue.

Discussion

Preview...
What different kinds of
rights are there?

According to this view, communities make rules to make sure that

all members of a society are treated fairly and justly. However,
because peoples beliefs about what justice is are not always the
same, this view of politics raises some difficult questions. Some of
these questions include:
Does justice mean treating everyone exactly the same?
Is it ok to use unjust methods to achieve a just situation?
Is it ok to treat a small number of the community unjustly so
that a larger group are treated justly?

1. Which of these three views do you agree with most? Why?

2. Do you agree that political conflict is unavoidable in every
society?
3. Do you think that a diverse community can agree on one
idea of justice? What kind of political problems can this
cause? Try and think of a real life example to illustrate that
issue.

1.2

Important and
Controversial Ideas in
Politics
There are some very important concepts that different people will
value more, less, or differently. Three of the most important ones
are rights, liberty and equality.

1.2.1 - Rights
Rights are a very important idea in politics. To understand
different ideologies it is important to look at the different kinds of
rights that they talk about. There are three kinds of rights that are
important in politics: civil and political rights, social, economic
and cultural rights, and solidarity rights.

A. Civil and Political Rights (first

generation rights)
Civil and political rights guarantee that each person has the same
rights to take part in the politics of their community. This means
that they have the right to elect, and be elected to political office
and also that they are free from political discrimination. People
started talking about these rights during the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries. They claim that there are things that the
rulers should not be allowed to do and that people should take
part in making the political decisions that affected them.

Politics - Students Book

Unit 1

Ideas
Civil and political rights are based on the ideas of personal liberty,
and natural (human) rights. Civil and political rights include
rights such as the right to participate in government, the right to
form or join political organisations and the right to freedom of
speech.

B. Social, Economic and Cultural Rights

(second generation rights)

Occupy is an international
protest movement. It argues
that 1% of the people in the
world control most of the
wealth and power. It wants
a fairer share of the world's
wealth for "the 99%" of
poorer people in the world.
These images are from an
Occupy protest in Malaysia.

These rights are related to how people live, work and the basic
necessities of life. People started talking about them during the
start of industrialisation and the rise of a working class. At that
time, some claimed that human dignity required more than just
civil and political rights. They claimed that people had rights to
certain social and economic conditions such as adequate housing,
education and employment.
Social, economic and cultural rights try to guarantee access to
goods, services, and opportunities in order to achieve social and
economic equality. Social rights include the right to education,
health care, an adequate standard of living and housing. Economic
rights include the right to work and the right to a pension if you
are old or disabled.

C. Solidarity Rights (third generation

rights)
Solidarity rights have partly come about as a response to changing
ideas about human dignity, and partly as a result of new threats
and opportunities emerging. The idea at the basis of the third
generation of rights is that of solidarity; and the rights embrace
collective rights of society or peoples, such as the right to
sustainable development, to peace or to a healthy environment.

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Chapter 1

Focus on Myanmar
Rights in Myanmar
Myanmar does not have a Bill of Rights. Instead, there is a chapter in the constitution which
describes the rights of citizens in Myanmar. These rights include:
1. non-discrimination (based on race, birth,
religion, status, official culture, sex and
wealth)
2. equal opportunity (in public employment,
occupation, trade, business etc)
3. equality before the law
4. equal rights for mothers, children and
pregnant women
5. non-discrimination in the civil service
(except for positions that are suitable for
men only)
6. right to life and personal freedom (except
in a accord with existing laws)

12. freedom of conscience and religion

(subject to public order, morality, health
and not extending to secular activities
associated with religious practice; the
abuse of religion for political purposes is
forbidden)
13. the right to education and to receive free
compulsory basic education
14. the right to health care (in accord with
health policy laid down by the Union)
15. the right to elect and be elected to Hluttaws
(subject to Constitution and relevant laws)
16. the right to freely conduct business; the
right to private invention and patent

7. freedom of expression, assembly and

17. the right of an accused to a defense
association (if not contrary to laws enacted
for Union security community peace and 18. prohibition on any person being held in
custody for more than 24 hours without
tranquility or public order and morality)
permission of a Court (except
8. protection of property (according to the
precautionary measures taken for the
law)
security of the Union or prevalence of law
9. privacy and security of home, property,
and order)
correspondence and other communication
19. the right to seek protection of the Union in
(subject to provisions of this constitution)
relations with foreign countries
10. prohibition on enslaving and trafficking in
20. the right redress by due process of law
persons
(except in time of foreign invasion,
11. prohibition on forced labour (except hard
insurrection or emergency)
labour for convicts and public-interest
21. equality of salary and rights at work for
duties)
women and men

Civil, political

Social, economic, cultural

Exercise
Put the rights into the
correct column in the
table:

Politics - Students Book

11

Unit 1

Ideas

Reflection

12

1. In pairs, make a rights pyramid that ranks these in

importance.
2. Join with another pair. As a group, make a values
pyramid you all agree on.
3. Join with another group and make a values pyramid.
Continue joining groups and making pyramids until there
is only one (class) group. Make a values pyramid that
the whole class agrees on.
4. What does your class pyramid tell you about the values
of the class?
5. What difficulties did you experience in this exercise?
6. How did you overcome them?

Politics - Students Book

Chapter 1

1.2.2 - Equality
Political equality means that everyone has the same amount
of political power in society. This is seen in the democratic idea
that every person gets one vote, and only one vote, and that
everyone has the same right to run for office (try to be chosen
for a position in the government). However there is a lot of
disagreement about what exactly political equality really means.

A. Equality of Opportunity
Equality of opportunity means that everyone has the
same political opportunities. Everyone has the same
opportunity to say what they think, everyone has the
same opportunity to vote, and everyone has the same
opportunity to run for office.
However, saying that a very rich, well-educated person
and a very poor, uneducated person are politically
equal might be true when we talk about voting, but not
always true when we talk about running for office. This
is because the resources and opportunities that the rich
person has are much greater than the poor person. For
example, they are more likely to be successfully elected
because of their resources (money for posters and
speeches etc.) and opportunities (powerful friends, good
education etc.).

B. Equality of Outcome
This problem highlights why the idea of equality is so
problematic in politics. Some people believe that as
long as laws affect people in the same way, then they
are equal. Others disagree by saying that if social and
economic conditions are ignored, then there is no way of
achieving equality with civil and political rights alone.

Preview...
What different kinds of
rights are there?

Exercise
After you read 1.2.2.A:
What kind of equality are
most civil and political
rights trying to achieve?

Exercise
What is this cartoon
suggesting about justice?

Equality of outcome means that everyone has the

same opportunities and the same resources. Supporters
of Equality of outcome say that the government
has a responsibility to give people the resources and
opportunities (money, houses, education, jobs etc.) that
people need to make use of the opportunities they are
legally given.

What kind of equality are most social, economic and cultural

rights trying to achieve?

Politics - Students Book

Exercise

13

Unit 1

Ideas

1.2.3 - Liberty

Preview...

Liberty (or freedom) means that people can do what ever they
want without anyone else stopping them from doing it. It involves
concepts such as free speech, free assembly, freedom of religion,
and other civil liberties. Some even say that liberty is only based
on the fact that equality of opportunity is legally guaranteed. They
argue that when governments force the people to pay taxes, send
their children to government schools, or do military services that
violates their liberty.

What does the word

"freedom" mean to
you?

However, not everyone agrees with this idea of liberty. They say
that without a job, money or an education (equality of outcome)
people will be very limited in what they are able to do, and so
they are not free. They claim not everyone is equally free in
societies where there is a big difference between the lives of rich
and poor people.

Exercise

80%
70%

Look at the chart and

answer the following
questions.

60%
50%

1. Is equality or liberty
more popular in the
US?
2. Is equality or liberty
more popular in
Spain?
3. How do you think
people would respond
to these questions in
your country?

Exercise

40%

Americans
Spanish

30%
20%
10%
0%
The state should make sure that nobody is in It is most important for people be free to
need above all else
pursue their lifes goals without interference
from the state

Source : http://www.pewglobal.org/2011/11/17/the-american-western-european-valuesgap/?src=prc-number

Read the text and answer the questions.

THE REVOLUTIONARY COUNCIL OF THE UNION OF BURMA believes

that man will not be free from social evils as long as there are
destructive economic systems in the world. In these systems,
man exploits man. The Council believes that only a socialist
economy based on justice can free all people from all worries
over food, clothing and shelter... Only then can we reach a
stage of social development where all people are happy and
healthy in mind and body.

- HSOB D62

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Chapter 1
1. What kind of equality is discussed in the text?
2. According to the text, what is necessary to achieve
liberty?
3. What is the relationship between equality and justice in
the text?
4. Do you agree with the ideas in the text? Why?
Is there a conflict between equality and liberty?

Discussion

Ideas in Action
Discrimination and Affirmative Action
Discrimination means that some groups of people are treated less favourably than other people
are in a similar situation. People may be discriminated against because of their age, disability,
ethnicity, origin, political belief, race, religion, sex or gender, sexual orientation, language,
culture and on many other grounds.
In countries where people have been discriminated against in the past, attempts have been
made to promote equality by using "affirmative action". Affirmative action means making rules
or policies that favour those groups who have been (or still are) discriminated against.
Affirmative action takes place most often in employment or education, but can also be seen in
politics sometimes.
Supporters of affirmative action
programmes say that they are
necessary to overcome the effects
of past discrimination, and that only
strong action will bring about the
needed changes. They say that
communities that have been unfairly
treated for so long, need special
help to achieve the same equality
as dominant groups.
People who oppose affirmative
action say that it is another form of
unreasonable discrimination and
violates peoples liberty. They argue
that sex, colour, language or religion
should not be used as a basis for
choosing who gets opportunities in
society. They say that if everybody
gets equal opportunity, affirmative
action is not needed.

Politics - Students Book

A picture from a campaign in India, raising awareness of the

inequality between men and women in Indian society.
Source : Think Equal/World Bank.

15

Unit 1

Ideas

CASE STUDY

Malaysia
Despite the fact that Malaysian politics is dominated by the
Malay ethnic group, Chinese and Indian communities in
Malaysia have historically been wealthier and more economically
successful than the Malay population. This has causes intercommunal tension and even lead to race riots in 1969.

Former Malay president,

Mohamad Mahathir

After these riots the president of Malaysia Dr. Mahathir

Mohamad, said "After the race riots, the government quickly
recognized that closing the gap between the Malays and other
ethnic groups would be essential for the long-term stability and
prosperity of the country."
In order to address this problem, the Malaysian government
started the New Economic Policy (NEP) that was designed
to increase the economic situation of Malays. Government
loan programs were established to offer credit to Malays and
educational opportunities for Malays were also greatly increased.
Some people complained that this was unfair since the benefits
have gone disproportionately to those who were already more
powerful. However, many people agree that the NEP has been
successful in limiting inter-communal conflict in Malaysia and
contributed to a peaceful and multicultural society.

CASE STUDY

Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, about 70% of the population is Sinhalese (92% of
whom were Buddhists and almost all speak Sinhalese) and 23%
were Tamil (about 86% of whom were Hindus and most of whom
spoke Tamil). At Independence in 1948, there had been no riots
or any other form of collective violence between Sinhalese and
Tamils for hundreds of years before Independence.

A tank belonging to the

"Tamil Tigers" resistance
movement

When Sri Lanka achieved its independence in 1948 positions

of power, wealth and prestige were largely in the hands of an
educated, English speaking (often Christian), elite, who were
both Sinhalese and Tamil.
In 1956, Bandaranaike was elected in a landslide victory. He
started a specific program of preferential treatment of the
Sinhala language which entailed preferential access of the
Sinhalese population to jobs and education.
In 1955, 26% of the members of the government were Tamils.
By 1979 this figure had been cut in half. Declining prospects
for education and employment now facing many Tamils led to
protests, communal violence and civil war.

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Chapter 1
1. Do you think it is fair that the Malaysian government
provides more opportunities to the political majority?
2. For each case of the case studies, do you think it is an
example of discrimination or affirmative action? Why?
Perceptions of Discrimination by Community in Sri Lanka, 2005
Ethnicity: Sinhala
Percentage who strongly disagree that
"everyone enjoys equal rights."
Percentage who strongly disagree that
"people are free to speak their mind
without fear."

9%

6%

Tamil
32%

25%

Source : SDSA 2005, CSDS, Delhi, Sri Lanka dataset; questions A-10, C-2ob.

Affirmative Action in South Africa

Exercise
Exercise
Look at the table and
answer the question.
What does this
table show you
about the levels
of equality
between these two
communities?

CASE STUDY

Until 1994, the Apartheid government favoured whites. The

Aprtheid government made laws that highly restricted the
blacks' employment opportunities. They also made laws that
limited the ability of blacks to own property and land.
One of the top ANC objectives adopted at their National
Conference in May 1992 was the question of addressing
inequality. This meant that employers were now compelled
by law to employ previously disenfranchised groups (blacks,
Indians, and Coloureds). The Employment Equity Act and the
Broad Based Black Economic Empowerment Act aim to promote
and achieve equality in the workplace by advancing people from
designated groups.
Under the apartheid system, blacks were allowed to own land
in only the 13 percent of the country allocated to the black
homelands. Between 1960 and in 1980, the white government
forcibly removed 3.5 million blacks to these squalid reservations.
Naturally, blacks want the stolen lands back, and the new
owners, who are white, want to keep it. The ANC promised
land reform by giving back land to blacks from whom it was
confiscated and the redistribution of land to those who have
none. At the same time, the bill of
rights in the constitution protects
private ownership of land and
guarantees just and equitable
compensation to any owner whose
land is expropriated.

Politics - Students Book

Nelson Mandela,
South Africa's first
black president

Exercise
Answer the questions.
1. What kind of conflict
is there in the ANC's
policy of redistributing
land and respecting
property rights?
2. Do you think this kind
of policy is just?
3. Do you think this kind
of policy increases or
decreases equality?

17

Unit 1

Ideas

Exercise

Discussion

In what ways is affirmative action in the three countries the

same? In what ways is it different?
An Indian worker on a plantation said the following about
affirmative action in Malaysia:
Just like the axe marks on the trees, the
Malaysian
government
inflicted
countless
wounds on the Indian minority by denying them
jobs, preventing them from getting education,
removing freedom of religious expression and most
importantly by stripping them of their dignity.

Is the workers view of affirmative action is correct or

incorrect? Why?

Activity

If I were president...
1. In groups, look at the items in the list and decide how
you would spend your budget of 1 million dollars.
2. Make a presentation to the class with your budget and
explain how you made these decisions. See if you can all
agree on one budget for the whole group.
3. What do these budgets tell you about your group's basic
ideas on politics discussed in this chapter?

National Budget, items:

- -We l f a r e ( s o c i a l w e l f a r e )
- -S e c u r i t y ( n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y )
- -J u s t i c e ( s o c i a l j u s t i c e )
- -S o c i a l h a r m o n y ( l a w a n d o r d e r )
- -H u m a n r i g h t s
- -P r o s p e r i t y ( d e v e l o p m e n t )

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Politics - Students Book