Biological level of an'alysis:

genetics and behaviour

Behavioural genetics
}lravioural genetics deals with understanding how both genetics
amri the environment contribute to individual variations in human
hahar.iour. It is interesting to note that humans share 93 per cent of
Urnes
with the rhesus macaque monkeys, even though humans do
mst look like these animals and do not behave like them. Although
mparative psychology has revealed similarities between humans
amd monkeys, it is obvious that the 7 per cent difference in the
gpnetic material accounts for a significant amount. This example
dsmonstrates the complexity of genetics; although the basic premise
mff ffiis field is that inheritance of DNA plays a role in behaviour, it is
ummponant not to misunderstand this. What is inherited are the genes
r[hn1 givg rise to the development of specific physiological processes
rhnt
contribute to specific characteristics and behaviour. It is not
pmo,bable that a single gene is responsible for such complex
hrhar-iours as intelligence, criminal behaviour, altruism, or
amtachment. Instead, what is inherited may be one of the building
MLmcks for such complex behaviours.
$sl-chologists argue that an individual may have a genetic
predisposition towards a certain behaviour; however, without the
drypropriate environmental stimuli, this behaviour will not be
nrnanifested.
For example, in the study of abnormal behaviour, the
diathesis-stress model is used to explain the origin of depression.
This model argues that depression may be the result of the
umteraction of a "genetic vulnerability" and traumatic environmental
ffimuti in early childhood. It is also known that not all people
dn-elop depression following a traumatic childhood, even if they
h,ave a sibling who becomes depressed. This illustrates the
cnrnplexity of the problem and that there is no single cause-and-
effect relationship between genes and behaviour.
a
a
a
5'l
2_2 *
B;e;or;.al
level of analysis:
genetics
and behaviour
Genetic
arguments
of behaviour
are based
on the principre
of
inheritance.
Genes
and their
DNA are passed
down
from parents
to their offspring.
T:lT,
have
Z'l parrs
of chromosomes,
wirh
approximately
2O 000_25
OO0 genes.
In 1990,
James
D. Watson
pioneered
the Human
C."o_Jp-j.ct,
with
the goal
of mapping
the genetic
make_up
of the human
species
by identifying
those
25 000 genes'
This incredibre
pro;eciwas
compreted
in 2003.
The
mapping
of human genes
could
be a
human[.n"ti."1.;:;";'"".::.."^::-1]mportantstepinexplaining
specracurar".."il;i,1,ff11"1:f
il.#i:f.:..:,,Tff
;"';iU:".*
specific
behaviours
remains
unknown.
Genetic
research
Genedc
research
in humans
is to a large extent
based
on
correlational
studies.
Researchers
look
at how different
variabres
may co-vary.
This
means
that a correlationar
,r"av-"r.urrrrr.,
,rru,
there is a rerationship
between
"u.iuur.r,
but
the researcher
does not manipulate
an independent
variable
as in un
expe.im".ri.
rrr.."to.",
no cause
and effect can be determined.
Twin
studies,
family
studies
and
adoption
studies
one
of the most common
ways
to study the possible
correlation
of genedc
inheritance
and behaviour
is through
twin research.
Researchers
study
twins because
tt.y rrru..
cornmon
genetic
materiar.
There
are two ryp::
o{rwins:
rnonozygotic
(Mz)and
dizygotic
( D Z
)'
Mon o zy gotic
rwins
are g.".ti.uily
ia.r,ii."r'u..u^.J.'ihey
are formed
from
one fe,rtilizef
_e_s;,h;;;;;r,
into two. These
twins
are of the same sex and should
il.t
"..i-uch
alike.
Dizygotic
means
from
two eggs. DZ twins
will ,rot U" u.ry closer genetically
than
brothers
and sisters-they
will rr"u.
uuorr, 50 per
cent of their genes
in common.
They are formed
f.o_i*o
separate
fertilized
eggs.
These
twins
are not necessarily
of the s
l
beca use pty.h
"r;;i*s
u se rh ese airfer.;1T:r*.rT'l:;
ff:..'
r',.
relationship
as a basis for
rheir
6;;rh;r"r. Ir should
be the case thar the higher
the genetic.etatlonrfrilf
lfr.
-o..
similar
individuals
will be if the particular
characteristi.
f.i"g'i""estigated
is inherited.
rn twin
research,
the correlarion
ro""Jii
called
the concordance
rate.
Another
way that behaviourar
genetics
is studied
is through
family studies'
Unlike
twin researcrr,
irri, irl
-or"
representative
sampre
of the generar
population.
A .hiiJill.it,
rrar irs genes
from
the mother
and half from
rhe father.
It f;ifu,
rhar
ordinary
brorhers
and sisters
will share
50 per
cent of ,fr.i. g..r",
with each
other; grandparents
will share
25 per
cent of their genes
with their
grandchildren;
and first cousinr
ul rruu. r2.5 per
cent of their genes
in common.
In family
studies,
these different
degrees
of genetic
reratedness
are compared
with behaviour.
The notion
is that concordance
rates win increase
ir n.riaarility
is high and vice versa. For example,
if the heritability
of fq n;lligence
quotienr)
is high, there
should
be a strong{orr"iurio"-i.r'ie
o.r*...,
children
and
their
mothers,
but a weak correlation
i.rlo n"r."een
second
cousins,
and very little,
if any, betwee"
,,.""g..r.-
Twins
are
research
,:r,t5?.1:
2.2 a 3;61e9;.al level of analysis: genetics and behaviour
A final method used for genetic research is adoption studies. In
principle, these allow the most direct comparison of genetic and
mrironmental influences of behaviour. Adopted or foster children
generally share none of their genes with their adoptive parents, but
mhev do share 50 per cent of their genes with their natural mother. It
would be reasonable to suppose, therefore, that if the heritability of
a Lrehaviour is high and environment has little part to play, then the
h'chaviour of adopted children should correlate more strongly with
mhe behaviour of their natural mother than their adoptive mother. If,
u'n the other hand, the environment has the strongest role to play,
uhe reverse pattern should be found.
Adoption studies are often criticized as these children are not
rpresentative of the general population. In addition, adoption
agencies tend to use selective placement when finding homes for
drildren,
trying to place children with families who are similar in as
many ways as possible to the natural parents. Consequently, the
effects of genetic inheritance may be difficult to separate from the
frnfluences
of the environment.
Or-erall, these approaches to the study of the relative influence of
gFnetic make-up and the environment allow researchers to
determine the extent of genetic influence. In spite of the weaknesses
inutlined here, it is clear that there is a correlation between several
hehaviours and genetic inheritance.
lnrtelligence
At the beginning of the 20th century, there was a great interest in
rhe role of genetics in behaviour. Governments and schools sought
ro design tests that could indicate one's genetically endowed
intellectual potential-or IQ. Alfred Binet, a pioneer in intelligence
nesearch at the beginning of the 20th century, developed an
intelligence test in order to improve the French education system.
One of the main controversies regarding intelligence is whether it is
inherited
or is the result of environmental stimuli. At this point in
:me,
no serious researcher would argue that genetics does not play
a role or that the environment has no importance. Research has
shornm, for example, that poverty seems to have an important
inlluence on the development of children's intelligence.
Some intelligence research is controversial. In 1994, Harvard
professor Richard J. Herrnstein published The Bell Curve. He claimed
that the debate about whether and how much genes and the
environment have to do with ethnic differences remains unresolved.
The media furore over the idea that there may be intergroup
diJferences in intelligence demonstrates the highly political nature of
the topic.
2,2 s
Biological level of analysis: genetics and behaviour
Give me a dozen hearthy infants and my own specific worrd to bring them
up in, and I'Il guarantee
to take any one at random and train him to
become any type of specialist I might select_doctor,
lawer, artist,
merchant, chef and yes, even beggar and thief, regardliss
of his talents,
penchants,
tendencies,
abitities, vocations,
and race of his incestors.
This quote
from John B. Watson (Ig24)
illustrares
the purely
"nurture"
side of the debate. It is only recently
that the interaction
of biological and environmental
factois
has been considered.
one of rhe difficulties
in determining
the origin of intelligence
is that
there has been-and
continues to be-much
debate about the
nature of intelligence.
what is it, and how can it be measured?
charles Spearman,
an early intenigence
theorist, found that student
performance
across different subjects was positivery
correrated.
As a
result of this, he argued that there is a general
inteligence
factor
that is the basis for all intelligence-something
that he called the
,,g,,
factor' Modern intelligence
testing attempts
to assess this g, rather
than looking at specific
school subjects. Instead of testing l' student,s
skill in history, mathematics,
or art history, the test focuses on spatial
ability, reasoning,
divergent
rhinking, and verbal fluency. The
question
then is: where does g come from?
Research
on intelligence
Bouchard
and McGue (l9gr)
reviewed rrr studies of Ie correlations
between siblings from research
studies on intelligence
from around
the world. This is what is called a meta-analysis-the
statisticar
synthesis of the data from a set of comparable
studies of a problem
that yields
a quantitative
summary of the pooled
results. Tirey found
that the closer the kinship,
the higher the correlation
for Ie. In
order to investigate
the role of genetics
in intelligence,
reselrchers
have used identicar
twins who have been brougit rrp ,.pu.ui.ty
from birth. This provides
researchers
with participarus
#ho hurr. u
100 per cent genetic
rerationship,
but have grown
up in different
environments'
This is based on the assumption
that any similarity
between
their Ies-beyond
that expected
by chan..__,rr,
be due
to genetics
rather than the environment.
The Minnesota
Twin Study (Bouchard
et al. 1990) is a
longitudinal
study rhat has been going
on since 1979.lnthis
study,
MZAs (identical
twins raised apart) are compared
to Mzrs (identical
twins raised together).
This is the most cross-cultural
study to date,
with participants
from all over the world. Another advantage
of this
2,2 * B161ot1.al level of analysis: genetics and behaviour
study is that the mean age of the MZAs was 4I years old (at the start
of the study). Until this point, almost all intelligence rese4rch on
twins was carried out with adolescents
Each twin completed approximately 50 hours of testing and
interviews. The concordance rates of intelligence from the study are
shown in the table below.
r't:]176llbtrri:a::t::::ti::ii:t
:::li:r:r:::,:t:::rl
Bouchard et al. determined a heritability estimate of 70 per cent-
that is, tlnatTO per cent of intelligence can be attributed to genetic
inheritance. This means that 30 per cent of intelligence may be
attributed to other factors.
Much research has supported the findings of the Minnesota TWin
Study. In addition, the size and nature of the sample has made it one
of the most impressive twin studies ever carried out. In spite of this,
there are some criticisms of the study.
o Bouchard relied on media coverage to recruit participants.
o There are some ethical concerns about the way he reunited the
twins.
o There was no adequate control to establish the frequency of
contact between the twins prior to the study.
o We cannot assume that twins who are raised together experience
the same environment-this is called the "equal environment
assumption".
One of the ways in which the final criticism has been challenged is
by looking at adoption studies.
In adoption studies, the intelligence of the adopted child is correlated
with the intelligence of the adoptive parent. Since there is no
biological link between the adoptive parent and the child, the
environmental influence should be evident.
Scarr and Weinberg (1977) and Horn et aI. (1979) focused on
parents
who had raised both adopted and natural children. The
assumption is that all the children had the same upbringing, in the
same environment, with the same parents. Any significant
differences between parent-child IQ correlations for adopted and
natural children should be attributable to genes. The researchers
found no significant difference in IQ correlations. This was very
interesting, because in almost all the families in these studies, the
adoptive parents were wealthy, white, and middle class, with high
IQs, and the adopted children were from poor, lower-class
backgrounds, with lower-IQ parents.
In other research, Wahlsten (t997) claims that well-controlled
adoption studies conducted in France have found that transferring
an infant from a family with a low socio-economic status to a home
2.2 * Biological level of analysis: genetics and behaviour
rs\rrrpurer\:'s:c-lt-a.\r\l:s\s-es-srlsrrr:rr:\a\r:'l:rrr:5sl:\
childhood IQ scores by 12-16 points, or about one standard
deviation. This seems to suggest that intelligen'ce has a lot to do with
the environment as well as genetics. An enriched environment may
raise IQ in children. It is likely that there is a strong interaction
between genes and the environment to produce intelligence level.
Some concluding thoughts on intelligence
There are some other things to consider when examining the genetic
explanation of intelligence. One problem, as discussed earlier, is the
definition of intelligence. Is intelligence only based on knowledge, or
is it related to our ability to solve problems? Hainer et al. (1988)
carried out a PET scan study which indicated that when solving a
reasoning problem, individuals with a high IQ had lower metabolic
rates than those with a low IQ. This difference was seen only in
problem solving, and not in data recall. This may mean that those
with higher IQs use less energy to think than those with lower IQs.
This is known as the less effort hypothesis.
Plomin and Petrill (1997\ found that correlations between parent
and child IQs change over time. Between the ages of 4 and 6 years,
they found a 40 per cent correlation; in early adulthood it rose to 60
per cenq and in older adults it was 80 per cent. They concluded that
it is possible that our genetic disposition pushes us towards
environments that accentuate that disposition, thus leading to
increased heritability throughout the lifespan. Socio-economic class
appears to be one of the most important environmental factors in
the development of intelligence. Poverty-not genetic inferiority-is
key to understanding differences in intelligence.
The Flynn effect refers to the rise of average scores on inteiligence
tests in most parts of the world over the last century. James R. Flynn
tried to document this in order to create awareness of its
implications. According to Ulric Neisser, who wrote an article on the
phenomenon in The American Scientist in 1997, the average mean
scores on standard IQ tests have been going up by about three points
every l0 years, and the increase is even higher in measures of
abstract-reasoning ability. The cause of these gains is unknown, but
experts discuss whether they reflect a real increase in intelligence or
an increasing ability to crack intelligence tests. Other possible factors
include better nutrition, improved schooling, different child-rearing
practices, and the increased use of technology in modern life. In fact,
Neisser thinks that living in a highly visual environment may play
an important role in the rise in IQ scores.
As part of the early researdt
intelligence, the US and
countries began a branch of
called eugenics. This was the
to find "good genes" and to
"bette/'
breeding in order to
healthier, more intelligent
The eugenics movement led
immigration restrictions and
discrimination, founded on the
that intelligence was based
genetics alone. lt attempted to
entire groups of people as
"frttef
"inferior". ln the US, eugenics led
the sterilization of women who
considered
"feeble-minded".
centre for eugenics research was
Cold Springs Harbor, New York
the movement failed to
was that it was poverty which
a key role in poor school
not membership of a particular
grouP.
To read more about eugenics,
to www.eugenicsarchive
eugenics/
1,": ution
i,"
--rif
principle which underpins the biological level of arialysis is
Ir".i ,j-i environment presents challenges to each individual. This
-rL
: l:-i ihat those who adapt best to the environment will have a
-:1'r:i::
chalce of surviving, having children, and passing on their genes
'-
:: offspring. This is the principle of Charles Darwin's theory of
"
-
--Lln.
." i,-',
-l's theory of natural selection explains how species acquire
t.ii",:.-,.'e characteristics to survive in an ever-changing environment.
r,-
- :.ling to the theory of natural selection, those members of a
r,r
--,=s
n'ho have characteristics which are better suited to the
' r: i
,nment
will be more likely to breed, and thus to pass on these
r;r , One example of this was seen by Darwin when he travelled
tr :
--:lapagos
Islands. Finches on different islands had different
-rl
-ri beaks. He found that the birds on each island had the beak
:u-i ,\as most advantageous for the food available in that particular
Ii : .:t. Over several generations, the result of natural selection is
iti ::e species develops characteristics that make it more
:::iiitive in its environment. This process is called adaptation.
r
-::-
Darwin presented his theory in the book On the Origin of
: ,:,:, he was not aware of the biological processes through which
r;iil : :re inherited.
rr ::
jirion
to arguing that traits may be handed down, Darwin also
"r
:
':e
foundation for psychologists and biologists to study animals
r':-
-:re hope of gaining insight into human behaviour. In The Descent
i
:-;,: r1871), Darwin noted that humans have a number of
r "
-:-,itrurS
in common with other animals. These include mate
'r '--r-rln,
love of mother for offspring, and self-preservation. He also
,rr
11-
-)n to catalogue a number of facial expressions that people
t.l .:',rjth the apes. He argued that humans also share many of the
,,i--,: ieelings as animals.
+
i,:.' \\'Ery in which evolution is studied is by looking at the
r':
-.;iour
of our closest relatives in the animal kingdom-primates.
*
r: :-in of a recent study by Professor Tetsuro Matsuzawa (2007), of
q
: r University in Japan, was to examine spatial memory in young
t'":rps. The researchers took three pairs of chimps and taught them
::.Lrgnize the numerals from I to 9 on a computer monitor. Both
r : :jrimps and the human participants were later seated at a
:-ruier terminal, where the numerals flashed up very briefly on a
-
--l-screen monitor in a random sequence. The numbers were
lr::- replaced with blank squares, and the participant had to
'::
tmber which numeral appeared in which location, and touch
i:,: rquares in the appropriate sequence.
*::
human participants made many errors, and their accuracy
l.:::cdsed as the numbers were replaced with blank squares more
i.".:.Jr'. The chimpanzees showed remarkable memory for the
':,,--al
distribution of the numbers, with no difference when
-
-:-t-rers
were shown for shorter durations.
psychologists
argue that
'
r f necessary adaptation for chimpanzees to have this type of
r':lrfrY
so that they can remember where food resources-as well
;: ::rgers-are in the rainforest. Perhaps as agriculture developed,
2.2 i
Biological level of analysis: genetics and behaviour
Charles Danruin
-
the father of
evolutionary theory
.L.
"l*
I
;
:
1.,
-+e
t
1
Chimpanzee testing her memory skills
57
tl
ll
2.2 r Biological level of analysis: genetics and behaviour
this skill was no longer so essential for human survival. Humans
may have surrendered this ability in order to use their brains to
develop language. In other words, it appears that the memory skills
of both chimpanzees and humans have adapted to become most
suitable for the respective environments in which they each live.
Evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary psychology is grounded on the principle that as genes
mutate, those that are advantageous are passed down through a
process of natural selection. Evolutionary psychologists attempt to
explain how certain human behaviours are testimony to the
development of our species over time. It is important to remember
that natural selection cannot select for a behaviour; it can only select
for mechanisms that produce behaviour.
One example of evolutionary research is the study of emotions. Dan
Fessler of the University of California at Los Angeles has carried out
research on disgust. He argues that the emotion of disgust allowed
our ancestors to survive long enough to produce offspring, who in
turn passed the same sensitivities on to us. Fessler (2006)
investigated the nausea experienced by women in their first
trimester of pregnancy. During this period, an infusion of hormones
lowers the expectant mother's immune system so as not to fight the
new foreign genetic material in her womb. Fessler hypothesized that
the nausea response helps to compensate for the suppressed
immune system. To test the theory, Fessler gathered 496 }:.ealthy
pregnant women between the ages of 18 and 50 years, and asked
them to consider 32 potentially stomach-turning scenarios-
including walking barefoot and stepping on an earthworm, someone
accidentally sticking a fish hook through their finger, and maggots
on a piece of meat in an outdoor waste bin. Before asking the
pregnant women to rank how disgusting they found these scenarios,
Fessler posed a series of questions, designed to determine whether
they were experiencing morning sickness. In keeping with Fessler's
theory, women in their first trimester scored much higher across the
board in disgust sensitivity than their counterparts in the second and
third trimesters. But when Fessler controlled the study for morning
sickness, the response only held for disgusting scenarios involving
food, such as the maggot example.
According to Fessler, many of the diseases that are most dangerous
are food-borne, but our ancestors could not afford to be picky about
what they ate all the time. Natural selection may have helped
compensate for the increased susceptibility to disease during this
risky period in pregnancy, by increasing the urge to be picky about
food, however much additional foraging this may havb required.
That the sensitivity seems to diminish as the risk of disease and
infection decreases is consistent with the view of disgust as a form of
protection against disease.
In another study, Curtis et al. (2004) carried out research on the
Internet to test whether there were patterns in people's disgust
responses. They used an online survey in which participants were
shown 20 images. For each image, they were asked to rank their
level of disgust. Among the 20 images were seven pairs in which
il
bri
2.2 *
Biological level of analysis: genetics and behaviour
lme was infectious or potentially harmful to the immune system,
md the other was visually similar but non-infectious-for example,
rme pair was a plate of bodily fluids and a plate of blue viscous
mquid. There were 77 000 participants from 165 countries. The
fudings confirmed that the disgust reaction was most strongly
cfficited for those images which threaten one's immune system.
hterestingly, the disgust reaction also decreased with age. As the
mpaph
shows, disgust reactions were higher in young people than in
dder people. In addition, women had higher disgust reactions than
men. Once again, this supports the idea of disgust as a key to
mccessful reproduction.
4.4
4.2
a
=
4.o
=-
5 :.a
-
i
=-u
!
E
:.o
a
a
=
3.2
3.0
l0 15 20 25 50 55 40
Age (years)
lerel of disgust sensitivity in relation to age
The original survey can be found at \ rvyw.bbc.co.uk/science/
humanbodyi mind/ surveys/ disgust
In spite of such evidence, there are some things to consider when
examining an evolutionary argument.
r Since it may be difficult to test empirically some evolution-based
theories, researchers may be susceptible to confirmation bias-
that is, they see what they expect to see.
o Little is known about the behaviour of early Homo sapiens, so
statements about how humans "used to be" are hypothetical.
o Evolutionary arguments often underestimate the role of cultural
influences in shaping behaviour.
Ethical considerations in research into genetic influences
of behaviour
Research in human genetics aims to identify particular genes
involved in hereditary diseases. This kind of research may pose risks
to participants because of the link between genetic heritage and
people's life. Genetic information obtained from such research can
also be problematic for the participant's family. If misused, genetic
information
can be stigmatizing and may affect people's ability to get
jobs
or insurance.
In any study, participants should always know how their privacy
and confidentiality will be protected, and what will happen to any
genetic material or information obtained as part of the study. The
aims and procedure of the study must be explained in plain
Possible exam question:
Essay question (paper 1
section B)
Discuss the extent to which
genetic inheritance influences
behaviour with reference to
relevant research studies.
This question uses the command
term "discuss" which means that
you should present a balanced
view that includes a number of
arguments that address the way
in which genetic factors influence
behaviour. You should present
evidence from research and you
should arrive at a conclusion
based on the arguments
presented.
.,.1:ia::.-.
t.
2.2 o Biological level of analysis: genetics and behaviour
language and partiapants must sign an informed consent paper to
show that they have a clear understanding of the study they are
participating in, and the implications, inchiding any potential harm.
Confidentiality and privacy can be protected by coding information
(where a code is assigned and only a small number of researchers
have access to the codes) or by fully anonymizing the sample (where
researchers cannot link samples or information to particular people).
Anonymization protects confidentiality from insurance companies,
employers, police, and others, but it also can limit the scientific
value of the study by preventing follow up and further investigation.
Genetic research can reveal unexpected information that may harm
research participants. Examples include evidence of misattributed
paternity or unrevealed adoptions within a family. Another example
occurs when a person discovers from the study that he or she carries
the gene for a particular genetic disorder. This may cause undue
stress as the participant then fears the potential onset of the disorder.
Some groups, including Aboriginal people, may have objections to
genetic study as a cultural principle. Given the existence of other
forms of discrimination against such groups, and the history of the
eugenics movement, fhis is no surprise. In such cases it is very
important to consult umth relevant community leaders and
organizations. Consent is a community matter for many Aboriginal
and ethnic groups as well as an individual concern.