GITIMH3 94107 Complex Numbers Page 1

Introducton
20/10/98
Terms:
C.N Complex Number
C.C.N Conjugate Complex Number

To Solve Equations Such As: x2 =  1

 We define the symbol ‘i’ such that: i   1 i.e. i2 =  1
 ‘i’ is called the imaginary number.

So x2 =  1 can be written as:

x2 =  1
x2 = i2
 x=i

Forth Number System:

 A number ‘i.y’ is a pure imaginary number.
 A number ‘x’ is a pure real number. Note:
 A number ‘x + i.y’ is a complex number. ‘y’ is real, it’s ‘i’ that makes it
imaginary.

A Complex Number
Equation: Z = x + i.y
Z = Complex number
x = Real function of the C.N = R(Z)
y = Imaginary function of the C.N = I(Z)

Conjugate of a Complex Number

Equation: Z  x  i .y
Z = Conjugate complex number
x = Real function of C.C.N = R (Z )
y = Imaginary function of C.C.N = I (Z )

Note:
Complex numbers do not express
magnitude, however they express magnitude
and direction (Vector).

Luke Cole Page 1

GITIMH3 94107 Complex Numbers Page 2

Operations
20/10/98
Sum of Complex Numbers:
Equation: (a + i.b) + (c + i.d) = (a + c) + i(b + d)

Proof:
(a + i.b) + (c + i.d) = 0
a + c + i.b + i.d = 0
(a + c) + i(b + d) = 0

Subtraction of Complex Numbers:

Equation: (a + i.b) – (c + i.d) = (a – c) + i(b – d)

Proof:
(a + i.b) – (c + i.d) = 0
a + i.b – c – i.d = 0
 (a – c) + i(b – d) = 0

Product of Complex Numbers:

Equation: (a + i.b)(c + i.d) = (a.c – b.d) + i(a.d + b.c)

Proof:
(a + i.b)(c + i.d) = 0
a.c + i.a.d + i.b.c + i2.b.d = 0
2
Since i = – 1:
 (a.c – b.d) + i(a.d + b.c) = 0

Division of Complex Numbers:

a  i .b a .c  b .d b .c  a .d
Equation:  2  i. 2
c  i .d c d 2
c  d2

Proof:
a  i .b
0
c  i .d
a  i .b c  i .d
 0
c  i .d c  id
a.c  i .a.d  i .b.c  i 2 .b.d
0
c 2  i .c .d  i .c.d  i 2 .d 2
a  i .b a .c  b.d b .c  a.d
  2  i. 2
c  i .d c  d 2
c d2

Luke Cole Page 2

GITIMH3 94107 Complex Numbers Page 3

Ordered Pairs Operations:

Equation: (a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d)

Equation: (a, b) – (c, d) = (a – c, b – d)

Equation: (a, b)  (c, d) = (a.c – b.d, a.d + b.c)

a , b   a .c  b .d , b .c  ad
Equation:
c , d  c 2  d 2 c 2  d 2
Equation: (a, b) = (c, d) iff, a = c, b = d

Equation: k(a, b) = (k.a, k.b)

Luke Cole Page 3

GITIMH3 94107 Complex Numbers Page 4

Solving Square Roots and Quadratic’s

20/10/98
Square Roots:
Note:
E.g. 5  12.i Because the square root is ‘+’, i.e. a > 0,
therefore one answer. If the square root was
A 5  12.i = a + i.b ‘’, i.e. a = IR therefore two answers.
= (a + i.b)2
= a2 – b2 + 2.i.a.b
So, 5 = a – b2
2
…(1)
12 = 2.a.b …(2)
6
(2)  b  …(3)
a
Sub (3) into (1)
2
2 6 
5  a  
a
0 = a – 5.a2 – 36
4

0 = (a2 – 9)(a2 + 4)
 a = 3 & a   4
Since we are solving for ‘x’ a real number > 0
 a=3
Sub a = 3 into (2)
 b=2
Sub a = 3 & b = 2 into Question
 5  12.i = a + i.b
= 3 + 2.i

Quadratic’s:
E.g. Find the roots of x2 + x + 1 = 0

A Use the quadratic formula

1 3
Roots, x
2
Since i2 = – 1
 3  3 .  1  3 .i
 1  3 .i
 x
2

Luke Cole Page 4

GITIMH3 94107 Complex Numbers Page 5

The Argand Diagram

23/10/98
A complex number (Z = x + i.y) can be expressed as a point, but in turn is a vector with
magnitude and direction.
x  Real Axis
y P
y  Imaginary Axis
O  Origin
P  (x, y)
POM  
OP  r
O M x MP  r.sin = y
OM  r.cos = x

Distance OP:
 Called the modulus of the complex number.
 Denoted by: r = Z = mod Z = x + i.y
Equation: Z  x2  y2
Z = Modulus of Z
x = R(Z)
y = I(Z)

POM:
 Called the argument (or amplitude) of the complex number.
 Denoted by:  = arg Z = arg (x + i.y)
 Domain: <
Equation: arg Z = tan-1 (y/x)
arg Z = POM (  <   )
y = I(Z)
x = R(Z)

Modulus-Argument (Vector) form of a Complex Number:

Equation: Z = r(cos  + i.sin ) = r.cis 
Z = Complex number
r = Modulus of complex number
 = Argument of complex number (  <   )

Proof:
Z = x + i.y …(1)
x = r.cos  …(2)
y = r.sin  …(3)
Sub (2) & (3) into (1):
Z = r.cos  + i.r.sin 
 Z = r(cos  + i.sin ) Abbreviated, Z = r.cis
Luke Cole Page 5
GITIMH3 94107 Complex Numbers Page 6

Operations
27/10/98
Note:
 If the ’s are out side the domain then  2.

Equation: cos ( ) = cos  & sin ( ) =  sin 

Product of Mod-Arg Complex Numbers:

Equation: Z1.Z2.….Zn = r1.r2.….rn.cis (1 + 2 + …+ n)
Z1 = 1st complex number
Z2 = 2nd complex number
Zn = nth complex number
r1 = 1st modulus of complex number
r2 = 2nd modulus of complex number
rn = nth modulus of complex number
1 = 1st argument of complex number (  <   )
2 = 2nd argument of complex number (  <   )
n = nth argument of complex number (  <   )

Proof:
Let, Z1 = r1(cos 1 + i.sin 1) …(1)
Z2 = r2(cos 2 + i.sin 2) …(2)
Now (1)  (2):
Z1.Z2 = r1.r2(cos 1 + i.sin 1)(cos 2 + i.sin2)
 Z1.Z2 = r1.r2.cis (1 + 2) …[1]
Generalising:
 Z1.Z2.….Zn = r1.r2.….rn.cis (1 + 2 + …+ n)

Equation: Z1.Z2 = Z1.Z2

Z1 = 1st modulus of complex number
Z2 = 2nd modulus of complex number

Proof:
From [1]:
Z1.Z2= r1.r2.cis (1 + 2)
Z1.Z2 = r1.r2.cis (1 + 2)
= r1 2 .r2 2 .cis 2  1   2 
= r1.r2
= Z1.Z2

Equation: arg Z1.Z2 = arg Z1 + arg Z2

arg Z1 = 1st argument of complex number (  <   )
arg Z2 = 2nd argument of complex number (  <   )

Luke Cole Page 6

GITIMH3 94107 Complex Numbers Page 7

Division of Mod-Arg Complex Numbers:

Z 1 r1
Equation:  .cis  1   2 
Z 2 r2
Z1 = 1st complex number
Z2 = 2nd complex number
r1 = 1st modulus of complex number
r2 = 2nd modulus of complex number
1 = 1st argument of complex number (  <   )
2 = 2nd argument of complex number (  <   )

Proof:
Let, Z1 = r1(cos 1 + i.sin 1) …(1)
Z2 = r2(cos 2 + i.sin 2) …(2)
Now (1)  (2):
Z 1 r1 cos  1  i . sin  1 

Z 2 r2 cos  2  i . sin  2 
Z 1 r1 cos  1  i .sin  1  cos  2  i . sin  2
 
Z 2 r2 cos  2  i . sin  2  cos  2  i . sin  2
Z 1 r1
  .cis  1   2  …[2]
Z 2 r2

Z1 Z1
Equation: 
Z2 Z2
st
Z1 = 1 modulus of complex number
Z2 = 2nd modulus of complex number

Proof:
From [2]:
Z 1 r1
 .cis  1   2 
Z 2 r2
Z1 r
 1 .cis 2  1   2 
Z2 r2
2
r1
= 2
.cis 2  1   2 
r2
r1
=
r2
Z1
=
Z2

Luke Cole Page 7

GITIMH3 94107 Complex Numbers Page 8

Z 
Equation: arg  1   arg Z 1  arg Z 2
 Z2 
arg Z1 = 1st argument of complex number (  <   )
arg Z2 = 2nd argument of complex number (  <   )

Powers of Mod-Arg Complex Numbers:

Equation: Zn = rn.cis (n.)
Z = Complex number
r = Modulus of complex number
 = Argument of complex number (  <   )
n = Integer

De Moivres Theorem
Equation: (cos  + i.sin )n = cos (n.) + i.sin (n.)
(cos   i.sin )n = cos (n.)  i.sin (n.)

Proof:
Case 1: ‘n’ is a positive integer
Prove true for n = 1
LHS = (cos  + i.sin )1
= cos  + i.sin 
= RHS
Assume true for n = k
(cos  + i.sin )k = cos (k.) + i.sin (k.)
Prove true for n = k + 1
(cos  + i.sin )k + 1 = cos [(k + 1)] + i.sin [(k + 1)]
LHS = (cos  + i.sin )k + 1
= (cos  + i.sin )[cos (k.) + i.sin (k.)]
= cos [ + (.k)] + i.sin [ + (.k)]
= RHS
If true for n = k, then true for n = k + 1, but is true for n = 1, n = 2 and so on
 True for all positive ‘n’

Case 2: ‘n’ is a negative integer

Let n =  m where ‘m’ is a positive integer
(cos  + i.sin )n = (cos  + i.sin ) m
1
=
cosm.  i . sin m. 
1 cosm.   i . sin m.
= 
cosm.  i . sin m.  cosm.   i . sin m.
= cos (m.)  i.sin (m.)
= cos ( m.) + i.sin ( m.)
= cos (n.) + i.sin (n.)
 True for all negative integer values of ‘n’

Luke Cole Page 8

GITIMH3 94107 Complex Numbers Page 9

Solving C.N
To Solve sinn  and/or cos n  in Terms of Multiples of :
 Use the following equations to derive the answer
Equation: Zn + Z n = 2.cos (n.)
Zn  Z n = 2.i.sin (n.)

Proof:
Let, Z = cos  + i.sin 
So, Zn = cos (n.) + i.sin (n.)
Z n = cos (n.)  i.sin (n.)
 Zn + Z n = [cos (n.) + i.sin (n.)] + [cos (n.)  i.sin (n.)] = 2.cos (n.)
Zn  Z n = [cos (n.) + i.sin (n.)]  [cos (n.)  i.sin (n.)] = 2.i.sin (n.)

E.g. Express cos3  in terms of multiples of 

A Since, Zn + Z n = 2.cos (n.) …(1)

3
 1
Now, 2. cos 3  Z  
 Z
2 1 1
8. cos 3   Z 3  Z  2.Z    3
Z Z Z
 1   1
8. cos 3    Z 3  3   3 Z   …(2)
 Z   Z
Sub (1) into (2)
1 3
 cos 3   . cos3.   .cos 
4 4

To Solve sin (n.) and/or sin (n.) in Terms of cos  and sin :
 Expanding (cos  + i.sin )n and equating real and imaginary parts

E.g. Express cos (3.) in terms of cos  and sin 

A Let, c = cos  & s = sin 

(c + i.s)3 = (c + i.s)(c + i.s)(c + i.s)
=…
= c3  3.c.s2 + i(3.c2.s  s3)
 cos (3.) = c3  3.c.s2

Luke Cole Page 9

GITIMH3 94107 Complex Numbers Page 10

Roots of C.N
30/10/98
Graphing:
 Modulus of all roots (radius of circle) = r1/n
 The first root is plotted by finding the argument for the first root, then the other
roots are equally spaced around circle with an angle between them = 360/n

Finding Roots:
 Zn = a + i.b has ‘n’ roots on a circle with radius ‘r’.
1    2.k . 
Equation: r n .cis  
 n 
r = Modulus of Z
n = ‘n’ roots
 = Argument of Z
k = 0, 1, 2, …, (n – 1)

Proof by Example:

E.g. Find the cube root of  1

A If Z is the cube root of  1 then

Z3 + 1 = 0
(Z + 1)(Z2 – Z + 1) = 0
1  3 .i
 Z=1 & Z
2

OR
A We Write
 1 = cos  + i.sin 
Generalising this expression, add 2.k. to the arg ( 1)
 1 = cos ( + 2.k.) + i.sin ( + 2.k.) Where, k = 0, 1, 2
Now let the required cube root be
R(cos  + i.sin )
3 cos   2.k .   i . sin   2.k .   R cos   i . sin  

cos ( + 2.k.) + i.sin ( + 2.k.) = R3[cos (3.) + i.sin (3.)]
Equating the LHS with RHS
  2.k .
R=1 & 
3
Cube roots are given by
Z = R(cos  + i.sin )
   2.k .     2.k . 
Z  cos    i . sin   Where, k = 0, 1, 2
 3   3 

Luke Cole Page 10

GITIMH3 94107 Complex Numbers Page 11
When, k = 0
1 3
Z1   .i
2 2
When, k = 1
Z2 =  1
When, k = 2
1 3
Z3   .i
2 2
When, k = …, 2, 1, 3, 4, … the angles become the same as when k = 0, 1, 2.

These three roots lie on a circle of radius 1 and the arguments are:
arg Z1 = 60
arg Z2 = 180
arg Z3 =  60
y
Z1

Z2 1 x

Z3

Luke Cole Page 11

GITIMH3 94107 Complex Numbers Page 12

Properties of C.N and C.C.N

5/11/98
y

Z
y

 x x

y
Z 

Equation: Z= Z = x 2  y 2

Equation: arg Z =  arg Z

Equation: Z. Z = x2 + y2 = Z2 =  Z 2

Equation: Z + Z = 2.x

Equation: Z  Z = 2.i.y

Equation: Z1  Z2  Z 1  Z 2

Equation: Z 1 .Z 2  Z 1 .Z 2

 Z1  Z 1
Equation:  
 Z2  Z 2

Z
Equation: Z 1  2
Z

Luke Cole Page 12

GITIMH3 94107 Complex Numbers Page 13

The Complex Roots of Unity

12/11/98
 n
The complex root of unity has the equation Z = 1 with ‘n’ roots and a 1 unit radius
(‘n’ is a positive integer)
 If ‘n’ is odd, there is one real root, Z1 = 1, and (n – 1) complex roots occurring in
conjugate pairs
 If ‘n’ is even, there is two real roots, Z1 = 1 & Z2 =  1 and (n – 2) complex roots
occurring in conjugate pairs
 The roots of Zn = 1 are expressed: 1 , , 2, … , n  1

Showing Roots are in Conjugate Pairs:

The equation Z5 = 1 has roots:
Z1 = 1
2. 2.
Z 2  cos  i . sin
5 5
4. 4.
Z 3  cos  i. sin
5 5
6. 6.
Z 4  cos  i. sin
5 5
8. 8.
Z 5  cos  i. sin
5 5
Let, Z2 = 
4. 4.
So, Z 3  cos  i. sin
5 5
 2.   2. 
Z 3  cos  2.   i . sin  2. 
 5   5 
2
 2. 2. 
Z 3   cos  i . sin 
 5 5 
Z3 = 2
Similarly, Z4 = 3 & Z5 = 4

Luke Cole Page 13

GITIMH3 94107 Complex Numbers Page 14
6. 6.
Also, Z 4  cos  i. sin
5 5
 4.   4. 
Z4  cos 2.    i . sin  2.  
 5   5 
4. 4.
Z4  cos  i. sin
5 5
Z4  Z3
 2.   2. 
Z4  cos  2.   i . sin  2. 
 5   5 
2
 2. 2. 
Z 4   cos  i . sin 
 5 5 
Z4 =  2
Here, Z 4  Z 3   2
Similarly, Z 5  Z 2   1

Sum of roots:
Equation: 1 +  + 2 + … + n  1 = 0

Proof:
For, Zn = 1
Sum of roots:
 Coefficien t of Z n 1
Sum of roots =
Coefficien t of Z n
Since coefficient of Zn  1 = 0:
 1 + n + 2 + … + n  1 = 0

For More Information of Sum of Roots See Polynomials

Luke Cole Page 14

GITIMH3 94107 Complex Numbers Page 15

Factorisation over the Complex Field

17/11/98
We Can Factorise Z  1, Z + 1 & Z + Z
n n n n1
+Z n2
+…+1
Into:
 Real linear and real quadratic factors
 Complex linear factors
This usually is obtained by solving Zn  1 = 0

Equation: Z2  1 = (Z  1)(Z + 1)

Equation: Z2 + 1 = (Z + i)(Z  i)

Equation: Z3  1 = (Z  1)(Z2 + Z + 1)

Equation: Z3 + 1 = (Z + 1)(Z2  Z + 1)

Equation: Z4  1 = (Z  1)(Z + 1)(Z2 + 1)

Equation:  
Z4 + 1 = (Z2 + 1)2  2.Z2 = Z 2  2 .Z  1 Z 2  2 .Z  1 
Equation: Z5  1 = (Z  1)(Z4 + Z3 + Z2 + Z + 1)

Equation: Z5 + 1 = (Z + 1)(Z4  Z3 + Z2  Z + 1)

Equation: Z6  1 = (Z  1)(Z + 1)(Z4 + Z2 + 1)

Equation: Z6 + 1 = (Z2 + 1)(Z4  Z2 + 1)

Equation: Zn  1 = (Z  1)(Zn  1 + Zn  2 + … + Z + 1) if ‘n’ is odd

Equation: Zn  1 = (Z  1)(Z + 1)(Zn  2 + Zn  4 + … + Z2 + 1) if ‘n’ is

even

Equation: Zn + 1 = (Z + 1)(Zn  1  Zn  2 + …  Z + 1) if ‘n’ is odd

E.g. Factorise Z6  1 into quadratic and real factors, hence factorise Z4 + Z2 + 1.

Luke Cole Page 15
GITIMH3 94107 Complex Numbers Page 16

2.k . 2.k .
A Z  cos  i . sin Where, k = 0, … , 5
6 6
So the roots are
Z1 = 1
 
Z 2  cos  i . sin
3 3
2. 2.
Z 3  cos  i . sin
3 3
Z4 =  1
2. 2.
Z 5  cos  i . sin  Z3
3 3
 
Z 6  cos  i . sin  Z 2
3 3
Conjugate pairs
Z2 & Z6
Z3 & Z5

Here, Z 2  Z 6  Z 2  Z 2  2. cos …(1)
3
2.
Z 3  Z 5  Z 3  Z 3  2.cos …(2)
3
     
Z 2 .Z 6  Z 2 .Z 2   cos  i . sin  cos  i . sin 
 3 3  3 3
1 3 3 2
=  . .i
4 2 2
1 3
= 
4 4
Z 2 .Z 6  Z 3 .Z 5  1 …(3)
Since, Z  1 = (Z  1)(Z + Z + 1)
6 2 4 2

= (Z  Z1)(Z  Z2)(Z  Z3)(Z  Z4)(Z  Z5)(Z  Z6)

= (Z  1)(Z + 1)[Z2  (Z2 + Z6)Z + Z2.Z6]
[Z2  (Z3 + Z5)Z + Z3.Z5] …(4)
Sub (1), (2) & (3) into (4)
   2. 
 Z 6  1  Z  1Z  1 Z 2  2.cos .Z  1 Z 2  2.cos .Z  1
 3  3 

Luke Cole Page 16

GITIMH3 94107 Complex Numbers Page 17

Triangular Inequality
E.g. Proof that Z1 + Z2  Z1 + Z2
C(Z1 + Z2)
A
B(Z2 )

A(Z 1)
O

Here, OA = BC = Z1 & AC = OB = Z2

So, we can assume in OAC
OA + AC > OC
 Z1 + Z2 < Z1 + Z2
The inequality is equal when
arg Z1 = arg Z2
 Z1 + Z2  Z1 + Z2

Luke Cole Page 17

GITIMH3 94107 Complex Numbers Page 18

Geometric Representation of Complex Number’s

Addition:
C(Z1 + Z2) Z1 = x1 + i.y1
B(Z2 ) Z2 = x2 + i.y2
Z1 + Z2 = (x1 + x2) + i(y1 + y2)
OBAC
A(Z 1) BCOA
O

Proof:
So, mid-point of AB:
 x  x 2 y1  y 2 
M  1 , 
 2 2 
Therefore the co-ordinates of C must be:
 x1  x 2 y1  y 2 
C  2. , 
 2 2 
C   x1  x 2 , y 1  y 2 
Hence, point C corresponds to the sum of the complex numbers Z1 and Z2:
 Z1 + Z2 = (x1 + i.y1) + (x2 + i.y2)
= (x1 + x2) + i(y1 + y2)

Subtraction:
B(Z2)
C(Z2  Z1) Z1 = x1 + i.y1
Z2 = x2 + i.y2
A(Z1) Z2  Z1 = (x2  x1) + i(y2  y1)
CBDA
O CDBO
D( Z1)

Proof:
From the parallelogram OBCD the co-ordinates of C are:
C   x 2  x1 , y 2  y1 
Hence, point C corresponds to the subtraction of the complex numbers Z1 and Z2:
Z2  Z1 = (x2 + i.y2)  (x1 + i.y1)
= (x2  x1) + i(y2  y1)

Luke Cole Page 18

GITIMH3 94107 Complex Numbers Page 19

Product:
P(Z1.Z2 )
Z1 = x1 + i.y1
C(Z2)
Z2 = x2 + i.y2
Z1.Z2= r1.r2.cis (1 + 2)
 1 r2 OCD = OAB
OABOCB
2 r1 B(Z1 )
1
O A

Proof:
Here, arg (Z1.Z2) = 1 + 2
And since, OABOCB:
OP OC

OB OA
OP r2

r1 1
 OP = r1.r2
Hence, point P corresponds to the product of the complex numbers Z1 and Z2:
Z1.Z2= r1.r2.cis (1 + 2)

Note:
Multiplication of ‘i’ corresponds to a rotation in the anti-clockwise
direction through an angle of /2.
i.e. i  arg /2
i2  arg 
i3  arg  /2
i4  arg 0

Luke Cole Page 19

GITIMH3 94107 Complex Numbers Page 20

The Locus of C.N.

Equation: Z   = r or Z  Z     r 2
 = Centre
r = radius

E.g. (1) Find the locus of Z= 3

A From, Z= 3
Z= x + i.y = x2  y2
3
So, x2  y2 = 3
 x2 + y2 = 9

Here, centre (0, 0) radius 3

E.g. (2) Find the locus of Z  2 + i < 4

A Since, Z = x + i.y
Now, x + i.y  2 + i < 4
(x  2)+ i(y + 1) < 4
x  2 2   y  12
4
 (x  2)2 + (y + 1)2 < 16

Here, centre (2,  1) radius 4

E.g. (3) Sketch the region defined by 0  arg Z  /3

Note:
Exclude origin, as it is
not an angle but a point
/3

Luke Cole Page 20

GITIMH3 94107 Complex Numbers Page 21
Z 1
E.g. (4) Find the locus of  if   is given by Z = 2
Z

1
A Make Z the subject, Z
1 
1
Now, Z 
1 
 1 = 2.1  
1 = 2.1  (x + i.y) = 2. 1  x 2  y 2
 (1  x)2 + y2 = ¼

Luke Cole Page 21