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TheArtofReadingLatin:HowtoTeachIt
WilliamGardnerHale,professorofLatininCornellUniversity
Boston:Ginn&Co.,1887
Preface
Themethodofteachinghereinadvocatedstarted,manyyearsago,fromadesiretoknowLatin
literature,andanimpatiencewiththeactualamountofreadingpowerattainedbyacollege
course.Attheoutsetthereexistedaconvictionthatthemodernmindcouldnotbeso
degenerateastobeincapableofreadingLatinastheRomansreadit,thatistosay,intheRoman
order,intheRomanmedium,andatarateofspeedwhichwouldnotbeintolerablyslowinthe
readingofamoderntongue.Thenatureoftheaimdictatedthemethodtobeemployed;and
theemploymentofthemethodprovedthesoundnessoftheoriginalconviction.
Thewriterhasforsomeyearsintendedtopublishanaccountofthismethod,asithasshaped
itselfinpracticalexperiencewithsuccessiveclasses.First,however,hedesiredtopresentitorally
beforeanumberofgatheringsofteachers.Asabeginning,accordingly,theaddresswiththe
pamphletopenswasreadbeforetheHolidayConferenceoftheAssociatedAcademicPrincipalsof
theStateofNewYork,heldinSyracuseinDecemberlast.Theinterestwithwhichthepaperwas
receivedwassokindly,andtherequeststhatitbepublishedwithoutfurtherdelaywereso
pressing,thatitseemedbestnottoholdtotheformerintention.
Thepamphlethasnottheformwhichwasfirstintended,namely,thatofplainexposition;forin
spiteoftheiterationofthepersonalpronoun,theformofdirectappealandexplanationnatural
toanaddressprovedtohaveitsadvantages.Ithasbeennecessary,however,toaddtothe
addressaconsiderablesupplement.
ThoughnoexplicitsuggestionswillbefoundinregardtotheteachingofGreek,thesubstanceof
themethodofcourseappliesaliketoeitherlanguage.
Iamunderadebttomanyofmystudentsofrecentyears,whosesupportofthemethod,though
itwastakenupbythemunderthesorenecessityofanentirerevolutionofconfirmedmental
habits,hassuppliedmewiththeconfidencethatcomesfromconcreteresults.ButIamunder
especialobligationstomysister,MissGertrudeElisabethHale,bothforsuggestionsmadeearlier
asaresultofherownexperience(thedevicementionedonpage13originated,sofarasmyown
casegoes,withher)andforasearchingcriticismoftheproofofthepresentpamphlet,fromthe
pointofviewofapreparatoryteacher.
ITHACA,APRIL18,1887.
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TheArtofReadingLatin:HowtoTeachIt.

AnAddressDeliveredBeforeTheAssociatedAcademicPrincipalsOfTheStateOfNewYork,December28,1886.

TheattackswhichhavebeenmadeoflateuponthestudyofGreekandtosomeextentuponthe
studyofLatinhavehadattheirbackstheconvictionthattheresultsobtainedareverymuchout
ofproportiontotheyearsoflaborspentupontheselanguagesbytheschoolboyandthecollege
student.Thedangerwhichthreatensclassicalstudytodayinthiscountryisdueinlargepartto
thefactthatthisconvictionisasoundone.Ifthecaseweredifferent,iftheaveragecollege
graduatewerereallyabletoreadordinaryGreekandLatinwithspeedandrelish,thewhole
matterwouldbeonaverydifferentfootingfromthatonwhichitnowlamelystands.
TolearntoreadGreekandLatinwithspeedandrelish,andthen,ifonestastesturntowards
literatureorartofanykind,toproceedtodoso;tocometoknowfamiliarlyandlovinglythat
greatfactorintherecordofthethinkingandfeelingofthehumanrace,theliteraturesofGreece
andRome,thatisanaimwhichweshouldallsetbeforeourstudents.But,speakinggenerally,
ourstudents,yoursandmine,donotcometolovethoseliteratures.Perhapstheytoleratethem,
perhapstheyrespectthem.Buttolovethemandtomakethemasubstantialpartofthe
intellectuallife,thatisathingwhichmanyastudent,fittedthereforbynaturaltasteandability,
failstoaccomplish,andneversomuchasknowshisloss.Thisseemstome,lookingatthelong
yearsofstudygiventoGreekandLatin,andthegreatemphasisputupontheminthe
requirementsforadmissiontoourcolleges,averysadbusiness.
Nowtheblameofitallmustbedividedamongthreeparties,theGreekandLatinlanguages
themselves,theteachersinthepreparatoryschools,andtheteachersintheuniversities.Thefirst
oftheseguiltypartiesareoutofourreach.Theyaredifficultlanguages;butdifficultlanguages
theymustremain.Thatleavesthepracticalwholeoftheresponsibilitytobedividedbetweenthe
teachersinthepreparatoryschoolsandtheteachersintheuniversities,or,totakeconcrete
examples,forthepurposeofourconference,betweenyouandme.
Whichofusisthemoretoblame,Iwillnotattempttosay.ButsomuchIwillsay,andfrommy
sureobservation:thattheinfluenceupontheformationofintellectualcharacterbytheteachers
whoprepareyoungmenforcollegeisnearlyineffaceable.Theboywhocomestocollegewitha
thinkinghabitiscapableoflearningtoreadLatin(forImustnowconfinemyselftothattopic,
thoughthewholesubstanceofwhatIhavetosayapplieswithequalforcetotheteachingof
Greek)witheaseandspeed;theboywhocomeswithoutthehabithasfaultsthatacollege
coursecanrarelycure.Thattheboyshouldbetaughttothinkbeforehecomestocollegeis,
then,fromthepointofviewofthestudyofLatin,theoneindispensablething.Thatitissofrom
everyotherpointofviewaswell,makesourcasesomuchthestronger.
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Butonethingmoreisalsoindispensablesoonerorlaterforahighsuccess(andthereisinLatin
butonesuccess),namely,thatthemethodwhichtheboyistaughttouseinhisthinkingbethe
rightone,theresultofthemostcarefulobservationofthepracticaldifficultiestobeovercome,
andthemostcarefulstudyofthebestwaysofovercomingthem.
Aswegroupthesedifficulties,placingthemintheorderinwhichtheywouldbefeltbya
beginner,wefindthemtobe:
1.Thevocabulary.
2.Thesystemofinflections.
3.Theelaborateuseofthissystemofinflectionstoexpressmeaning,inplaceofoursimpler
modernmethodsofusingprepositions,auxiliaries,andthelike:or,inasingleword,syntax.
Isupposethebeginnerwouldthinkthatthesethreedifficultiescoveredthewholeground,and
thatifhehadhisvocabularyandhisinflectionssecured,andunderstoodwhatiscalledsyntax,he
couldthenreadLatinwithgreatease.Buthewouldbeverywrong.Themostformidable
difficultyhasnotbeenmentioned.TheLatinsentenceisconstructeduponaplanentirely
differentfromthatoftheEnglishsentence.Untilthatplanisjustasfamiliartothestudentasthe
Englishplan,until,forpageafterpage,hetakesinideasasreadilyandnaturallyontheoneplan
asontheother,until,inshort,asinglesteadyreadingofthesentencecarrieshismindthrough
theverysamedevelopmentofthoughtthattookplaceinthemindofthewriter,hecannotread
Latinotherwisethanslowlyandpainfully.So,then,anabsolutelyessentialthingtoamanwho
wantstoreadLatinis:
4.AperfectworkingfamiliaritywiththeLatinwaysofconstructingsentences.
Nowweteachthefirstthreethingsmoreorlesseffectively,vocabulary,inflection,syntax.Do
weteachthelast?
Iturntothe"FirstLatinBooks,"inordertofindwhatissaidtostudentsatthatmostcritical
periodintheirstudyofthelanguage,thebeginning.IrememberwellhowIwastaughtat
PhillipsExeterAcademyofreveredmemorytoattackaLatinsentence."Firstfindyourverb,
andtranslateit,"saidmyteacher."Thenfindyoursubject,andtranslateit.Thenfindthe
modifiersofthesubject,thenthemodifiersoftheverb,"etc.,etc.Well,Ihadgotmorethanfour
yearsbeyondExeterbeforeIlearnedtoreadLatinwithanyfeelingbutthatitwasasingularly
circuitousandpervertedwayofexpressingideas,whichIcouldnotexpecttograspuntilIhad
reformedmyauthorssentencesandreducedthemtoEnglish.Sincemytime,however,better
waysmayhavecomeintovogue.SoIturntothebooksoftwoscholarlygentlemenofmy
acquaintance,practicalteachers,too,namely,Mr.Comstock,ofPhillipsAndoverAcademy,
andDr.Leighton,oftheBrooklynLatinSchool.Onpage233ofMr.Comstocks"FirstLatinBook,"
andpages211and212ofDr.Leightons"FirstStepsinLatin,"Ifinddistinctrules,essentiallythe
same,fortheoperationinquestion.Theformerbeginasfollows:

a.Ineverysimplesentence,findandtranslate
(1)Thesubject.
(2)Thepredicate.
Hereisanewdeparture,anentirerevolutionsincemyday.Iwastaughttofindfirstthe
predicate.Achangesoradical,amethodsoexactlytheoppositeoftheoldone,oughttoleadto
resultstheoppositeoftheold;namely,tothepowertoreadLatineasilyinsteadofwith
difficulty.So,withacheerfulheart,Itakeupasimplesentenceinthefourthorationagainst
Catiline,3.5,andtrymynewmethod.
Haecomniaindicesdetulerunt.Ilookformysubject.Fortunately,itliesrightathand.Itishaec,
nom.pl.NextItranslateit,these;or,sinceitisneuter,thesethings.ThenIproceedtofindthe
verb,which,againisobvious,viz.,detulerunt,in3dpersonpl.,agreeingwiththesubjecthaec.
PerhapsIhavecaughtfromsomewherethehappyideaofnotlookingwordsupinthedictionary
untilIhavetriedmyhandatthem.So,veryproperly,IsetoutwiththesimplestmeaningIcan
thinkof,viz.,brought.NowIamwellstarted:Thesethingsbrought.NextIlookforthemodifiers
ofthesubject,andfindomnia.Ibuilditon,andhavenow"allthesethings"formysubject,all
thesethingsbrought.NextIlookforthemodifiersofthepredicate,andIfindindices,witnesses,
acc.pl.,objectoftheverb.Everythingisstraight.Allthesethingsbroughtthewitnesses.Ipass
on,andwhenIcometotheclassroom,andtheteachercallsonme,Ireadout,Allthesethings
broughtthewitnesses,preparedtoparseittothelastword,onlytobetoldthatIamentirely
wrong.
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Now,aRomanboyofmyage,andmuchlesscleverthanI,ifhecouldhavesmuggledhimselfinto
thesenatethatday,wouldhaveunderstoodwhatthosefourwordsmeanttheinstantCicero
utteredthelastofthem,detulerunt.Whatisthedifferencebetweenus?Eachofus,heandI,
knewsubstantiallythemeaningofeachword,eachofuscouldinflect,eachofusknewallthe
syntaxrequired.YetImissedtheidea,whilehegotit.Whereindidhebeatme?Why,simply
here:I,followingthedirectionofmyteachers,firstfoundmysubject,andsettledonhaec.The
Romanboydidnotknowwhetherhaecwassubjectorobject.Heonlyknewitashaec.Iknew
thatdetuleruntwastheverb,andsodidhewhenitarrived.Iknewthatomniaagreedwiththe
subjecthaec,whileheonlysurmisedthatitbelongedwithhaec,whateverthatmightproveto
be.Iknewthatindiceswastheobject,whileheonlyfeltthatindiceswassubjectorobject,and
thatitwastheoppositeofhaecomnia(appositionbeingoutofthequestion),beingobjectifthat
shouldturnouttobesubject,andsubjectifthatshouldturnouttobeobject.Thenheheard
detulerunt,andwiththatwordeverythingdroppedintoplaceassimplyas,inMiltonssentence
following,

...themoon,whoseorb
ThroughopticglasstheTuscanartistviews,
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thelastwordresolvesourmomentarysuspenseinregardtotherelationoforbandartist;which
relationwouldhavebeenpreciselyreversed,hadwefoundsuchaword,e.g.,asglads.
Letustrythemethodfurther.Mr.Comstockgoeson(theitalicsareinpartmyown):
b.InaCompoundSentencetranslateeachprincipalclauseasthoughitwereaSimpleSentence.
IfthereareSubordinateClauses,translatethemintheorderoftheirimportance.ASubordinate
orDependentClauseisonewhich,justasinEnglish,limitssomepartofthePrincipalClause(as
describedin42,page12).AclauseintroducedbyaLatinwordmeaningif,who,which,because,
since,although,when,after,while,etc.,isDependent,andshouldbeleftuntilthemeaningofthe
PrincipalClausehasbeenobtained.
c.InaComplexSentence,firsttranslatethePrincipalClauseasaSimpleSentence;thentranslate
theDependentClausesaccordingtodirectionsgivenabove(b).
Butwhatistheorderoftheirimportance,andhowamItostart?Withtheconnective,I
presume.Wewillsupposeittobeut.ButhowshallItranslateit?Therearesomehalfdozenor
more"meanings":inorderto,sothat,when,as,considering,although.Whichdoesithavehere?
Icannottell.NomorecouldaRoman.Butthedifferenceis,thataRomandidnotwanttotell
whichoneofitsforcesuthadhere,butwaiteduntilsomethingintherestofthesentence,
perhapstwenty,perhapsfifty,wordsaway,informedhim;whileIambidden,sotospeak,totoss
upacent,andstartoffuponameaning,withtheoddsheavilyagainstme;possiblytofindmy
mistakeandgobackandcorrectit,moreprobablytoadderroronerrorinorderto"makesense,"
andsotogetthewholethingintoahopelessmuddle.
Now,allthisiswrong.Itisafrightfulsourceofconfusiontoprowlabouthereandthereinthe
sentenceinaselfblindedwaythatwouldseempathetictoaRoman,lookingatthingswithout
thesidelightsaffordedtohimbytheorder;and,further,itisafrightfulwasteoftime.Takea
sentencesuchasoftenoccurs,e.g.,theopeningofthethirdorationagainstCatiline,delivered
beforethepeople.Imagine,now,twoscenes:ontheonehandtheRomanForum,onDec.3,63
BC,withamassofmenandboyslisteningtoCiceroashetellsthestoryoftheentanglingofthe
conspiratorsremaininginRome;ontheother,amodernschoolroom,sayintheSyracuseHigh
School(thoughIhopeIamabouttoslanderDr.Bacon),Dec.3,1886AD.Intheformercase
Cicerohasthefloor,aswesay;inthelattercase,Dr.Baconsassistant,bookinhand,hispupils
beforehim.Bothaudienceswanttogetatthesamething,whatCicerohastosay.Inthefirst
scene,Ciceroproceeds:

Rempublicam,Quirites,vitamqueomniumvestrum,bona,fortunas,coniugesliberosque
vestros,atquehocdomiciliumclarissimiimperi,fortunatissimampulcherrimamqueurbem,
hodiernodiedeorumimmortaliumsummoergovosamore,laboribusconsiliispericulismeis,e
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flammaatqueferroacpaeneexfaucibusfatiereptametvobisconservatamacrestitutam
videtis.
Whenhehassaidthat,everysoulthathasheardhimknowspreciselywhathemeans.Now
changetotheSyracuseHighSchool.Theteachersays,"firstfindyoursubject."Sowerunon,
scentingoutasubject:
Rempublicam,Quirites,vitamqueomniumvestrum,bona,fortunas,coniugesliberosque
vestros,atquehocdomiciliumclarissimiimperi,fortunatissimampulcherrimamqueurbem,
hodiernodiedeorumimmortaliumsummoergovosamore,laboribusconsiliispericulismeis,e
flammaatqueferroacpaeneexfaucibusfatiereptametvobisconservatamacrestitutam
videtis.
Well,wearethroughwiththeentiresentence,andthereisnosubject!Ofcourse,then,itis
impliedintheverb,andthatisthe2dpersonpronoun,intheplural.Nextwefindourverb.That
is,asithappens,thelastword,videtis.Thenwegoback,dowe,andfindthemodifiersofthe
subject,andthenthemodifiersoftheverb?No,Isaytoallthat.Wehavealready,ifwehave
beenrightlybroughtup,understoodeverythinginthatsentencebythetimewereachthelast
syllableofit,withouthavingthoughtmeanwhileofasingleEnglishword;andweareasreadyin
1886togoonimmediatelywiththenextsentenceasweshouldhavebeenifwehadbeenRomans
intheRomanForumonthatdayin63BC.Or,toputitanotherway,theboywho,reachingthat
orationinthecourseofhispreparationforcollege,cannotunderstandthatparticularsentence,
andagreatmanymuchmoredifficultsentencesintheoration,fromreadingitstraightthrough
onceintheLatin,nay,frommerelyhearinghisteacherreaditstraightthroughonceintheLatin,
hasbeenwronglytrained,iswastingtimesadly,outofahumanlifealltooshort,and,sofarfrom
beingonthedirectwaytoreadLatinwithspeedandrelish,andthentoproceedtodoso,ison
thedirectwaytodropitjustassoonastheelectivesystemofhisparticularcollegewillallow,
and,ifhecaresforliterature,togointosomelanguageinwhichitisnotnecessary,firsttofind
thesubject,andthenthepredicate,andthenthemodifiersofthesubject,andthenthemodifiers
ofthepredicate,andthentodothesamethingforthesubordinatesentence,or,ifthereare
severalsubordinatesentences,todothesamethingforeachoneofthemintheorderoftheir
importance,andthentoputthesetatteredbitstogetherintoapatchwork.
Now,itwillnotdotosaythatstudents,bybeginninginthisway,get,quiteearly,beyondthe
needofit.Atanyrate,Icantestify,frommyownexperience,that,inspiteoftheadmirable
effortsoftheschoolsin"sightreading,"theydonot,whentheycometoHarvardorCornell.I
allowmyselfinmyclassroomkeepingwellinsideofwhatissaidtobecustomaryamongcollege
professorsonejestayear.WhenIfirstmeetthenewFreshmanclass(forIcouldnotbearto
leavesuchpreciousmaterialwhollytothemostperfectassistant),Iquestionthem:"Suppose,
now,youareset,asyouwereattheexaminationforadmissiontheotherday,totellmethe
meaningofasentenceinabookyouneversay,sayanorationofCicero,howdoyouproceed
togetatthewritersmeaning?"Thereisatonceachorusofvoices(fortheyarecrammedfor
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thatquestion,havinglearnedprinteddirections,aswehaveseen,inthefirstbookstheystudied),
"FirstfindtheSUBJECT,"threequartersofthemsay;"PREDICATE,"theotherquarter."Now
here,"Isaytothem,"isanunhappydifferenceofopinionaboutfirstprinciplesinamatterof
everydaypractice,andofveryseriousimportance.Whichisright?"Theydonotknow."Which
doyousupposetheRomanswhoheardtheorationdeliveredintheForumfirsthuntedup,the
subjectorthepredicate?"Thatlittlejest,simpleasitis,alwaysmeetswithgreatsuccess;forit
notonlyraisesalaugh(ofnovalueinitself),butitshowsatonce,eventoaFreshman,theentire
absurdityoftryingtoreadLatinbyahuntingupfirstofeitherhissubjectorhispredicate;andso
enlistshissympathyinfavoroftryingsomeotherway,ifanycanbeshownhim.But,atthesame
time,itprovestomethatthemethodtaughtatthemostcriticalofallperiods,thebeginning,is
stillwrong.Onlyinlateyears,andveryrarely,doessomestudentanswermyquestionwith:
"FirstreadthefirstLatinwordwithouttranslatingit,thenthesecond,thenthethird,andsoonto
theend,takinginallthepossibleconstructionsofeveryword,whilebarringoutatoncethe
impossible,and,aboveall,erring,ifanywhere,inthedirectionofkeepingthemindinsuspense
unnecessarilylong,waiting,atleast,untilasuresolutionhasbeengivenbythesentenceitself."
Yetthisistheonemethodthatshouldeverywhereberigorouslyused,fromthedayofthefirst
lessontothelastpieceofLatinthatthecollegegraduatereadstosolacehisoldage.Only,the
processwhichatfirstisateverypointconsciousandslow,asitwasnotwiththeRomans,
becomes,inLatinofordinarydifficulty,aprocesswhollyunconsciousandveryrapid,preciselyasit
waswiththeRomans.JustwhentheprocesswouldbecomeeasyforordinarilysimpleLatin,ifthe
trainingwererightfromthebeginning,Icannotsay.Inmyownexperiencewithcollegestudents,
allwhosehabitshavetobechanged,Ifindastrikingdifferencetobeproducedinasingleterm.
Andattheendoftwoyears,whentheelectiveworkbegins,Inowfinditentirelypracticablefor
theclasstodevoteitselftothestudyoftheLatinliteratureintheLatinalone,havingnothingto
dowithversionintoEnglishexceptattheexaminations;andIneverhadsogoodandsospirited
translation,whetheratsightoronthereadingoftheterm,aslastweek,when,forthefirsttime,I
heldsuchanexaminationattheendofatermspentwithouttranslation.
Tobringthematterintoadefiniteandpracticalshape,Icanbestindicatewhatitseemstome
yououghttodirectyourteachersofLatintodo,mutatismutandis,bytellingyouwhatImyselfdo
fromthetimewhenIfirstmeetmyFreshmentotheendoftheSophomoreyear.
AftermylittlejestabouttheRomanshuntingupfirstthesubjectandthenthepredicateasCicero
talkedtothem,orfirstthepredicateandthenthesubject,whicheveronethinkstheRoman
methodmayhavebeen,Iassurethemthat"whatwehavetodoistolearntounderstanda
RomansentencepreciselyasaRomanunderstooditashehearditorreadit,sayinanoration,for
example.NowtheRomanheard,orread,firstthefirstword,thenthesecond,thenthethird,and
soon,throughsentenceaftersentence,totheendoftheoration,withnoturningback,withno
huntingaround.Andindoingthishewassoguidedallthetime,byindicationsofonekindor
anotherinsomewaystrownthrougheachsentence,that,whenthelastwordofthatsentence
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hadbeenspokenorread,thewholeofthemeaninghadreachedhismind.Theprocessof
detectingtheseindicationsofmeaningwastohimawhollyunconsciousone.Wemoderns,
however,ofcoursecannotbeginsofaralong.Whatwearetoreachfinallyispreciselythis
unconsciousnessofprocesses;butweshallbeobliged,forthefirstfewyears,explicitlytostudy
theindications,untilwecometoknowthemfamiliarly,oneafteranother.Wemustforsome
timethinkout,ateverypoint,asthesentenceprogresses(andthatwithouteverallowing
ourselvestolookahead),allthoseconveyingsofmeaning,betheychoiceofword,orchoiceof
order,orchoiceofcase,orchoiceofmode,orchoiceoftense,orwhatsoeverelsewhichatthat
pointsufficedfortheRomanmind.Andwhentheseindicationswhichafterallarenotsomany
innumberhavecometobesofamiliartousthatmostofthemarereadytoflashbeforethe
mindwithoutourdeliberatelysummoningthem,weshallbeverynearthepointatwhich,inLatin
gradedtoourgrowingpowers,weshallinterpretindicationsunconsciously.Andthemomentwe
dothat,weshallbereadingLatinbytheRomansownmethod."
Itakeupnowallbooksbeingclosedasentenceofverysimplestructure,ofwhicheveryword
andeveryconstructionarefamiliar,sayacertainpassageinLivy
2
.Itellthestoryofthecontext:
Twoassassinshavegotadmission,onthepretextofaquarreltobedecided,intothepresenceof
Tarquin.Oneofthemdivertstheattentionofthekingbytellinghistale,andtheotherbrings
downanaxeuponthekingshead;whereupontheybothrushforthedoor.
InorderthattheinterpretationshallbedoneabsolutelyintheorderinwhichaRomanwoulddo
it,withoutlookingahead,Iwriteonewordatatimeupontheboard(asIwillagaindouponthe
boardbeforeyou),andaskquestionsasIgo,asfollows:
3

Tarquinium."WhatdidLivymeanbyputtingthatwordatthebeginningofthesentence?"That
thepersonmentionedinitisatthispointofconspicuousimportance."WhereisTarquinium
made?"Intheaccusativesingular."Whatdoesthatfactmeantoyourminds?"
Heremostofthemaresomewhatdazed,notbeingusedtothatwordmeaning,theveryword
thatoughtconstantlytobeusedindealingwithsyntax,orsocalled"parsing."SoIveryprobably
havetosay,"Mayitmeanthedurationoftimeoftheactwithwhichitisconnected?"Theysay,
No.Iask,"Whynot?"Somebodysays,Becausethenameofapersoncannotindicatetime.Isay,
"Givemesomewordsthatmightindicatetime."Theygivemedies,noctes,aetatem,etc.ThenI
ask,"Mayitmeanextentofspace?"Theysay,No,givemesimilarreasonsfortheiranswer,and,
uponmyaskingforwordsthatmightindicateextentofspace,theygiveme,perhaps,mille
passuum,trespedes,etc.ThenIask,"Mayitindicatetheextentoftheactionoftheverb,the
degreetowhichtheactiongoes?"Theysay,No,forasimilarreason.ButwhenIaskforwords
thatmightmeanthedegreeoftheaction,theycommonlycannottellme,forthereasonthat,
strangetosay,thegrammarsdonotrecognizesuchausage;thoughsentenceslikehewalksa
greatdealeveryday(multumcottidieambulat)areevenmorecommonthansentenceslikehe
walksthreemileseveryday(cottidietriamiliapassuumambulat),andtheaccusativesmean
essentiallythesamethinginbothsentences.ThenIask,"Mayitmeanthatinrespecttowhich
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somethingissaid,asregardsTarquin,theaccusativeofspecification?"Toaquestionlikethat,
Iamsorrytosaythatagreatmanyalwaysansweryes,forstudentsgetveryvaguenotionsofthe
realusesoftheaccusativeofspecification.Somebody,however,maybeabletotellmethatthe
nameofapersonisneverusedintheaccusativeofspecification,andthatingeneraltheuseof
theaccusativeofspecification,inthedaysofCiceroandVirgil,wasmostlyconfinedtopoetry.
"Whatwordswereusedintheaccusativeofspecificationinprose?"HereInevergetananswer,
althoughthelistisdeterminate,short,andimportant.SoIhavetosay,"Imustaddtoyour
workingknowledgeausefulitem;writeinyournotebooksasfollows:partem,vicem,genuswith
omneorapronoun(quod,hoc,id),secuswithvirileormuliebre,hocandidwithaetatis,the
relativequodandtheinterrogativequid,areusedinLatinproseinallperiodsasaccusativesof
specification.Here,then,isabitofdefiniteinformationwhichmayenableyou,whenyoufirst
meetoneofthesewordsagain(youwilldosoquiteearlyinyourfirstbookofLivy),towalk
withoutstumblingthroughasentencewhereyouwouldotherwisetrip."ThenIgobackto
Tarquinium."Mayitbe,"Iask,"anaccusativeofexclamation?"Theysay,Possiblyso.Isay,
"possiblyyes,thoughinhistoricalnarrationyouwouldhardlyexpectsuchanexclamationfrom
thehistorian."NextIask,"Mayitbeacognateaccusative?"Tothattheyanswer,No;tellingme,
perhapswithsomehelp,thatthenameofapersoncannotbeinanysensearestatementofan
act,cannotmeananactivity."Well,then,whatdoesthisaccusativecasemean?"Bythistimea
goodmanyarereadytosay:Objectofaverb,orinappositionwiththeobject.ButIaskifone
thingmoreispossible,andsomeonesays:Subjectofaninfinitive."Yes,"Ianswer;"andone
thingmoreyet?"Predicateofaninfinitive,someonesuggests.
"Now,"Iask,"whathavewelearnedfromallthis?Giventhenameofapersonorpersonsinthe
accusativewithnopreposition,howmanyandwhatconstructionsarepossible?"Allareready
nowtoanswer,Objectofaverb,orsubjectorpredicateofaninfinitive."Good,"Isay."Keep
thosepossibilitiesalwaysfreshinyourmind,lettingthemflashthroughitthemomentyousee
suchaword;andthathavingbeendone,WAIT,andNEVERDECIDEwhichofthesepossible
meaningswasinthemindoftheRomanspeakerorwriteruntiltherestofthesentencehasmade
theanswertothatquestionperfectlyclear.Nowtellmewhatconstructionsarepossibleforan
accusativelikehiemem."Theyanswer,durationoftime,apposition,objectofverb,subjector
predicateofaninfinitive."Foranaccusativelikepedes?"Theyanswer,extentofspace,
apposition,objectofverb,orsubjectorpredicateofaninfinitive."Foranaccusativelike
multum?"Extentofaction,apposition,objectofverb,orsubjectorpredicateofaninfinitive."For
anaccusativelikevitam?"Cognateaccusative,apposition,objectofverb,orsubjectorpredicate
ofaninfinitive.NowIask,"Cananyonetellmewhatconstructionswemayexpectiftheverb
turnsouttobesomewordlikedoceoorcelo?"Theyallgivetheanswer,andtherewithIhave
alreadypassedinrapidreviewpracticallythewholematteroftheaccusativeconstructions;and,
whatismore,andthisisvital,Ihavedoneitfromaverypracticalstandpoint.Ihavenotasked
astudentto"parse"awordafterseeingitsfullconnectioninthesentence(anexercisewhichloses
fourfifthsofitsvirtuebythismisplacement),butIhavedemandedanticipatoryparsing,Ihave
putmyquestionsinsuchawaythatmystudentshavelearnedforallaccusativeswhat
10

instantaneoussuggestionsofthepossiblepartsawordisplayinginthesentencetheymayget,at
firstsightoftheword,fromtheverynatureoftheword.
ThenIpasson."WehaveourKingTarquinbeforeoureyes,asthepersononwhomtheinterest
ofthesentencecentres,andweknowthatheistheobjectofanaction,orthesubjector
predicateofaninfinitiveaction;or,possibly,inappositionwithsuchanobject,subject,or
predicate.Toproceed,thenextword,moribundum,iswhatandwheremade?"Adjective,nom.
sing.neut.,oracc.sing.masc.orneut.Dontsmileatallthis.Thehabitofgettingayoungstudent
tothinkallthesethingsout,evenwherehecouldnotgoastrayiftheywerenotaskedofhim,
savesmanyagettinglostindifficultplaces."Whatisprobableaboutmoribundum,aswehaveit
inthisparticularsentence?"ThatitbelongstoTarquinium."Right.Nowkeepthatpicturein
mind:Tarquiniummoribundum,theKing,breathinghislast,acteduponoracting.Nowforthe
nextword:Tarquiniummoribundumcum.Whatiscum?"Somesay,withperfectreadiness,
preposition,somesayconjunction.
4
"But,"Ianswer,"ifyouareusedtotherightspelling,you
knowwithaninstantsthoughtthatnoRomanthateverlivedcouldtellatthispointwhetherit
wasprepositionorconjunction.Inordertotell,youmustwaitforwhat?"Ablativeorverb,they
answer.Thenwegoon,"Tarquiniummoribundumcumqui.Whatdoesquiatoncetellusabout
cum?"Conjunction."Right.Whatdoweknownow,withalmostabsolutecertainty,about
Tarquinium?Whatpartofthesentencedoesitbelongto?"Here,Igrievetosay,achorusof
voicesalwaysanswers,Mainverb;for,insomemysteriousway,studentsarriveattheuniversities
withouthavinglearnedthattheRomansdelightedtotakeoutthemostimportantword,or
combinationofwords,fromasubordinateintroductorysentence,andputitattheverystart,
beforetheconnective,abitofinformationworthagreatdealforpracticalreading.Thathabit
ofexpressionInowtellthem,andthenask,"Givenasentencebeginningwithmorssi,whatdo
youknow?"Thatmorsisthesubjectorpredicateoftheverbintroducedbysi."Givenasentence
introducedbyHannibalivictoricumceteri?"ThatHannibalidependsonsomethinginthecum
sentence.
Nowwegobacktooursentence,andthewordqui."Whatpartofspeechisit?"Relative,they
say."Orwhatelse?"Iask.Interrogative."Whereisitmade?"Nom.sing.orplur.,masc."Ifitisa
relative,whereinthesentenceasawholedoesitsantecedentlie?"Theyshouldanswer,Inside
thecumclause.Thecumservesasthefirstoftwobracketstoincludethequiclause."If,onthe
otherhand,itisaninterrogative,whatkindofaquestionisaloneherepossible?"Indirect,andin
thesubjunctive,theyanswer."Inthatcase,whatkindofameaning,speakinggenerally,mustthe
verbintroducedbycumhave?"Itmustbeabletoimplyaskingofsomekind."Rightlysaid;
perhapswemayhavesuchasentenceas,WheneverybodyinquiredwhothesemenwereCum
quiessentomnesquaererent;orperhapsweshallfindthatquiisrelative.Thenextwordiscirca,
Tarquiniummoribundumcumquicirca.Whatpartofspeechisit?"Adverb."Whatthenmayit
do?"Itmaymodifyaverb,anadjective,oranotheradverb.
11

Weproceed:Tarquiniummoribundumcumquicircaerunt."What,now,aboutcirca?"It
modifieserant."Whatwasthenumberofqui?"Plural."Wasitrelativeorinterrogative?"
Relative."Howdoyouknow?"Becauseerantisnotsubjunctive."Right.Nowquicircaerantisas
goodasanounorapronoun,anindeclinablenounorpronoun,intheplural.Thinkofitinthat
way,aswegoon.Tarquiniummoribundumcumquicircaerantexcepissent.Idontasktoday
themeaningofthemodeofexcepissent,becausetheworldisinsomuchdoubtaboutthe
questionofthehistoryandforceofthecumconstructions.ButwhatwasLivysmeaningin
writingtheaccusativeTarquinium?"Objectofexcepissent."Yes,andwhatwasthesubjectof
excepissent?"Theantecedentofqui."Yes;or,lookingatthemattermoregenerally,thesubject
wasquicircaerant."
"Beforegoingon,whatpicturehavewebeforeus?Whathasthesentencethusfarsaid?This:
SeeTarquin,dying!Seethebystanders!Seethempickhimup!Ourcuriosityisstimulatedby
theveryorder.Thenextwordisillos,Tarquiniummoribundumcumquicircaerantexcepissent
...Whatdoesthepositionofillos,firstinthemainsentenceproper,tellus?"Thatthepeople
meantbyitareofspecialprominenceatthispoint."Whodoyousupposetheseillosare,these
moredistantpersons,thussetinemphaticbalanceagainstTarquinium,eachleadingitsclause?
Theassassins,thewholeclasssay."WhatdoweknowaboutLivysmeaningfromthecase?"
Nowtheyallanswerinfinechorusandcompleteness,Apposition,objectofmainverb,orsubject
orpredicateofaninfinitive.
Weproceed:Tarquiniummoribundumcumquicircaerantexcepssent,illosfugientes..."What
partofspeechisfugientes?"Participle."Whichone?"Presentactive."Thenyouseearunning
awaygoingonbeforeyoureyes.Whatgender?"Masc.orfem."Whatnumber?"Plural."Then
youseesometwoormoremenorwomenrunningaway.Whatcase?"Nom.oracc."Onthe
whole,doyoufeelsureyouknowthecase?"Yes;accusative."Belongingtowhat?"Illos.
"Why?"Becauseofcoursetheassassins,theillos,wouldrunaway."Yes,"Isay;"butitcannot
possiblymisleadyoutowaituntilthereisntashadowofadoubt.Wewillgoon:Tarquinium
moribundumcumquicircaerantexcepssent,illosfugienteslictores...Hereyouhaveanother
setofpeople,thekingsbodyguard.Inwhatcase?"Nom.oracc.plural."Which?"Theydonot
know."Well,then,canillosagreewithlictores,ifyouconsiderformsalone?"Yes."Inthatcase,
fugienteswouldhavetogowithilloslictores,wouldntit?"Yes."Butwouldthelictorsrun
away?"No."Wouldtheassassins?"Yes."Certainly.Thenfugientesdoesnotbelongwith
lictores,anddoesbelongwithillos;andillosseemstobe,justaswesuspectedatfirstsightofit,
theassassins.However,wemustaskourselvesonemorequestion,Isappositionpossible
betweenillosandlictores?"No;fortheyareverydifferentpeople."Isanyrelationofapredicate
possiblebetweenthem?Cantheonebethepredicateofaninfinitiveofwhichtheotheristhe
subject?"No;because,asbefore,theyareverydifferentpeople."Stillitispossiblethatlictoresis
accusative.Ifitis,itmaybeobject,inwhichcaseillosisnecessarilysubject,for,aswehaveseen,
theycannotbeinapposition;or,itmaybesubject,inwhichcase,forthesamereason,illosmust
beobject.Ineithercase,theymustbeindirectoppositiontoeachother,oneofthem(wedont
12

yetknowwhich)beingsubject,theother,object;while,iflictoresisnom.,youstillhavethesame
relation,onlyyouknowwhichissubjectandwhichisobject.Inanyevent,youseetheyareset
overagainsteachother,togethermakingsubjectandobject.Nowkeeptheresultsofthis
reasoningreadyforthecountlesscasesinwhichsuchcombinationsoccur.Giventwonounslike
bellumSaguntum:whataretheconstructions?"Oneisthesubjectofaverb,andtheotherthe
object,andwecantyettellwhich."Right.NowIwillgiveyouastillmoreinvolvedcombination,
butofaverycommonlyoccurringkind,quaenosmateriem.Whatdoyoumakeoutofthat?"
Somecleverboywillsay,Nosmustbethesubjectofaverb,eitherfiniteorinfinitive,andquaeand
materiemareobjectandpredicateobject."Good.Thenwhatkindofmeaningdoestheverb
probablyhave?"Oneofcalling."Right.ThewordsarefromLucretius,andtheverbheusedwas
vocamus.Treasureupthatcombinationandthemeaningofit."
"Nowwegobacktotheassassinswhoarerunningaway,andthekingsbodyguard.Iwillinform
youthatthereisjustonemorewordinthesentence.Whatpartofspeechisit?"Verb."Active
orpassive?"Active."Right.Whatdoesittell?"Tellswhatthelictorsdototheassassins."What
mode,then?"Indicative."Whattwotensesarepossible?"Theperfectandthehistoricalpresent.
"Right.Nowthesituationisaprettydramaticone.Whichofthesetwotensesshouldyou
accordinglychoose,ifyouwerewritingthestory?"Thepresent."SodidLivy.Nowtellmewhat
youthinktheverbis."Interficiunt,somebodysays.Capiunt,saysanother,hittingtheideabutnot
therightword,whichiscomprehendunt,getholdofthemwell,nabem;or,asourtamer
Englishphrasemightputit,securethem.
"NowletusrenderintoEnglishthesentenceasawhole,translatingnotmerelyLivyswords,but
theactualdevelopmentofthethoughtinhismind.Tarquinium,theresTarquin;moribundum,
hesadyingman;cumquicircaerant,youseethebystandersabouttodosomething;
excepissent,theyhavecaughtandsupportedtheking;illos,youturnandlookattheassassins;
fugientes,theyareoffontherun;lictores,therearethekingsbodyguard;weholdourbreathin
suspense;comprehendunt,THEYVEGOTEM!So,then,thatLatinorder,whichlooksso
pervertedtoonewhoistrainedtopickthesentencetopiecesandthenpatchittogetheragain,
givesustheverysuccessioninwhichonewouldseetheactualevents;weavesalltheoccurrences
togetherintoacompactwhole,yetkeepingeverywherethenaturalorder;whileanyorderthat
wemaybeabletoinventforacorrespondingsinglesentenceinEnglishwilltwistandwarpthe
naturalorderintoashapethatwouldgreatlyastonishaRoman."
"Finally,withtheunderstandingandsenseofthedramaticinthesituation,whichwehavegotby
workingthesentenceoutasLivywroteit,comparetheperversionofit,whichwegetbyworking
itoutcorrectlyonthefirstfindyoursubjectofthemainsentenceandthenyourpredicate,etc.,
method:thelictorssecuretheassassinsastheyrunaway,whenthosewhowerestandingby
hadcaughtandsupportedthedyingTarquin.Thefactsareallthere,butthestyle,thesoul,is
gone."
13

ThenIatoncebringwhatwehavelearnedtobearbygivingapieceofblankpapertoeach
studentandstartingoutuponanewsentence,whichshallinvolvewhatwehavejustseen,
togetherwithsomefreshmatter.Thequestionsarecarefullystudiedandwrittenoutinadvance,
andtheplaceofeachisindicatedtome,inmypreparedmanuscript,byanumberattachedtothe
Latinwordconcerned,asifforafootnote.Aseachquestionisput,thenumberisatoncewritten
downbyeachstudentandhisanswerwrittenout.Afterwardsmyassistantcarefullygoesthrough
everypaper,andwithacoloredpapermarkseveryerror,formyownguidance,andforthe
subsequentstudy,penitence,andprofitofthewriter.Thefollowingisanexampleactuallyused,
fromLivy21.53.Theanswerthatshouldbewrittenisgivenwitheachquestion.
Hannibal
1
cum
2
quid
3456789
optimum
101112
foret
13
hosti
14
cerneret,
1516
vix
17
ullamspem
1819

habebat
20
temere
2122
atque
2324

25

26
consules
2728293031
.
32

1.Construction?
Subjectofaverb,eithersubordinateormain.
2.Partofspeech?
Prepositionorconjunction.
3.Cumwaswhatpartofspeech?
Conjunction.
4.ConstructionofHannibal?
Subjectorpredicatenominativeofverbintroducedbycum.
5.Quidiswhatpartofspeech?
Interrogative.
6.Constructionoftheverbtowhichquidbelongs?
Subjunctiveofindirectquestion.
7.Generalnatureofmeaningofverbintroducedbycum?
Somemeaningthatcanimplyaquestion.
8.Caseofquid?
Nom.oracc.neut.sing.
9.Constructionofquid?
Subject,predicate,orobjectoffiniteverborinfinitive;oracc.ofspecification,thesocalled
adverb.
10.Case?
Nom.neut.sing.,oracc.masc.orneut.sing.
11.Construction?
Ifneut.,agreeingwithsubjectorobjectofverb,orinpredicate.Ifmasc.,agreeingwithobjector
verb,orwithsubjectorpredicateofaninfinitive.
12.Whatconstructionsmayfollowtocompletethemeaningofoptimum?
Dat.ofthepersonforwhomsomethingisoptimum,orabl.ofthatwithrespecttowhich
somethingisoptimum.(Itisworthwhiletohavethosetwopossibilitiespat,forthegreatclassof
wordsofwhichoptimumisaspecimen.)
14

13.Wheremade?
Imperfectsubjunctive.(Reasonalreadygivenunder6.)
14.Construction?
Dativeafteroptimum.(Reasongivenunder12.)
15.Wheremade,andintroducedbywhat?
Imperfectsubjunctive,introducedbycum.
16.ConstructionofHannibal?
Subjectofcerneret.
17.Vix,hardly,hasanegativefeeling.Insuchaconnection,whatwouldbethepronounmeaning
any,andwhattheadjective?(Probablynobodyknows.)
Quisquam,ullus.
18.Construction?
Acc.sing.,objectofverb,orsubjectorpredicateofinfinitive.
19.Spes,justasmuchasspero,indicatesamentalactivity,andweshallprobablyfindsomething
else,completingitsmeaning,theobjectofthespes.Whatwillbethecase(a)ifthecompleting
wordisanoun?
Objectivegenitive.
(b)ifthecompletingwordisaverb?
Objectivegenitiveofgerundorofgerundivewithnoun,orfutureinfinitive.
20.Subjectiswhat?
Apronoun,repeatingHannibal.
21.Partofspeech,andsimplestmeaning?
Adverb,meaningblindly.
22.Bearinginmindthat,intheordinaryRomanhabit,wordswereplacedinanticipationofthose
whichtheymodify,notafterthem,whatdoyoufeelabouttemere?
Thatitmodifiestheexpectedobjectofspem,which,consequently,isaverb.
23.Probablyintroduceswhat?
Anotheradverb,correspondingtotemere.
24.Writeanadverbtomeannotlookingahead.
Improvide.
25.Writenom.oracc.neut.sing.meaninganything(inoneword).
Quicquam.
26.Inwhatcaseisthatwordhere,andwithwhatverbisitconnected?
Acc.,connectedwithaverb,whichverbmustdependonspem.
27.Wheremade,withoutreferencetocontext?
Nom.oracc.plur.

28.Wheremade,withreferencetocontext?andhowdoyouknow?
Acc.,becausehabebatissing.
29.Meaningofthisaccusative?
15

Thatconsulesissubject,object,orpredicateofaninfinitive.
30.Relationofquicquamandconsulestoeachother?
Onetheobject,theotherthesubject,oftheinfinitive.
31.Completethesentence,usingaverbmeaningdo.
Acturos,withorwithoutesse.
32.Write,inthebestEnglishyouhaveatyourcommand,atranslationofthesentence.
"Now,"Igoontosaytomystudents,"youaretocommitthissentencetomemory,andbeready
togiveitfluentlyintheLatinwhenwemeetnext.Andinthesamewayyouwillcommitto
memoryeverypassagewesouseintheyear;andateachtermexaminationyouwillfind
yourselvescalledupontowriteoneofthesepassages,stillfrommemory.Further,andstillmore
importantthanthis,neveragainpickoutyoursubject,yourpredicate,etc.;but,inpreparingyour
dailylessons,dojustwhatwehavebeendoingthismorning,exceptthatyouarenottotranslate
anysentence,oranypartofanysentence,untilyouhavegonethroughthewholelessoninthe
Latin,andgotallthemeaninginyourpoweroutofit.Igiveyouashortlesson,andIshallcall
upononemanandanothertotakeupasentenceandgorapidlythroughitasLatin,wordafter
word,aswehavejustnowdone,tellinguspreciselyhowitshouldbethoughtout.Inpreparing
yourlesson,inordertobesurethatyoureyedoesnotstrayandrunahead,cutoutapieceof
flexiblepasteboard,or,untilyoucangetpasteboard,apieceofstiffwritingpaper,aslongas
twicethewidthofyourprintedtext,andtwoorthreeincheswide.Cutastripfromthetop,
runningalonghalfthelength,anddeepenoughtocorrespondtopreciselyonelineofyourtext,
includingthespacethatbelongswithit.
5
Usethispieceofpaperinsuchawayastoexposejust
onewordatatime,togetherwithwhich,ofcourse,willalsobeseenallthewordspreceding;that
istosay,asyouthinkaboutonewordafteranother,pushingyourpaperon,youwillconstantly
seeallofthesentencethusfartraversed,withoutbeingabletolookahead."
Atthenextmeeting,theclass,thusprepared,recitesasdescribed,anumberofstudents
attemptingtoshowpreciselywhatmentalprocessesoneshouldgothroughintakingupthe
sentencesofthelesson.Atthenextbutone,andthereafterthroughouttheFreshmanyear,all
booksbeingclosed,theinstructorreadsthereviewlessonaloud,withalltheeffectiveness
possibletohim,onesentenceatatime,callingforatranslationofitfromoneandanother
student.
6
Asapreparationforthisexercise,eachstudentisurgedtoreadthereviewalouda
numberoftimesinhisownroom,doinghisauthorasmuchjusticeaspossible.
Ateveryexerciseduringtheyear,exceptthespecialweeklyexercise,anumberofsentences,
preparedbytheinstructor,andbaseduponthetextunderreadingatthetime,aregivenoutto
students,tobewrittenupontheboard,intheEnglishandinLatin,whiletherestoftheclassare
engagedupontranslatingthereviewastheinstructorreadsit;andwhentheworkuponthe
reviewisover,theseLatinsentencesupontheboardarecriticisedbytheclass.Itouchupona
veryseriousdefectinmostofourpreparatoryschoolswhenIsaythatfrombeginningtoend
16

thereshouldneverbearecitationinaforeignlanguagewithoutwrittenororaltranslationinto
thatlanguage.
Forthespecialweeklyexercisedescribedabove,therecanbenoconsiderablepreparation
beyondincessantfaithfulnessinthedailywork.Thetimethusleftfreeisutilizedinthe
preparationofaconsiderablepieceofEnglishbasedupontheLatinrecentlyread.(Itwillbeseen
thatnotextbookincompositionisemployed.)Theexercisehandedinbyeachstudentis
afterwardslookedthrough,andreturnedtohimatthenextmeetingoftheclass,withallerrors
marked.
ThewritingoftheLatinsentence,onewordatatime,upontheboardinthespecialweekly
exercisewhichhasbeendescribedabove,givesplaceinafewweekstothecorresponding
dictationofonewordatatime,tobewrittenuponhispaperbythestudent,thequestionsbeing,
ofcourse,givenasbefore.Theexercisechangesconstantlyincharacterbythedroppingof
questionswithwhichthestudentshavebecomefamiliar,andthebringinginofquestions
involvingnewprinciples.Meanwhile,theexaminationofthepaperswrittenshows,fromweekto
week,justwhereeachstudentsweaknesslies.Innolongtimealltheconstantlyrecurring
constructionshavebecomefamiliaraspractical,workingaffairs.Then(andthistimeproperly
comessomewhereneartheendofthefirstthirdoftheyear)IceaseentirelytohavetheLatin
written,andgivemypassage(whichmaynowbeofrespectablelength)orally,stillasking
occasionalquestionsforwrittenanswers,hereandthere,atpointsdangerousorotherwise
instructive.Afterthewholeofthepassagehasbeengonethroughinthisway,itistakenup
again,onesentenceatatime,andawrittentranslationismadebyeachstudent.Thepassages
arecommonlyselectedfromthebookwhichtheclassisreading,andnotveryfarinadvanceof
theplacereachedintheotherlessonsoftheweek.Theattemptisalwaysmadetoselecta
passagewithadramaticorotherwisestrikingclose.Eachweek,asalreadysaid,thewholeofthe
exerciseofthepreviousweekismemorized,andrepeatedbyseveralstudents,withgreat
attentiontotheeffectiveconveyingofthemeaning,bythethrowingtogether,asinallspoken
languages,ofanumberofwordsmakingagroupinthesentenceasawhole,bythecareful
balancing,inthedelivery,ofwordsclearlymeanttobebalanced,etc.,etc.
Allthistimeeachstudentisgainingaworkingknowledgeofsyntaxregardedfromthetrue
standpointforthefirstpurposesofcollegework,namely,asamechanismforconveyingmeaning
fromonemindtoanother;islearningtobringthatknowledgeofsyntaxtobearatthemost
economicalpoint;isgainingfamiliaritywithRomantricksoforder;andislayingupasteadily
growingvocabulary.
7
Andthroughout,inordertokeepconstantlyinsighttheideathattheaim
ofthewholebusinessistolearntoreadLatin,occasionalexaminationsintranslationnew
passagesfromatextorprintedpaperareheldduringtheterm(asofcoursetheyshouldbeupon
anysystem),andattheendofeachtermthefirstexerciseatthefinalexamistranslationat
hearing,thesecondexerciseistranslationatsight,thethirdexerciseistranslationatsightfrom
EnglishtoLatin,thefourthisthewritingofoneofthepassagesmemorizedduringtheterm;and
17

notuntilthisisdonedoesthestudentproceedtoanexerciseintranslatingandcommentingupon
passagesreadduringtheterm.Moreover,thegreaterpartofthegrammaticalquestionsofthe
paperareset,notuponpassagesreadduringtheterm,butuponthepassagesgivenforthefirst
timeattheexaminations;namely,thepassagestobetranslatedathearingandatsight.
Inthesecondyear,theaimofgaininginpowertoreadatsightisconstantlyheldupbeforethe
students,andoccasionalwrittenexercisesinreadingatsightaregiventhroughtheterm,while
thefirstexercisesetattheexaminationattheendofthetermisalwaystranslationatsight.A
propersupplementtothisisanelectiveinthespeakingandwritingofLatin.Inthesecondand
thirdtermsofthesecondyear,whicharenowdevotedtoHorace,considerablequantitiescanbe
read,withagooddealofmemorizing;andthetreatmentcanbemadealmostwhollyliterary.
ThatcarriesusthroughtheSophomoreyear,andtothebeginningoftheelectivework,takenby
JuniorsandSeniorstogether.Heretranslationatthedailylessonends,exceptinthoserarecases
wherethemeaningofadifficultpassagecannotbegivenbyexplainingthegrammaticalstructure,
orbyturningthepassageintosomeotherforminLatin.
8
Translationsarewrittenatoccasional
exercisesheldforthatpurposeduringtheterm,andalwaysmakeapartofthefinalexamination,
sothateverystudentfeelsboundtounderstandhisauthor.Butthestudentsareurgednotto
haveanythingtodowithEnglishinpreparationfortheirdailylessonsorforthefinalexamination,
buttoreadtheLatinasliterature,withtheutmostskillinrenderingtheirauthorthattheycan
acquire.
Inallmyteaching,twoexercisesstandoutfromtherest,asgivingmespecialdelightthroughthe
interestandmentalactivityofmystudents:first,theexerciseswiththeFreshmen,whichIhave
describedascarriedonweeklybymyself;secondly,anexercisesuchasIcarriedonwithan
electiveclassrecently,when,attheendofatermspentuponPlautus,Ireadanewplaystraight
throughintheLatin(thestudentsfollowingmeintheirtexts),withouttranslation,andwithvery
littlecomment,movingatabouttherateatwhichonewouldmoveifhewerereadinganewplay
ofShakespeareinasimilarway;andfeltmyaudienceresponsive,eventotheextentof
occasionallaughterthatcheckedusforamoment,tonearlyeverythinginourauthorthatwould
havebeenintelligible,withoutspecialexplanation,inanEnglishtranslation.
Finally,ifyouaskmewhetherthismethodwhichIhavebeendescribingdoesnottakeagreat
dealoftime,IshallanswerthattheamountofLatinreadinthefirsttermismuchsmallerthanin
theordinaryway,butthatthepowertoreadincreasesrapidly,andthatthetotalquantityreadin
thefirstyearissomewhatgreaterthanonthecommonsystem,considerablygreaterinthe
secondyear,andintheelectiveyearsabsolutelygreater;tosaynothingofthemuchjuster
understandingof,andmoreintimatefeelingfor,hisoriginal,andthemuchkeenerdelightin
reading,gainedbythestudentwhopursuesthismethod.Butthereisonethingmoretobesaid
aboutthiskindofwork,thistrainingofthestudenttoreadLatinrapidly.Itisnottheworkofthe
universitiesatall.Intheuniversities,menshouldnotlearnhowtoreadLatin,butshouldreadit.
Itshouldbemyoffice,forinstance,tomakethemacquaintedwiththebodyoftheliterature,to
18

makethemknowit,atanyrate,andloveit,ifpossible.Buttheofficeofpreparingthemtodothis
bytrainingthemtoreadordinaryLatinwitheaseandspeedbelongstonocollegeinstructor,but
totheschoolsofwhichyouhavecharge.Iwhollybelievethattheapplication,fromtheveryfirst
dayofreadingaRomansentenceofoneword,ofthemethodheredescribed,would,without
addingadaytothelengthoftimegiventopreparationforcollege,makeayoungstudentable,at
thebeginningofhisFreshmanyear,toreadLatinwithmoreeaseandspeedthanaremystudents
attheendofit,tosaynothingofthegreaterpleasurewhichtheywouldhaveintheirwork.And
Iamnotjudgingfrommyexperienceinuniversityteachingalone;forthisverymethodof
teachinghasbeenusedbystudentsofmyownuponyoungpupils,ofvaryingability,in
preparationforcollege,andwithresultsthatfullyconfirmmybelief.Noraretheyoungpupilsthe
onlygainers.Theteacherhimselfwillbesurprisedtoseehowmuchmorepleasurehefeelsinhis
work;and,ifhekeepsuphisreadingoftheLatinliterature,asallteachersofcourseendeavorto
do,hewillbesurprisedtofindhowhisrateofspeedwillincrease.Andthemethoditselfwillgive
himnotroubletolearn;forintheveryactofpreparingpapersforexaminationsofthissort,or,at
theworst,ofconductingoralexerciseswithoutpreparation,theteacherwillverysoonhave
taughthimselfthewholeart.

Supplement
Totheprecedingaddresslong,andyettoobriefIwishtoaddtwothings:furtherspecimens
ofpapersactuallyemployedbymyselfwithaFreshmanclass,andsuggestionsfortheapplication
ofthemethodinthepreparatoryschools.
Atthispoint,Ishouldadvisetheweariedreader,ifhefeelssomeconfidenceinthemethod,tolay
thepamphletasideandmakeexperimenthimselfwithaclass,returningtothereadingafterhe
hascometofeelaninterestinfurthersuggestionsofdetail.Asfortheweariedreaderthatdoes
notfeelthisconfidence,hewillreadilylaythepamphletdownunadvised.
SPECIMENSOFPAPERS
Ingivinginthiswaydetailsofthesystemonwhichmyownworkisconducted,IdonotfeelthatI
oweanapology.Onewhoproposesamethodmusthaveaverysolidbasisforhisproposal.This
basismustbeanexperienceoftheefficacyofthatwhichheisurging;andthisexperienceshould
begivenwiththegreatestclearnessanddefiniteness.Itistobewished,indeed,thatteachersof
agivensubjectthroughoutthecountry,incollegesandschools,mightregardthemselvesas
formingonebodywithacommonpurpose,andthataconstantinterchangeofexperienceand
opinionmightgoonamongthem,alikeinmattersofinvestigationandmattersofpedagogy.
19

Itshouldberememberedthatthepapersprintedbelowwereused,earlyintheFreshmanyear,
withstudentswhohadpreparedforcollegeuponthefamiliarandthoroughlyunRomansystem.
Ifstudentswerepreparedupontherightmethod,notoneintenofthequestionshereindicated
wouldneedtobeasked,andtheexerciseoftranslatingathearingwouldbearapidandattractive
affair.
ThesepapersweregiventotheFreshmanclassinsuccession,atintervalsofaweek,inthe
autumnof1885;atwhichtimetheworkoftheotherrecitationsoftheweekwasinLivy.The
constantaimandtheclassweresoinformedwastofindforthesepapers,asgivenweekafter
week,passageswhichwoulddemandofthemapracticalpowerofhandlingconstructionswhich
hadbeendiscussedintheotherexercisesoftheweek,sothattheirprogressshouldbeoneof
constantacquisitionwithoutloss;anditwaspromisedthemthatinthiswaytheyshouldina
shorttimepossessareadyandavailablefamiliaritywithallthecommonlyrecurringconstructions
ofthelanguage.Ifurthertoldthemthat,sinceIshouldnotgivethemattheseexercisesin
translationthemeaningofanywordwhichtheyhadeverseenbefore,theyhadaverystrong
reasonforlayingupforthemselvesavocabularythroughsecuringintheirmemoryeveryLatin
wordoccurringintheirdailywork,andaverystrongreasonforpayingextremelycareful
attention,bothatandaftertheotherrecitationsoftheweek,toanyexplanationsofmeaningof
thisorthatword,alone,orinconnectionwithothersrelatedtoitinmeaning(e.g.toalius,in
connectionwithalterandceteri),whichmightsimilarlybegiventothemattheordinary
recitations.NorwasIcontentwiththis;for,inorderthattheremightbenoescape,Iprepareda
partialsyllabusofdefinablepointsemphasizedintheworkoftheterm;andoneofthesewas
purchased,fromtheofficethatprintedit,byeachstudentintheclass.
Atthebeginningoftheterm,theworkoftheadvancelessonwaslargelydoneintheclassroom,
instructorandinstructedworkingtogether.Itwillberightlyinferredfromthisthattheclass
movedslowlyattheoutset.Iamadevoutbelieverinthereadingoflargequantitiesofthe
classics;indeed,thatis,inthispresentbusiness,myparticularandpreciseaim;butIamalsoa
believerinwhatiscalled"thelongrun,"and"inthelongrun"onlyasoundlytrainedmangets
veryfar.Inthepreliminarytraining,itisnecessaryatfirsttotakeagooddealoftimeinprobing
tothequick,sometimeswithconsiderabledistresstothewouldbeathletes,aclassofnew
studentswhohavebeencarefullytrainedtodistortandmangletheLatinsentence;whohave
necessarilyfailedtoacquirethealertandselfwatchfulhabitsofthoughtandofsuspended
judgmenttowhichthereceivedmethod,withitsresultingimpatienceto"makesense,"is
practicallystronglyopposed;whoseknowledgeofsyntaxisofabackhandedkind,goodforvery
littleexceptto"parse"with,moreorlessmechanicallyandineffectually,afterthewholesentence
hasbeendugout,butworthnothingasyetforthecurrentinterpretationofthesyntaxofword
afterwordinsituintheprogressofthesentence;and,finally,someofwhomhavebeentrained
topronounceLatinontheEnglishmethod,othersontheContinental,andothersononeor
anotherofthatgreatvarietyofmethodspassingcurrentunderthegeneralappellationof
20

"Roman,"andmanyofwhom,accordingly,finditverydifficulttounderstandawordofone
syllableaspronouncedbymyassistantormyself,tosaynothingofawordoftwosyllables.
Uptothefourthweekinclusive,theLatinwaswrittenupontheboardattheseweeklyexercises,
onewordatatime,thequestionsbeingput,asindicatedbythefootnotesinthepapersgiven
below,atonepointandanotherasthesentenceprogressed.Forseveralweeksafterthattime,
theLatinsentencewaswrittenbyeachstudent,onewordatatime,aspronouncedbythe
instructor,thequestionsbeingsetandansweredasbefore.Afterthis,thewritingoftheLatin
wasforbidden,andthepassagesusedwereinterpretedonlyasheardfromtheinstructors
reading.
Atthefirstinterview,theclasshadworkedout,asitwasputupontheboard,onewordatatime,
thesentenceinLivyI.1.5.
IbiegressiTroiani,utquibusabimmensopropeerrorenihilpraeterarmaetnavessuperesset,
cumpraedamexagrisagerent,LatinusrexAboriginesque,quitumeatenebantloca,ad
arcendamvimadvenarumarmatiexurbeatqueagrisconcurrunt.
Aswereachedthepoint...utquibus,theyhadmadeout,underquestioning,thatutmightbe(1)a
conjunction,inwhichcasequibuscouldbe(a)aninterrogativeintroducinganindirectquestion
dependingontheutverb,or(b)arelativereferringtosomethingconnectedwiththeutverb;or
that,ontheotherhand,utmightbe(2)anadverb,inwhichcasethequibusclausemustbe
substantiallyanadjectivemodifyingTroiani;inotherwords,acharacterizingclause.Inthis
connection,theyhadbeentold,forthesakeofhavingthewholemattersecuredfortheir
repertoryofcombinationsofthiskind,thatwhatwasessentialinthislattercasewasthe
characterizingclauseitself,andthatinstrictnessnointroductorywordwasnecessary;ifonewas
used,however,itmightbeeitherut,utpote,orquippe;anditwasalsopointedoutthat,while
therewerethreepossibilitiesforacombinationlikeutquibus,therewasonlyonepossibilityfora
combinationlikeutpotequibusorquippequibus.
Aswereachedsuperesset,itwaspointedout,againstthepracticalhabitofthoughtofnearlyall
theclass,that,sinceinLatinthecommonpracticewastoputamodifyingclauseorphrasebefore
thethingmodified,thechanceswerethatthequibusclause,ifitshouldturnouttobea
characterizingclause,wouldbear,notuponegressi,butuponsomethingwhichwewerestillto
waitfor.(Thissomethingturnedouttobecum...agerent,thenaturalthingfordestitutemento
do.)
Aswereached...cumpraedam,atwhichstageitwassurethatcumwasaconjunction,thepoint
wasmade,thoughagainagainstthesentimentsoftheclass,thatTroianiwasthesubjectofthe
verbintroducedbycum,sincetheRomanswerefondoftakingoutaconspicuouswordorphrase
belongingtoanintroductorytemporalsentence,andputtingitbeforetheconnective.
9

21

Thepassagechosenforthefirstwrittenexerciseturnedouttobealittletoodifficultinthe
reasoningattheetcuipoint,thoughithadacertainandconsiderableusefulnessindisplayingto
theclassasentenceofwhichsomeofthem,thoughknowingthemeaningofeachword,and
thoughableto"parse"itfrombeginningtoendifitwereoncetranslatedtothem,wouldyetfail
tocomprehendthemeaning,throughalackofaworkingknowledgeoftheconstructions
involved.
FIRSTEXERCISE(Livy1.34.7)
[TanaquilhasbeenurginguponLucumo,wholivesinTarquinii,thathewouldhavebetterhopes
ofrisinginsomenewcity,andpointsoutthatRomehasspecialadvantages.]
Facile
1
persuadet
23
ut
45
cupido
67
honorumet
89
cui
1011
Tarquinii
12
materna
1314
tantum
1516

patria
171819
;sublatis
20
itaquerebus
2122
commigrant
23

24
.
1.Maybeeitherofwhatpossiblepartsofspeech;andwheremade?
Adj.innom.oracc.neut.sing.;oradverb.
2.Inwhatwaywillthepersonwhoispersuaded,ifthereisone,beexpressed?
Bythedative.
3.Inwhatwaywillthattowhichthepersonispersuadedbeexpressed,ifitprovestobe(a)a
pronoun?(b)averbalidea?
(a)Bytheaccusative.
(b)Bytheinfinitive,ifitisastatementofbelief,etc.;byasubstantivepurposeclause,ifitbean
actdesiredtobebroughtabout.
4.Thesuspenseaboutfacileisnowprobablyhowresolved?
Thewritermeantitasadverb,modifyingpersuadet.
5.Whatconstructionswillprobablyfollowut,ifitismeant(a)asconjunction?(b)asadverb?
(a)Asubstantivepurposeclause.
(b)Anoun(appositive),adjective,oradjectivalphrase,belongingtothepersonalsubjectorobject
ofpersuadet,andsonom.ordat.
6.Maybeeitherofwhatpossiblepartsofspeech,and,ineithercase,inwhatconstruction?
Noun,nom.,subjectofsubstantivefinalclauseintroducedbytheconjunctionut;or,adjective,
dat.,agreeingwithpersonalobjectofpersuadetandintroducedbytheadverbut.
7.Doesitcallforanythingtocompleteitsmeaning,and,ifso,what?
Anobjectivegenitive.
8.Whatthreeuseshasthewordet?
(1)Connectingtwowords,=and;(2)asthefirstoftwoets=both...and;or(3)asbearingupona
singleword,=also,even.

9.Whatusesmayethave,ineachcase,inthepresentpassage?
Itmayconnectcupido,orhonorum,tosomethingyettocome;oritmaybethefirstoftwo
balancedets;oritmayemphasizeawordorphrasetofollow.
22

10.Whatisnowtheprobablemeaningofet,whatitsoffice,andwhatlightdoesitthrowupon
cupido?Markthequantityoftheiinthelast.
And;connectingthecuisentencetocupdo,whichisanadjective.
11.Ifthissurmiseisright,thenwhatpartofspeechwillthecuisentencebeequivalentto,andby
whatmodewillthismeaningbeexpressed?
Anadjective;expressedbythecharacterizingmode,thesubjunctive.
12.Isnameoftowninnom.pl.?Whatthreepossibilitiesofconstruction?
Subject,predicate,orinappositionwiththeoneortheother.
13.Partofspeechandpossiblecases?
Adjective,nom.sing.fem.,abl.sing.fem.,nom.oracc.neut.pl.
14.Meaningofitspositionbeforeitsnoun?
Thatitisemphatic.
15.Possiblepartsofspeech,andcorrespondingmeanings?
Adjective,meaningsogreat,oradverb,meaningtosuchadegree,ortosuchadegreeandno
further,i.e.only.
16.Inthelastsense,whatareitssynonyms?
Solumandmodo.
17.Whatpartofspeechwastantum,andwhatdiditmodify?
Adverb,modifyingmaterna.
18.ProbablyconstructionofpatriaandofTarquinii?
Tarquiniiisprobablysubjectofthecuiverb,andpatriaisitspredicate.
19.Writetheverb.
Esset.
20.Wheremade?
Participle,dat.orabl.pl.
21.Possiblecases?
Dat.orabl.
22.Probableconstruction?
Ablativeabsolutewithsublatis.
23.TheplacetheygotoisRome.Completethesentenceintwoways,usingurbsinone,and
Romaintheother.
Adurbem;Romam.
24.Translatethepassage.

SECONDEXERCISE(Livy1.9.1)
23

[Romulushasenclosedagreatspacewithhisfortifications,andgatheredacrowdofrefugeesinto
hisnewcity.]
Iamres
1
Romana
2
adeo
3
erat
45
valida,utcuilibet
67
finitimarum
8
civitatumbello
91011
par
1213

;sedpenuria
1415
mulierumhominisaetatem
16
duratura
1718
magnitudo
1920
,quippe
21

quibus
2223242526
nec
27
domi
28
spes
29
prolisneccumfinitimisconubia
30

31
.
1.Possiblecases?
Nom.sing.,nom.oracc.pl.
2.Probablecaseandconstructionofres?
Nom.,subjectofmainverb.
3.Commonestmeaningofadeo?andhowmustitsmeaning,ifcompleted,becompleted?
Tosuchadegree;byconsecutiveutsentence.
4.Meaningofthetense?
Stateofaffairsatthepointatwhichthestoryhasreached.
5.Whattwopartsofspeecharecapableofcompletingthesentence?
Adjectiveandparticiple.
6.Partofspeech?whatotherwordissubstantiallyequivalent?
Indefinitepronoun;cuivis.
7.Howarewetothinkofthemeaningofcase?
Assomeaspectoftheindirectobject.
8.Suggeststhebeginningofwhatconstruction?
Partitivegenitive.
9.Possiblecasesandpossibleconstructions?
Dativeofsomeaspectoftheindirectobject,orablativeinsomeinstrumentalaspect.
10.Cancuilibetgowithbello,andwhy?
No;forthepartitivegenitiveshowsthatcuilibetreferstoacivitati.
11.Thenisbellomorelikelytoturnouttobeadative,oranablative?
Anablative.
12.WhatsuspenseaboutLivysmeaningisnowresolved?
Cuilibetisthedativeoftheindirectobjecttowhichthequalityofparisdirected,andbelloisthe
ablativeofrespectforpar.
13.Writethepredicatefromsum.
Esset.
14.Possiblecases?
Nom.orabl.
15.Iftheideaiscompleted,bywhatcase?
Objectivegenitive.

24

16.Possiblemeaningsofthecase?
Durationoftime,appositive,objectofaverb,orsubjectorpredicateofaninfinitive.
17.Probablemeaningofaetatem?
Durationoftime.
18.Whattwopossibilitiesforthegovernmentofduratura?
Thatitbelongs(1)topenuria,or(2)tosomethingnotyetarrived.
19.Whatdowenowfeelaboutthecaseofpenuria,andthemeaningofthatcase?
Thatitisanablative,expressingthecauseofduratura.
20.Writepredicatefromsum,choosingthetensewithcare.
Erat.
21.Conceiveofquippeasanadverb,meaningindeed,infact.
22.Whatistheprobablynatureofthequibussentence,andwhatitsconstruction?
Adjectival,i.e.,acharacterizingsentenceinsubjunctive.
23.Whatmustbetheunderlyingrelationbetweentheconditionofaffairswhichweshallfind
expressedinthequibussentence,andtheconditionofaffairsexpressedinthemainsentence?
Causal.
24.Whatistheantecedentofquibus?
Thepeopletowhomthemagnitudobelonged,theinhabitantsofthetown.
25.Possiblecases?
Dat.orabl.
26.Quibusindicatespersons.Howdoesthatnarrowthepossibilitiesofanablativeconstruction?
Itcanbeonlyabl.absolute,orablativedependentonacomparativeorsomewordlikefretusor
contentus,orablativeofsourcewithsomewordlikegenitus,ortus,natus.
27.Whatissureaboutnec?
Thatitbalancesalaternecoret.
28.Construction?
Locative.
29.Whatmustfollow?
Objectivegenitiveorfutureinfinitive.
30.Completethesentencebywritingtheproperformfromtheverbsum.
Essent.
31.Translate.

25

THIRDEXERCISE(Livy1.24.2)
[TheAlbanandRomankingshaveproposedthatthewarbetweenthetwopeoplesshallbe
settledbyabattlebetweentheHoratiiandCuriatii.]
Nihilrecusatur.Tempusetlocusconvenit.Priusquam
12
dimicarent,foedusictum
3
inter
RomanosetAlbanosesthis
45
legibus
6
,utcuius
78
populicives
9
eocertaminevicissent
10
isalteri
11
12
populocumbonapace
13

14
.
1.Whatideasmayonehaveinmindwhenhewritesantequamorpriusquam,andbywhatmode
willtheseideasberespectivelyexpressed?
Hemaymeantogivetheideaofanactanticipatedi.e.,lookedforwardtofromthetimeofthe
actofthemainclausebysomepersonmentionedinthatsentence;andhewillexpressthisby
theideamode,thesubjunctive.Orhemaymeantostatetheactualoccurrenceofanevent,asa
boundarypointbeyondwhichthemaineventtookplace;andhewillexpressthisbythefact
mode,theindicative.
2.Inthelightofthesituation,whichofthetwoideasisitmoreprobablethatLivyisgoingto
express?
Theformer.
3.Isanythingsureyetaboutthecaseoffoedus,orthepartofspeechofictum?
No.
4.Whatshouldbekeptinmindaspossibilitiesforalldemonstrativepronominalwords,likeis,hic,
ille,ita,etc.?
Thattheylookbackwardtosomethingalreadymentioned,orforwardtosomethingwhichisyet
tobementioned.
5.Whichisthecasehere?
Thelatter.
6.Whatconstructiondoyouthinkiscoming?
Asubstantivefinalclause,tellingwhatthehislegibuswere.
7.Ingeneral,whathavewefoundtobethetwopossibilitieswhenonemeetsthecombinationof
utandtherelative?
Either(1)thatutistheconjunction,andthequiclauselooksforwardtoanantecedenttobe
givenlaterintheutclause;or(2)thatutistheadverb,thequilookingbackward,andtherelative
statementformingacharacterizingclausewhichstandsinacausalrelationtothemainclause.
8.Bearinginmindhislegibus,whichofthetwopossiblemeaningsofthecombinationutcuiusdo
yousupposetohavebeeninLivysmindinthisparticularcase?
Theformer.
9.Probablemeaningofcaseofpopuli?
Possessive,dependingoncives.
10.Meaningoftense?
Futureperfectfromapastpointofview.
26

11.Probablenatureofcombination?
Subjectandindirectobject.
12.Differshowinmeaningfromalius?
Referstotheoneotheroutoftwo,whilealiusmeansanotheroutofanynumber.
13.Surmise,ifpossible,whatthefinalverbis;andatanyratetellwhereitmustbemade.
Imperfectsubjunctive;imperaret(imperaretislikelytobewrittenratherthanLivys
frequentativeimperitaret;butthewordisadmissible).
14.Translate.

FOURTHEXERCISE(Livy22.38.1)
[TheyearfollowingthedefeatattheTrasumenelake.DissatisfactionwiththepolicyofFabius.
Thepeoplehavecarriedtheelectionofoneconsul,Varro,thenobilityoftheother,Aemilius
Paullus.Thetwoareabouttomarchoutforthesummercampaign.]
Contiones
1
priusquam
2
aburbesignamoverentur
3
consulis
4
Varronismultaeacferocesfuere,
denuntiantis
56
bellum
789
arcessitum
10
in
11
Italiamabnobilibusmansurumque
12
in
13
visceribus
reipublicae,si
14
pluresFabiosimperatoreshaberet,se
15
quodie
16
hostemvidisset
17

perfecturum.
1819

1.Possiblemeanings?
Meeting,andspeechmadebeforeameeting.
2.Whatmeaningsmayfollow,andbywhatconstructionsindicated?
Actionanticipatedatthetimeofthemainact,expressedbythesubjunctive;oractualevent,back
ofwhichthemainactlies,expressedbytheindicative.
3.Whatwasthespecialshadeofmeaninginpriusquam...moverentur?
Thatthecontioneswereheld,ormade,inanticipationoftheexpectedmarching.
4.Whatisitnowclearthatcontionesmeans?
Meansspeech,language.
5.Belongswithwhat?
Consulis.
6.Denuntiaremeanstomakeanannouncement.Howwilltheobjectbeexpressedifitis
(a)anounorpronoun?
(b)averb,conveyingastatementoffact?
(c)averb,conveyingactiondesired?
(a)Accusative.
(b)Infinitive.
(c)Substantivefinalclause.
7.Whatconstructionoccurstoyouatonceforbellum?

27

Objectofdenuntiare.
8.IsthereanycertaintythatthisiswhatLivymeant?
No.
9.WhatelsemayLivyhaveinmind?
Asubjectoranobjectforaninfinitivedependingondenuntiantis.
10.Whatpossibilitiesforarcessitum?
Participleagreeingwithbellum,orpartofaninfinitiveperfect(withessetocome)orfuture(with
iritocome)havingbellumforitssubject.
11.Whatcasedoyouexpecttofindfollowing,andwhy?
Accusative,becausearcessitumincludestheideaofmotion.
12.Whatistheonlythingthatyouknowsurelyaboutmansurum?
Thatitsconstructionisthesameasthatofarcessitum.
13.Whatcasedoyouexpecttofindfollowing,andwhy?
Ablative,becausemansurumincludestheideaofrest.
14.Whatindicationhaveyouoftheprobablenatureofthecondition,andhowwillitbe
expressed?
Itlooksasifitweretheconditionformansurum.Inthatcaseitwillbeafutureorfutureprefect
fromthepaststandpoint,expressedbythesocalledimperfectorpluperfectsubjunctive.
15.Probableconstructionofbellumandarcessitum,andgroundsofyouropinion?
Seisacc.orabl.Itcannotbeabl.absolute,sinceitreferstothesubjectofthesentence;anditis
probablynottheablativeofsource,forwearenotlikelytofindawordmeaningbornofhere.Itis
thereforeprobablyaccusative.Inthatcase,bellumiseitherthesubjectorobjectofanactive
infinitivewhichwearetohave,andofwhichseisobjectorsubject.Arcessitum,whichispassive,
isthereforenotaninfinitive,butaparticiple;and,besidesthat,mansurum,whichisinthesame
constructionwitharcessitum,isnottransitive.
16.Whereistheantecedentofquodie,andwhatdoyouknowaboutit?
Yettocome,andinsomewayconnectedwiththecominginfinitivewhichwehavefoundto
dependondenuntiantis.
17.Meaningoftenseandmood?
Futureperfectfrompastpointofview,inindirectdiscourse.
18.Whatsuspendedconstructionsarenowresolved?
Perfecturumisinfinitive,seisitssubject,bellumitsobject,withattachedparticiplesarcessitum
andmansurum,thelatterhavingafutureconditiondependentuponit.
19.Translate.

28

FIFTHEXERCISE(Livy21.53.1)
[Thepassagehereusedwasemployedintheaddress.Itisgivenagaininitsplaceamongthe
presentsetofpapers,partlytoshowthattheminutequestioningwithwhichateacherofan
untrainedFreshmanclassmustbeginmaygiveplaceearlytoamorerapidmovement,afterthe
habitofwatchfulnessandawillingnesstoholdthemindinsuspensehavebeenestablished.]
Hannibalcumquid
1
optimumforethostecerneret,vix
2
ullamspem
3
habebattemere
45
atque
improvide
6
consules
78
;cumalteriusingenium,fama
9
priusdeindere
10
cognitum,
percitumacferoxsciret
11
,ferociusquefactumprosperocumpraedatoribus
12
suis
certaminecrederet,adessegerendaereifortunamhauddiffidebat.
13

1.Whatmustbetheconstructionoftheverbofthequidsentence,andwhy?
Subjunctiveofindirectquestionoffact,orofindirectdeliberativequestion.
2.Insuchaconnection,whatwouldbethepronounmeaningany,andwhattheadjective?
Quisquam,ullus.
3.Whatwouldbethecompletingconstruction(a)ifnominal?
10
(b)ifverbal?
(a)Genitive.
(b)Genitiveofgerundorofgerundive,orfutureinfinitive.
4.Doestemere,judgingbytheorder,probablymodifyhabebat,orsomethingyettocome?
Thelatter.
5.Thenwhatdoyousurmiseaboutthecompletingconstructionforspem?
Thatitisaverbalconstruction.
6.Writetheneuterpronounmeaninganything,innom.oracc.form.
Quicquam.
7.Generalconstructionherebyindicated,andconstructionofconsulesandofthewordyouhave
justwritten?
Theverbalforspemisaninfinitive,withquicquamforsubjectandconsulesforobject,orvice
versa.
8.Writetheinfinitive,meaningtodo.
Acturos.
9.Case?
Nom.orabl.
10.Caseoffama,andproof.
Abl.,becausethephrasepriusdeindemakesitparallelwithre.
11.Writeverbrequiredtocompletetheclause.
Esse.
12.Whatisindicatedbyacombinationlikeprosperocumpraedatoribus?
Thatcumconnectswithpraedatoribusanoun,yettocome,towhichprosperobelongs.
13.Translate.

29

SIXTHEXERCISE(Livy22.40.1)
Adversus
1
ea
2
oratio
3
consulishaudsanelaetafuit,magisfatentis
4
ea
5
quaediceretveraquam
facilia
6

7
:dictatorimagistrum
89
equitumintolerabilemfuisse;quid
1011
consuli
adversuscollegamseditissumactemerariumveriumatqueauctoritatis
12
?
13

1.Whatpartofspeechisadversus?
Participleorpreposition.
2.Whatispossibleforea?
Objectofprepositionadversus,oragreeingwithanabl.sing.oracc.pl.
3.Whatdoyouknownowaboutadversusandea,andhow?
Oratioisnom.fem.,sothatadversusisnotparticiple,butpreposition,eabeingitsobject.
4.Constructiontofollow(a)ifnominal?(b)ifverbal?
(a)Accusative.
(b)Infinitivestatementinindirectdiscourse.
5.Possibleconstructions?
Objectoffatentis,orsubjectorpredicateofaninfinitivedependingonit.
6.WriteLatinfortodo,completingtheideaoffacilia.
Factu.
7.WriteinLatinwhateverisstillnecessarytocompletethesentence.
Esse.
8.Meaningofthepositionofdictatoriandmagistrum?
Sharpcontrast.
9.Probablegeneralconstructionofsentence?
Indirectstatement,intheinfinitive,magistrumbeingitssubject,anddictatoribeingtheindirect
objectoftheinfinitive,orofapredicateadjective.
10.Inthepresentconstruction,whatmodespossibleafterquid,andwithwhatmeanings
respectively?
Subjunctiveofindirectquestion,eitherdeliberativeorseriouslyaskingforinformation,or
infinitive,inrhetoricalquestionpracticallyamountingtoanassertion.
11

11.Ifapartitivegenitiveistofollow,inwhatpartoftheclausehavewelearnedthatwearelikely
tofindit?
Asfarremovedfromthewordonwhichitdependsastheotherpointsofstylewillallow.
12.Decide,inthelightofthewholepassage,whatkindofasentencethisnecessarilyis,andwrite
theLatinforwouldtherebe.
Fore,orfuturumesse.
13.Translate.

30

ApplicationoftheMethodinPreparatoryWork
Itwillbeconvenienttorefer,inthesesuggestions,tosomeoneofthebookscommonlyemployed
bybeginnersinLatin;e.g.Dr.Leightons"FirstStepsinLatin."Theapplicationcanofcoursebe
madewitheasetoanyotherbookofthesamescope.
Firstandmostimportantisitthatthebeginnershouldaccustomhimselffromtheveryoutsetto
thesoundoftheRomanlanguage.InLessonXIII,e.g.,thelearner,havingpreparedhimselfupon
thesentencesreginalaudat,scribaeportant,puellaelaudant,laudas,laudamus,reginaedonant,
etc.,shouldnotopenhisbooktotranslatethem.Hisbookshouldbeclosed,andheshouldgive
themeaningofreginalaudat,etc.,ashisteacherdeliversthesentencetohim.Totranslate
reginalaudatathearing,afterhavingstudiedit,isnotbeyondthementalpowerofthemodern
boy.Neitherisitbeyondhispower,withpossiblyatrifleofpatienceonthepartofhisteacher,to
translateathearinganewsentenceofthesamescope,e.g.laudo;scribalaudat;scribadonat;
scribaedonant.Butifthisistrue,averyimportanttruthatoncefollows.Thereis,itwillbe
admitted,nogreaterjumpinanyfirstLatinbookthanthatfromnothingatalltothefirstlessonin
Latinsentencesofoneandtwowords.If,intakingthatstep,theboycansuccessfullyprepare
himselftotranslatethesetlessonathearing,andtotranslateinthesamewaynewsentencesof
thesamevocabularyandthesamescope,thenhecanpreparehimself,asheprogressesby
carefullygradedsteps,inanyofthebooksincommonuse,totranslateanypreviouslystudied
Latinathearing,andtotranslateathearinganynewsentencesofthesamescope,framedforhim
bytheinventionofhisteacher.Beforethebookisopenedbyanyonebuttheteacher,the
exercisesoftheclassroomshouldbe(1)thetranslationathearingofthereview,(2)the
translationathearingoftheadvance,and(3)thetranslationathearingofnewsentencesofthe
samescope.Andnoonewillventuretosaythataboywhohadbeencarriedinthiswaythrough
anintroductorybookwouldnotbeginCaesarasabetterLatinistthanaboywhohadnotbeenso
started.
InLessonXIII,aswehaveseen,theboyhaslearnedthatthesubjectofaverbisexpressedbythe
nominative.Inthenextlessonheistoldthatthedirectobjectofatransitiveverbisexpressedby
theaccusative.Forthepresent,thatisthesumtotalofhisknowledgeaboutaccusatives.Of
coursetheteacherwillnarrowhisownknowledgetohispupilshorizon.Accordingly,hewillstart
uponasentencebeginningwithanaccusative,e.g.scribas,andaskthelearnerwhat,without
hearingtherestofthesentence,helearnsfromthecase,withregardtotherelationoftheclerks
totherestofthesentence;inaword,whatthemeaningofthecaseis.Theboywillanswer
"objectoftheverb,"andtheteacherwillaccepttheanswer.Thenhewillgivethebeginningof
anothersentence,containinganominativeandanaccusative,sayreginascribam,andaskthe
learnerwhatthetwocasesmeantohim.Thelearnerwillanswersubjectandobject.Theteacher
willthengiveanumberofcombinationsofsubjectandobject,e.g.scribapuellam,nauta
agricolam,employingthefullvocabularyprovidedinthelesson.Then,retracinghissteps,hewill
givecompletesentencesofwhichthecombinationsjustusedmaybesupposedtobethe
31

beginning,repeatingeachofthesecombinationsinconnectionwithasmanyaspossibleofthe
variousverbsprovided;e.g.reginascribamlaudat,reginascribamvocat,reginascribam
exspectat.Thenanothercombination,e.g.scribapuellam,shouldsimilarlyberepeatedwith
variousverbs.Inallthis,theLatinshouldbegivendeliberately,
12
sothatthepupilmaybeableto
formhismentalpictureseasily,ashehearsonewordafteranother.Heshouldbeurged,too,to
formthesepictureswithoutthinkingoftheEnglishword.Thewordreginashouldbringaregina
beforehismentalvision,insteadofbringing,firstthewordqueen,andthenamentalvisionofa
queen.
13

IntheseexercisesthereshouldbenotranslationintoEnglish(itwillberememberedthattheLatin
ofthereviewandtheLatinoftheadvancehavealreadybeentranslatedathearing).Nextshould
comeanexerciselikethefollowing:"How,inLatin,canyoupresenttomymindaqueenasacting
uponsomebody?"Bysayingregina."Howagirlasbeingactedupon?"Bysayingpuellam."How
aclerk?"Bysayingscribam."Howaletter?"Bysayingepistulam."Nowputbeforemeaqueen
asacting,andagirlasbeingactedupon."Reginapuellam."Afarmerasacting,andasailoras
beingactedupon."Agricolanautam.Afteranumberofthesecombinationshavebeengiven,
"NowtellmeinLatinthatthequeeniswaitingfortheclerk,"then"thatthequeeniswaitingfor
theletter,"etc.,etc.Variationsofthetenseoftheverbshouldalsobeemployed.Imustconfine
myself,however,toshowingthemethodofdealingwiththecases.
Inthenextlesson,XVI,thepupilwilllearnoneofthesimpleusesofthegenitive.Heshouldthen
beaskedwhatthecasestellhiminliberpueri(beingmade,ofcourse,toseethat,thoughpueri
mightbenom.pl.sofarasformgoes,itcannotbesohere,sincelibermustbesubject),in
magisterreginaefiliam,etc.;andshouldthenbecarriedthroughvariousexercisessimilarto
thosesuggestedinconnectionwiththepreviouslesson.HewillalsolearninLessonXVIabout
apposition,ofwhichmoreanon.InLessonXVIIhewilllearnaboutthewayofexpressingthe
indirectobjectofaverb,andshouldnowbeaskedwhatthecasesmeanincombinationslike
agricolaenautisviam,nautaagricolisviam,scribapuerolibrum,scribapuerisreginaelibros,
agricolapueroscribaeviam,etc.;andshouldthenhavewholesentencesgivenhim,andEnglish
combinationsandsentencestobeputintoLatin,asalreadydescribed.
Soconstructionsaretaughtoneafteranother,thesimplestmeaningofeachcasebeingalone
givenwhenthecaseisfirstdealtwith.Later,otherusesofthesesamecasesaretaught,andthe
certaintywhichthepupilatfirstfeltinregardtothespeakersmeaningwhenheheardagiven
case(saytheaccusative)nowpassesaway.AsearlyasLessonXVIhelearned,aswesaw,that"a
nounusedtodescribeanothernounorpronoun,andmeaningthesamething,isputinthesame
case."Atthispoint,consequently,herecognizesthatthereisadoublepossibilityforagiven
accusative.Supposingustotakeupasentencebeginning(say)withlegatum,theaccusativeword
mayturnouttobeeitheroftwothings,namely,theobjectoftheverb,orinappositiontothe
objectoftheverb.Thesetwopossibilities,andthesealone,should,foranumberofweeks,flash
throughthebeginnersmindatsightorhearingofanaccusative.Later,however(LessonsLIand
32

LII),hewillfindthatcertainverbsareofsuchanatureastotaketwoobjects,andwillhave
specimensgivenhim.Atthispointanaccusativehasforhimthreepossibilities:itmaybe,tothe
speakersthought,object,itmaybesecondobject,oritmaybeanappositive;whileifthe
meaningofthewordsissuchastoexcludeallpossibilityofthelastofthese,as,e.g.,inasentence
beginningwithmefraudem,themeaningofthecombinationisseenatoncetobethatmeisthe
firstobject,andfraudemthesecondobject,ofsomeoneoftheverbsthatneedtwoobjectsto
completetheirthought,e.g.celo.Notlongafterward,hewilllearn(LessonLXI)aboutthe
accusativeofdurationoftimeandextentofspace,andhenowmustrecognizestillanother
possibilityforanyaccusativeslikeannosorpedes,butnotforawordlikeCaesaremorme.Still
later,hewilladdtohisrepertoryanunderstandingofthecognateaccusative,oftheaccusativeas
subjectofaninfinitive,etc.
Theteacherwillkeepclearlybeforethelearnersmindthat,whileanyaccusativemaybeadirect
object,orthesubjectorpredicateofaninfinitive,onlywordsofaparticularmeaningcanbeused
intheexpressionofdurationoftime,etc.,andonlywordsofanotherandanequallyparticular
meaningcanplaythepartofacognateaccusative,etc.Theteacherwoulddowelltomakefor
himself,asthebookprogressed,acollectionofshortsentencesillustratingallthepossiblekinds
ofaccusatives(asyetknowntothepupil)inwhichagivenword,likeCaesarem,annos,vitam,
mayoccur(and,ofcourse,similarcollectionsfortheothercases);andtorunthroughoneof
thesecollectionsfrequently,perhapsdaily,withtheclass,usingnoEnglish.Throughoutthis
progress,itwillbenoted,nothinghasbeenallowedtolapse.Thewaydescribedoflookingatall
thepossiblemeaningsof(say)anaccusative,seenorheard,constitutesacontinualreviewofthe
sharpestnature,and,furthermore,ofthatverypersuasiveandpressingkindwhichlookstoward
immediateandconstantpracticaluse.
Followingthesemethods,thepupilwillsurely,iftheexercisesoftranslatingathearingand
understandingathearingwithouttranslatingarekeptup,haveobtained,bythetimehereaches
theendofthebook,thepowertocatchtheforceoftheaccusativeconstructions,inshortand
simplesentences,withcorrectnessandwithoutconsciousoperationsofreasoning.Forhisvery
familiaritywithallthepossibilitiesofaccusativeconstructionsforwordsofoneandanother
meaningwillhavebroughthimintoaconditioninwhich,ontheoneside,hewillWAIT,OPEN
MINDED,forthewordorwordsthatshalldeterminewhichmeaningthespeakerhadinhisown
thought(if,asmostly,thosewordsareyettocome);and,ontheother,will,byatactnowgrown
unconscious,INSTINCTIVELYAPPREHEND,whenthedeterminingwordorwordsarrive,whatthat
meaningwas;inshort,hewillhavemadeagoodbeginningofunderstandingtheRoman
languageasitwasunderstoodbyRomanhearersandRomanreaders.
Thesketchheregivenforthetreatmentoftheaccusativeconstructionssuggeststhewayinwhich
anysetofconstructionsshouldbemanaged.Iappendafewspecimensoftheresultsforthisand
thatclassofwordsinanumberofcases.Igrantthattheenumerationfortheablative,andeven
forthegenitive,isofprovokingsweep;butthisisonlyequivalenttosayingthatthenumberof
33

meaningsoftheablativeandgenitivecaseswhichayoungstudentmustlearn,underwhatsoever
method,isgreat.
Thegenitiveofanypronounmaybefoundtomeanthepossessorofsomethingorofsome
activity(theactivitybeingexpressedinaverbalnoun),ortheobjectofsomeactivity(expressedin
anoun,anadjective,orsomeoneofacertainlistofverbs),orthewholeofwhichsomeother
wordexpressesapart,maybe,then,eithersubjective,orobjective,orpartitive;oritmay
simplybelongtosomenoun,justasanadjectivedoes.Thegenitiveofanynoun(saycivitatis)
mayprovetobeeithersubjective,orobjective,orpartitive,orinappositionwithsomeother
genitive.Thegenitiveofanounlikepericulimayprovetobeeitherappositive,orsubjective,or
objective,orpartitive,or(ifmodifiedbyanounorparticiple)qualitative.Thegenitiveofanoun
indicatinganactormentalstateofabadnaturemaybeeitherappositive,orsubjective,or
objective,includingacrimechargedorapenaltyadjudged,ormaybepartitive.Agenitivemagni
mayagreewithanoun,ormaymeanthevalueofsomething.
Thedativeofanywordmaymeanthepersonorthingindirectlyconcernedinanactorstate
expressedbyanounoranadjectiveoragroupofwords.Thedativeofthenameofaperson(say
Caesari)mayhavethisgeneralmeaning,or,inoneoranotherspecialphaseofit,maymeanthe
personconcernedinanobligationindicatedbyagerundive(theagent),orthepossessorof
something.Thedativeofawordlikedolori,laudi,etc.,maymean,inageneralway,thething
indirectlyconcerned,or,withaspecialphaseofthatidea,maymeantheendserved.
Theaccusativewehavediscussedalready.Thevocativetakescareofitself,whentheformis
unmistakable.
Theablativeisacasetobedreaded.Ingeneral,itshould,likeothercases,becutupaslittleas
possible.Somethingcanbedonebyproceedingfromthethreeideasofthestartingpoint,the
means,andtheplace(trueablative,instrumental,andlocative),asinDr.Leightonstableonp.
290,andthetableonp.254oftheAllen&GreenoughGrammar;butthebestintentionsonthe
partofgrammariansandteachershavenotyetmadethemattereasyforthelearner.The
suggestionstobegivenheremustgobeyondthesethreedivisions.
Nearlyallablativescanbeabsolute,orcandependuponacomparative,oronawordlikedignus
orcontentus.Besidethis,apropername(sayCaesare)maybeintheablativeofsource,after
somewordlikegenitus,thoughsuchaformofexpressionisnaturallyrareintheproseread
beforegoingtocollege.Ofcoursesuchawordcannotbeintheablativeofmeans(inthe
narrowersense),orofspecification,oroftime,orofdegreeofdifference.Awordlikedie,
however,besidethegeneralpossibilities,mayindicatetime,orthedegreeofdifference,aword
likeauromeansorprice,awordlikecapitedescription,etc.Ishallnotattempthereacomplete
listofsuggestions.Ingeneral,inspiteofthecomplexityoftheusesoftheablative,thelearneris
lesslikelytogobadlyastrayindealingwiththiscaseinactualpracticethanindealingwiththe
genitiveortheaccusative.
34

Onepointnotyettoucheduponisofthegravestconsequence.whenaformoccurswhichmaybe
ineitheroftwocases,orevenpossiblyinanyoneofthreeorfourcases,thepupilshouldnot
allowhimselftosupposethatheknowsthecase,evenifaprobabilitypresentsitselfatonce.E.g.,
astudentreadinginB.G.1.3,andpassingbyea(hisrebusadductietauctoritateOrgetorigis
permoticonstitueruntea,quae,etc.),mayeasilysupposeeatobetheobjectofconstituerunt,
insteadofwaitinguntilconvictionofsomekindisforceduponhimbytheremainderofthe
sentence;whichconvictionwillprovetobethateawastheobject,notofconstituerunt,butof
aninfinitivewhichisnotreacheduntilthequaeclauseisfinished.Thedirectiontothestudent
shouldbe:Haveyoureyesopen,butkeepindoubtaslongaspossible;inaword,THINK,and
WAIT.
Verbalconstructionsshouldbedealtwithinasimilarway.Thepossibilitiesafterconjunctions
should,inparticular,beentirelyfamiliar.Givenaquamquamoraquamvis,thestudentshouldbe
abletotellinstantlywhatiscoming.Givenanantequam,heshouldknowpreciselywhatthetwo
ideasare,eitheroneofwhichmaypossiblybeinthespeakersmind,andbywhatmodeeachwas
expressedbytheRomans.Givenanut,heshouldknowthefullrangeofideaspossibleforthe
speakertohavewhenhesobeginsaclause,andbywhatconstructioneachoftheseideasis
expressed.Andinparticularitwillbefoundusefultosetbeforetheclassthewholerangeof
verbalconstructionsthatarecapableofservingastheobjectorthesubjectoraverb(substantive
clauses),andtoaskthemwhichandhowmanyoftheseagivenverborphrasemaytake.These
substantiveclausesareasfollows:
Theindirectstatementoffact(infinitive).
Theindirectquestionoffact.
Theindirectdeliberativequestion.
Thefinalclause.
Theconsecutiveclause.

Nowgivetheclassaverb,dicit,andaskwhatpossiblecompletingverbalideastheremaybe,and
whatphaseofmeaningoneandanotherofthesewouldindicatefortheworddicititself.The
answershouldbe:theinfinitive,ifdicitmeansthatastatementismade;thesubjunctive
introducedbyaninterrogative(includingofcourseut),ifdicitmeansthegivingofananswertoa
questionoffactoradeliberatequestion;thesubjunctivewithutorne,ifdicitmeansthegivingof
adirection.Thesubstantiveconsecutiveclause,itis,ofcourse,impossiblefordicittotake.On
theotherhand,themeaningofawordlikeeffecitissuchthatitcantakethesubstantive
consecutiveclauseandcantakenoother;sothat,unlesswefindaclearaccusativeobject,weare
sure,uponmeetinganefficit,thataverbalobjectintroducedbyutorutnonissoonerorlaterto
come.Averblikepetocantakeonlyasubstantivefinalclause,averblikequaeroonlyan
interrogativesubstantiveclause(eitheraquestionoffact,oradeliberativequestion),etc.Tolook
atthesemattersinthisparticularwayisofgreatusefulness.If,forexample,theclasistranslating
athearing,inCat.Mai.63,theanecdotebeginningquinetiammemoriaeproditumest,
35

everybodyshouldatthispointinstantlyrecognizethataninfinitiveofstatementissoonerorlater
inevitable,and,knowingtheLatinhabitofarrangement,shouldatonceassociatewiththat
impendinginfinitivestatementalltheinterveningmatter,cumAthenisludisquidamintheatrum,
etc.Thesamethingisseen,withamuchbriefersuspense,inCaesarsidsifieret,intellegebat
magnopericulo,etc.,B.G.1.10.2.
Mostofthethingsthusfarmentionedwillbefamiliartothestudentbeforeheleaveshis
introductorybookandbeginsCaesar.Atthispoint,hetakesupsentencesmorecomplex,andyet
inthemaincontainingnonewprinciples.Histeachercannowdohimagreatservicebyreading
aloudbothfamiliarandnewsentences,insuchawayastothrowthepartsintomasses;andby
teachingthestudenttodothesameinwhathehasalreadyread.E.g.,inB.G.1.8,thewordsea
legionequamsecumhabebatformoneideaandshouldbegivenwithoutseparation;thewords
militibusquequiexprovinciaconvenerantformanother,connected,afteraslightpause,withthe
formergroup;thesentencequifinesSequanorumabHelvetiisdividitshouldbedeliveredasa
singlemass,andinsuchamannerastoshowthatitisapieceofparentheticalexplanation.Inthis
way,theteachercanmakehishearersfeelthatthislongishsentenceoffivelines,withitsverb
helduptothelastplace,isreallyentirelysimple.Heshouldalsocallattentiontothevery
commonpointingsforwardtoanexplanatorysentence,whichareeffectedbypronounsand
pronominaladverbs,as,e.g.,inidin1.31.2(nonminusseidcontendere)which,asthemeaning
ofcontenderetellsus,mustbeexplainedtouslaterinasubstantivepurposeclause;asinhocin
1.32.4(respondithocessemiserioremetgravioremfortunam),whichmustbeexplainedlater
eitherbyaquoinasentencecontaininganothercomparative,orbyaquodsentencecontaininga
statementoffact;asinhaecin1.40.11(haecsibiessecurae),whichmustbeexplainedbya
substantivefinalclause,orbyaninfinitive;asinanita,lookingforwardtoanutorsiclause,or
aninfinitive;etc.,etc.
Theteacherwillallthewhileknowverywellwhatthingshisclassisfamiliarwith,andwhatitis
notfamiliarwith,andwillaccordinglydropquestionsupontheformerandcontinuethemupon
thelatter.Butuptotheveryend,thereshouldbestatedexercisesintranslationathearing,say
onceaweek,withcarefulquestionsuponpointscriticalfortheapprehensionofthemeaning;the
passagesthemselvestobecommittedtomemorylater.Thisisthemosteffectiveengineofthe
method,thesurestwayofdevelopingandkeepingupthehabitsofwatchfulnessandof
willingnesstowait.
Andnowabriefsummaryofsuggestions,inwhichIwilladdressmyselfdirectlytotheteacher.
Attheoutset,makethestudentfeelthattheLatinlanguagewasonceaneverydaytongueof
men,women,andchildren;atongueinwhichpeoplenotonlywrotebooks,butdined,and
playedtennis;alanguagespoken,andunderstoodasspoken.Directhim,therefore,toaimto
associatemeaningwiththesoundoftheword,notmerelywithgroupsoflettersonapage.Tell
him,ashecommitshisvocabularytomemory,tolifthiseyefromtheprintedword,andrepeat
36

againandagain,inimagination,thespokenword,sothatwhenhehearsitfromhisteacher,he
willfeelitsforceimmediately.
Throughouttheintroductorylessonbook,conductthetranslationofthereviewandofthe
advanceathearing,and,inthesameway,havethestudent,hisbookbeingclosed,putthe
printedEnglishsentencesintoLatinasyoudeliverthemtohim.Ifyoudothisfromthefirst,he
willbeable,bythetimethelessonbookisfinished,toexpressasentenceofconsiderablelength
inLatin,graspingitasawhole,insteadofturningonewordintoLatin,andthenanother,andso
on,inpiecemealfashion.
Ifyoucangettimeforpreparation,aimatrepetition,makingforyourownuse,inconnectionwith
eachlessoninthebook,agroupofsentenceswhich,employingthevocabularyalreadyacquired,
shallproceedfromchangetochangewithbutaslightdifferenceeachtime.Asimpleexampleof
whatImeanmayberecalledfrompp.2526.
14
Inthismatter,theinsistinguponthevalueof
repetition,theSauveurmethodisquiteright.
Asthestudentlearnsonenewuseafteranother,sayoftheaccusative,helphimtogetaclearand
practicallyserviceableideaofthepossibilitiesofrangeofoneandanotherkindofword,as
Caesarem,millepassuum,annum,multum.
Inasimilarway,helphimtoclassifyideasthatareexpressedbyverbalconstructions,especiallyin
subordinateclauses.Lethim,forexample,knowwithperfectfamiliaritywhattwokindsof
adversativeideasexistinthenatureofthings,andbywhatmodethesearerespectivelyexpressed
inLatin(oftheperiodwhichheisdealingwith),andwithwhatintroductoryparticles.Lethim
knowfamiliarlywhattwoideasonemayhaveinmindinusinganantequamconstruction,adum
construction,andsoon,andhowtheseideasareexpressed.
Bythetimehehasfinishedtheintroductorybook,hewillinthiswayhavemadetheintelligent
acquaintanceofverynearlyalltheconstructionsofthelanguage,andshouldhavethemallin
workingorder,likefamiliartools.
WhenyoucometoCaesar,donotletyourclassmakethefirstplungealone,butforanumberof
dayscarrythemthroughtheadvanceyourself,avoidingtranslationonyourownpartasfaras
possible,readingtheLatintotheminyourverybestandmosthelpfulmanner,andpointingout
orderandconstruction.ThroughouttheCaesarandCicero(Ishouldsaypreciselythesamething
oftheAnabasis)havethereviewofeachdaypreparedtobetranslatedathearing.Encourage
yourstudentstolearntodelivertheLatinwellbyappointingapromisingreader,fromtimeto
time,topreparehimselfinadvancetoreadthereviewtotheclassinyourstead.Lethimstandat
yoursidewithhiseyeuponhisfellowstudents;andashefinishesasentence,orsuchpartofa
sentenceasshallbebesttogiveinalump,doyouyourselfnamethestudentwhoshalltranslate.
37

Besurethatyouconstantlytreatconstructionsasmeansofexpressingcertainideas,notasmere
exemplificationsofrules.And,toenforcethisview,aswellasformanyotherreasons,watch
constantlythedevelopmentofideasindealingwithsentenceswhichyourstudentshavenotseen
before,and,inyourquestioningforwrittenanswers,orforvivavoceanswers,callattentionto
pointafterpointinthegradualunfoldingofthemeaning,demandingallthetimewhatIhave
elsewherecalledanticipatoryparsing.Andhaveagooddealofmemorizingandrecitingofthese
selectedpassages.
Aimtogoalittlebeyondthelessoneveryday,havingyourclassreadon,notatsight,butat
hearing,thisadditionalgroundbeingunderstoodtoformapartofthereviewatthenextmeeting.
Thedisadvantageofreadingonatsightistwofold.Thestudentistooapttolookaheadwhile
someoneelseisup,preparinghimselftomakeagoodshowingifheiscalledupon.Andevenif
hedoesnotdothis,heistooreadytorunhiseyetoandfrointhesentence,notreallyaccepting
theLatinorder,butdoingamoreorlesscleverpieceofpatchwork.Itoftenhappenstome,in
dealingwithstudentswhohavebeenwellpractisedinsightreadingbeforecomingtothe
University,toreadaloudasentencecontainingonlyfamiliarwords,everyoneofwhichtheycatch
asitisdelivered,yetfailtogetanymeaningfromthesentenceasawhole;andIcommonlyfind
that,ifIwillatonceputthesentenceintheverysamewords,butintheEnglishorder,theywill
comprehenditinstantlyandwithoutdifficulty.Thatexperienceprovesthatonemaydoadealof
sightreading,yetnevercometoknowtheLatinorderinanypracticalway.
15

Finally,nodayshouldpasswithoutcomposition.ThewritingofLatinisoneofthemostdrearyof
intellectualoccupations,oroneofthemostdelightful.Prettyuniformlyitistheformerforaboy
whohasnotwrittenaLatinsentencefromthetimehefinishedhiselementarybookandbegan
hisCaesartill,onlyafewmonthsbeforegoingtocollege,hetookuphisspecialbookin
compositionforthebarepurposeofpreparingfortheexaminationinthatsubject.Theobjectof
writingLatininthepreparatoryschoolsisnottogetonesselfreadytopassanexamination,but
togetonesselfreadytoreadLatin;andifthataimbeintelligentlypursued,theexaminationin
writingLatinwilltakecareofitself.Thepursuit,however,shouldbeincessant.Everydaya
numberofsentencesbasedupontheauthorinuseatthetimeshouldbewrittenbyvarious
membersoftheclass,senttotheboardforthepurpose.Timecaneasilybeobtainedbyhaving
thewritinggoingonwhiletheclassisrecitinguponthereview;afterwhich,correctionsshouldbe
calledforfromtheclassingeneral.
Throughouttheworkofthepreparatoryschool,theteachershouldinsistuponitthatwhatthe
pupilisprimarilyaimingatistolearntoreadinagreatliterature,withasslightabarrieras
possiblebetweenhimandhisauthor;andheshouldmakehimselfregardcases,modes,and
tenses,andmakehisstudentsregardthem,askeystotheliterature,asdirectconveyorsof
thoughtfrommindtomind.Howthelastmaymosteffectivelyandrapidlybedone,Ihavetried
toshow.Thisisallthatstrictlyfallswithinthescopeofthepresentpamphlet.ButIcannot
forbeartoaddthattheteacherwhoisconductingaclassthroughCaesar,orCicero,orVirgil,
38

shouldneverlosesightofthefactthathisworkisnotwhollypreparatory,thatheisalready
dealingwithagreatliterature.Themorehecanmakehisstudentsseethatitisagreatliterature,
throughthevirtueofhisownenjoymentofit,and,inparticular,throughthepowerwithwhichhe
canreadittothemintheLatin,andthepowerwithwhichhecantrainthemtoreadit
themselves,theeasierwillbehistask,andthericheritspalpablerewards;andthegreaterwillbe
hiscontributiontothesumtotaloftheclassicaleducation.
Thisbringsustotheuniversity,withitsmanifoldaims,thestudyoftheliteratureandofthe
historyofitsdevelopment,thecomparativestudyoftheformsandthesyntax,thestudyof
ancienthistoryfromthesources,thestudyofancientlife,ofancientart,etc.Allthesevarious
pursuits,however,restultimatelymainlyuponthepowertoreadLatinwitheaseandspeed.