Pembangan karir Career deveploment

Tugas Mata Kuliah :

Psikologi Industri dan Organisasi

Nama Dosen :
Laila Meiliyandrie I Wardani, PhD
















Nama Penyusun :
De Ani Cyntya (46113210010)
Hasna Zulfa P.H (46113210018)
Mala Sari (461132100




Daftar isi

Pengertian Pengembangan Karir
Konsep Dasar Karir dan Perencanaan Karir
Peran Pengembangan Karir
Skema pengembangan karir
Tujuan dan Manfaat Pengembangan Karir
Definisi Karir Konseling



















Pengertian Pengembangan Karir

Pengertian Pengembangan dan Karir
Pengembangan (development) yaitu fungsi operasional kedua dari manajemen personalia.
Menurut Malayu S.P. Hasibuan (2006:76) pengembangan adalah suatu usaha untuk
meningkatkan kemampuan teknis, teoritis, konseptual, dan moral karyawan sesuai
dengan kebutuhan pekerjaan atau jabatan melalui pendidikan dan pelatihan.Sedangkan
Menurut Henry Simamora (2007 : 412), Karir merupakan urutan aktivitas-aktivitas yang
berhubungan dengan pekerjaan dan perilaku, nilai-nilai dan aspirasi seseorang selama
rentang hidup orang tersebut.

Pengertian Pengembangan Karir
Pengembangan karir merupakan proses menyelaraskan rencana karir karyawan dengan
kebutuhan perusahaan melalui manajement karir. Dalam masa kerjanya bersama
perusahaan, umumnya karyawan ingin mendapatkan peningkatan karir dengan
mendapatkan promosi kejabatan dengan tingkatan yang lebih tinggi.
Pengembangan karir sangat membantu karyawan dalam menganalisis kemampuan dan
minat mereka untuk dapat disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan SDM sejalan dengan
pertumbuhan dan perkembangan perusahaan. Pengembangan karir juga merupakan hal
yang penting dimana manajemen dapat meningkatkan produktivitas, menungkatkan sikap
kerja, menciptakan kepuasan kerja juga mencapai tujuan perusahaan.
Jadi dapat disimpulkan bahwa pengembangan karir merupakan suatu proses dalam
peningkatan dan penambahan kemampuan seseorang karyawan yang dilakukan secara
formal dan berkelanjutan untuk mencapai sasaran dan tujuan karirnya.





Konsep Dasar Karir dan Perencanaan Karir

Konsep karir adalah konsep yang netral (tidak berkonotasi positif atau negatif). Karena itu karir
ada yang baik dan ada pula karir yang buruk. Perencanaan karir seseorang dapat berjalan baik
atau buruk sebenarnya ditentukan juga oleh peran dan dukungan dari departemen sumber daya
manusia dan manajemen personalia.
Menurut Handoko, beberapa tugas seorang manajer personalia adalah sebagai berikut :
a. Mengembangkan para karyawan yang dapat dipromosikan.
b. Menurunkan perputaran karyawan.
c. Mengungkap potensi karyawan
d. Mendorong pertumbuhan karyawan
e. Mengurangi penimbunan karyawan walaupun mereka berpotensi tinggi.
f. Memuaskan kebutuhan karyawan
g. Membantu pelaksanaan rencana-rencana kegiatan yang telah disetujui.
Perencanaan karir adalah perencanaan yang dilakukan baik oleh individu pegawai maupun oleh
organisasi berkenaan dengan karir pegawai, terutama mengenai persiapan yang harus dipenuhi
oleh seorang pegawai untuk mencapai tujuan karir tertentu .
Sementara itu, beberapa konsep dasar perencanaan karir menurut Umar adalah sebagai berikut :
a. Karir sebagai suatu urutan promosi atau transfer ke jabatan yang lebih besar tanggung
jawabnya atau ke lokasi-lokasi yang lebih baik selama kehidupan kerja seseorang.
b. Karir sebagai petunjuk pekerjaan yang membentuk suatu pola kemajuan yang sistematik
dan jelas (membentuk satu jalur karir).
c. Karir sebagai sejarah pekerjaan seseorang atau serangkaian posisi yang dipegangnya selama
kehidupan kerja.
Dalam perencanaan karir ada lima syarat utama yang harus dipenuhi agar proses perencanaan
tersebut dapat berjalan dengan baik. Kelima syarat tersebut adalah :
a. Dialog
Dalam hal ini pegawai perlu diajak dialog untuk merencanakan karirnya.
b. Bimbingan
Organisasi harus memberikan bimbingan kepada pegawainya agar bisa meniti karir dengan baik,
karena tidak semua pegawai memahami jalur karir.
c. Keterlibatan Individual
Dalam perencanaan larir harus melibatkan individu pegawai, mereka hendaknya diberi
kesempatan untuk berbicara dan memberi masukan. Hal ini sama dengan syarat pertama yakni
dialog.
d. Umpan Balik
Proses pemberian umpan balik akan terjadi jika ada dialog.
e. Mekanisme perencanaan karir
Yang dimaksud umpan balik di sini adalah tata cara atau prosedur yang ditetapkan agar proses
perencanaan karir dapat dilaksanakan dengan sebaik-baiknya.


Peran Pengembangan Karir

Dalam proses pengembangan karir individu (karyawan) dalam organisasi, ada 3 hubungan saling
terkait antara individu, manajer, maupun organisasi. Ketiga-tiganya memiliki peran masing-
masing. Gary Dessler menjelaskan peran ketiganya dalam pengembangan karir sebagai berikut:
a. Peran Individu
- Terimalah tanggung jawab untuk karir Anda sendiri.
- Taksirlah minat, keterampilan, dan nilai anda.
- Carilah informasi dan rencana karir.
- Bangunlah tujuan dan rencana karir.
- Manfaatkanlah peluang pengembangan.
- Berbicaralah dengan manajer Anda tentang karir Anda.
- Ikutilah seluruh rencana karir yang realistic.
b. Peran Manajer
- Berikanlah umpan balik kinerja yang tepat waktu.
- Berikan dukungan dan penilaian pengembangan.
- Berpartisipasilah dalam diskusi pengembangan karir.
- Dukunglah rencana pengembangan karir.
c. Peran Organisasi
- Komunikasi misi, kebijakan, dan prosedur.
- Berikan peluang pelatihan dan pengembangan.
- Berikan informasi karir dan program karir.
- Tawarkan satu keanekaragaman pilihan karir.
Jadi, pengembangan karir seorang individu sangat terpengaruh dari 3 peran tersebut. Ketiga-
tiga harus saling mendukung dalam pengembangan karir. Dalam peran seorang manajer, Gary
Dessler menjelaskan lebih lanjut, bahwa ada 4 peran bagi manajer dalam pengembangan karir
karyawan , yaitu:

Pelatih ,Penilai, Penasehat, Agen Rujukan
Mendengar
Menjelaskan
Menyelidiki
Menyatakan keprihatinan Memberikan umpan balik
Menjelaskan standar
Menjelaskan tanggung jawab jabatan Menghasilkan pilihan
Membantu menetapkan tujuan
Merekomendasi/ memberi nasehat Menautkan karyawan dengan sumber daya
Mengkonsultasi-kan rencana tindakan

Dari peran tersebut, nampak bahwa seorang manajer sangat berperan dalam pengembangan karir
individu di sebuah organisasi. Manajer yang baik seharusnya mendukung penuh kinerja
karyawan dan proaktif untuk membantu karyawan dalam mengembangkan karir.







Skema pengembangan karir


Tujuan dan Manfaat Pengembangan Karir

Menurut Fubrin J.Andrew (2005: 77-78), tujuan dan manfaat pengembangan karir adalah :
1) Membantu dalam Pencapaian Tujuan Individu dan Perusahaan
Pengembangan karir membantu pencapaian tujuan perusahaan dan tujuan individu. Seorang
karyawan yang sukses dengan prestasi kerja sangat baik kemudian menduduki posisi jabatan
yang lebih tinggi, hal ini berarti tujuan perusahaan dan tujuan invidu tercapai.

2) Menunjukan Hubungan Kesejahteraan Karyawan
Perusahaan merencanakan karir karyawan dengan meningkatkan kesejahteraannya agar
karyawan lebih tinggi loyalitasnya.



3) Membantu Karyawan Menyadari Kemampuan Potensi Mereka
Pengembangan karir membantu menyadarkan karyawan akan kemampuannya untuk menduduki
suatu jabatan tertentu sesuai dengan potensi dan keahliannya.

4) Memperkuat Hubungan antara Karyawan dan Perusahaan
Pengembangan karir akan memperkuat hubungan dan sikap karyawan terhadap perusahaanya.

5) Membuktikan Tanggung Jawab sosial
Pengembangan karir merupakan suatu cara menciptakan iklim kerja yang positif dan karyawan
menjadi lebih bermental sehat.

6) Membantu memperkuat Pelaksanaan Program-program Perusahaan
Pengembangan karir akan membantu program-program perusahaan lainnya agar tujuan
perusahaan tercapai.

7) Mengurangi Turn Over dan Biaya Kepegawaian
Pengembangan karir dapat menjadikan turn over rendah dan begitu pula biaya kepegawaian
menjadi lebih efektif.

8) Mengurangi Keusangan Profesi dan Manajerial
Pengembangan karir dapat menghindarkan dari keusangan dan kebosanan profesi dan
manajerial.

9) Menggiatkan Analisis dari Keseluruhan Karyawan
Perencanaan karir dimaksudkan mengintegerasikanperencanaan kerja dan kepegawaian.

10) Menggiatkan Suatu Pemikiran (Pandangan) Jarak Waktu yang Panjang
Pengembangan karir berhubungan dengan jarak waktu yang pankang. Hal ini karena penempatan
suatu posisi jabatan memerlukan persyaratan dan kualifikasi yang sesuai dengan posisinya.


Cara menyusun sistem pengembangaan karir
Career management merupakan bagian penting dari perkembangan SDM dimana hal merupakan
upaya untuk mendorong dan memotivasi karyawan agar dapat memiliki jenjang karir yang
berkelanjutan.
Dengan memiliki rencana akan jenjang karyawan ,seorang karyawan tidak hanya akan lebih
termotivasi dalam pekerjaannya,namun juga dapat memiliki tingkat kepuasaan kerja yang lebih
tinggi .
Manajemen karir merupakan upaya agar karyawan dapat meningkatkan wawasan dan
kemampuannya selama masa kerjanya diluar tugas tugas rutinnya,bahkan bila perlu meluas
hingga ke pekerjaan lain dengan deskripsi tugas yang berbeda
Sayangnya hal ini sering luput dari perhatian karyawan baru yang belum berpengalaman atau
baru di terima kerja setelah lulus kuliah ;akhirnya,ketika usia dan waktu kerja mulai
bertambah,karyawan tersebut baru menyadari bahwa pekerjaanya tidak membawanya kemana-
mana sehingga kepuasaaan dan motivasi kerja menjadi menurun.
Dalam hal ini, departemen HR harus membantu karyawan dalam hal career management
terutama bagi karyawan yang potensial agar karyawan tersebut bisa berkembang dalam
perusahaan.







Mendorong career management di dalam perusahaan
Departemen HR bisa mengusulkan beberapa program untuk mendorong karyawan dalam hal
manajemen karir, baik itu usul resmi yang diajukan ke manajemen maupun usul yang bersifat
personal yang dapat disampaikan dalam rapat atau pelatihan.
Contohnya, departemen HR bisa mengusulkan adanya program yang berhubungan dengan job
shadow, dimana karyawan dari satu departemen mendapat pelatihan atau belajar melakukan
pekerjaan yang menjadi tugas departemen berbeda; sebagai contoh, bartender di hotel bisa
belajar menjadi staf pelayan restoran, sekretaris bisa belajar menjadi asisten admin, supervisor
bisa memelajari tugas-tugas quality controller dan sebagainya.
Selain menambah wawasan dan keahlian, strategi career management ini juga bisa mendorong
karyawan untuk menentukan jenjang karir berdasarkan keahlian yang berbeda dari yang
sebelumnya ia tekuni.
Departemen HR bisa menjadikan program ini sebagai program rutin atau formal perusahaan
yang dilakukan dalam periode khusus dengan persetujuan dewan direksi, dan bila perlu,
menunjuk karyawan yang berpengalaman sebagai mentor.
Selain itu, departemen HR juga bisa mengusulkan program pelatihan rutin yang berkaitan
dengan pengembangan keahlian dan wawasan dimana karyawan dari tiap departemen dapat
mengikutinya dengan jadwal yang sudah diatur agar semua departemen dapat memeroleh
pelatihan.
Cara lain untuk mengembangkan karir karyawan adalah dengan memberi informasi seluas-
luasnya kepada tiap karyawan potensial yang serius dalam hal mengembangkan karir di
perusahaan.
Untuk itu, departemen HR harus memiliki sumber-sumber yang kaya mengenai kesempatan
untuk mengembangkan kehalian dan potensi karir seperti jadwal seminar, in-house training dan
bahkan program beasiswa untuk karyawan.
Jangan lupa untuk menyediakan informasi mengenai jenis keahlian yang dibutuhkan untuk
mendaki atau menduduki suatu jenjang karir kepada karyawan potensial yang berminat sehingga
karyawan tersebut akan mengetahui hal-hal apa saja yang harus ia kuasai agar mampu
melakukan career management sendiri.
Sebagai upaya untuk menggali potensi karyawan, department HR bisa mengusulkan pada jajaran
direksi dan para manajer agar mencoba menempatkan beberapa karyawan dari suatu departemen
ke dalam proyek dari departemen lain yang berbeda untuk melihat kemampuan karyawan dalam
menyesuaikan diri dengan kondisi di luar zona nyaman.
Manajemen karir yang dilakukan dengan baik bukan hanya akan menguntungkan karyawan,
namun juga akan berimbas pada kemajuan perusahaan sekaligus menurunkan tingkat pindah
kerja dan ketidakpuasan di kalangan karyawan terutama mereka yang tergolong karyawan
potensial.
Definisi Karir Konseling

Terdapat konvergensi dalam definisi konseling karir, sebuah proses yang mungkin diawali
dengan penerimaan gagasan Super (1980) yang berhubungan dengan sifat interaktif peranan
kehidupan. Pada tahun 1991, Linda Brooks dan saya (Brown dan Brooks, 1991) mendefinisikan
konseling karir sebagai sebuah proses yang bertujuan untuk memberikan fasilitas pada
perkembangan karir dan mungkin melibatkan pemilihan, pemasukan, penyesuaian, atau
kemajuan dalam sebuah karir. Kita mendefinisikan permasalahan karir sebagai keragu-raguan
yang berkembang karena terlau sedikitnya informasi, keragu-raguan yang tumbuh karena
kebimbangan pilihan; ketidakpuasan pada performa pekerjaan; ketak sejenisan antara orang dan
peranannya dalam perkerjaan; dan ketak sesuaian antara peranan dan peranan kehidupan lain,
seperti keluarga atau waktu luang. The National Career Development Association (NCDA, 1997)
menerapkan sebuah definisi yang sama namun lebih sederhana. Organisasi ini mendefinisikan
konseling karir sebagai sebuah proses membantu seseorang dalam perkembangan sebuah
kehidupan karir dengan sebuah focus pada definisi peranan pekerja dan bagaimana peranan
tersebut berinteraksi dengan peranan kehidupan yang lainnya (hal.2). sebagian besar isinya,
definisi ini merefleksikan posisi yang diambil oleh Gysber, Heppner, dan Johnston (2003);
Admunson (2003); dan para ahli teori postmodern lainnya yang mungkin mengambil
permasalahan dengan gagasan yang lengkap dalam definisi karena mereka terlihat menganggap
bahwa terdapat batasan yang muncul diantara dan ditengah-tengah peranan kehidupan, sebuah
anggapan yang akan menjadi tidak konsisten dengan pandangan perspektif holistic mereka.
Seperti yang telah digambarkan pada bab 2 dan 3, mekanisme konseling karir, termasuk
pendekatan pada hubungan, penilaian, dll, berbeda-beda berdasarkan pada teori yang diterapkan.
Gysber dkk (2003) mengembangkan sebuah taksonomi tugas-tugas yang muncul dalam
konseling karir secara simultan dengan proses pengembangan sebuah perserikatan kerja. Tugas
ini termasuk mengidentifikasi permasalahan yang disajikan; menyusun hubungan konseling;
mengembangkan sebuah ikatan konselor-klien; mengumpukan informasi mengenai klien,
termasuk informasi personal dan pengendalian kontekstual; pengaturan tujuan; seleksi intervensi;
pengambilan tindakan; dan evaluasi hasil. Seperti yang akan ditunjukan nanti, model konseling
multikultural digarisbesarkan pada bab ini menerima sebagian besar gagasan yang berhubungan
dengan struktur konseling karir ini dengan perubahan kecil.










Kesimpulan

Dalam sebuah organisasi, seorang karyawan bisa merencanakan pengembangan karirnya.
Dalam merencanakan pengembangan karir individu, tak bisa dilepaskan antara peran individu
(karyawan), manajer, dan organisasi tersebut. Ketiga-tiganya harus berperan saling mendukung
dan mendorong pengembangan karir karyawan. Ada beberapa hal/faktor yang mempengaruhi
pengembangan karir individu, tapi bisa disimpulkan jadi dua factor, yakni factor internal
(professionalisme karyawan) dan factor internal (lingkungan organisasi, seperti tipe manajemen,
manajer, system pengembangan karir di organisasi, dan lain-lain).
Pengembangan karir merupakan salah satu tugas manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia (SDM).
Setiap manajer harus memiliki sistem manajerial dalam mengelola karyawan, salah satunya
sistem pengembangan karir karyawan . Semakin bagus sistem pengembangan karir karyawan di
dalam organisasi, semakin mudah bagi karyawan untuk merencanakan pengembangan karirnya.












DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Hastho Joko Nur Utomo dan Meilan Sugiarto, Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia (Yogyakarta :
Ardana Media. 2007).
Gary Dessler, Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia, (terj.) oleh. Benyamin Molan, (Jakarta:
Prenhallindo, 1998).
Triton P.B., Paradigma Baru Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia (Yogyakarta : Tugu. 2005)
Al Ariss, A. (2010), "Modes of engagement: migration, self-initiated expatriation and career
development",Career Development International, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 338-58.
Larsen, H.H. and Ellehave, C.F. (2000), "Careers in organizations", in Brewster, C. and Larsen,
H.H. (Eds), Human Resource Management in Northern Europe. Trends, Dilemmas and Strategy,
Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 89-124.















Jurnal 1
Career development (CD) has long been cited as a core area associated with human
resource development(HRD). Despite this explicit connection, few publications focusing on CD
are available in general HRD-related literature. This review outlines selected theories, examines
selected definitions of CD, and analyzes the aims ofcareer development in relation to HRD. The
authors argue that there is much more opportunity to explore CD as a necessary component of
HRD than has been undertaken to date. Furthermore, they make recommendations for multilevel
integration and related theory-building approaches that may enhance the role of CD in HRD.
Keywords: career development; human resource development; training
When it comes to career development (CD) perspectives in the context of human
resource development (HRD) literature, HRD scholars and practitioners appear to have paid little
attention to the importance of CD. At present, there is a broad array of theory, practice, and
knowledge-based perspectives that inform HRD (Desimone, Werner, & Harris, 2002;
McGoldrick, Stewart, & Watson, 2002; Swanson & Holton, 2001; Woodall, 2001). These
theoretical influences have been articulated in various HRD literature, related texts, and ongoing
discussions regarding definitions and foundations of HRD. Furthermore, exploration
and development of HRD-related theory appears to be increasing-particularly within the
Academy of Human Resource Development(AHRD) and since the launch of Human
Resource Development Review (Torraco, 2004). Although little research has been published to
support including CD in HRD, a central element in HRD definitional and theoretical discussions
is the inclusion of CD.
Many HRD scholars and practitioners are familiar with McLagan's (1983) definition of HRD as
the "integrated use of training and development, career development, and
organization development to improve individual and organizational performance" (p. 7). Given
this and related discussions, practitioners, scholars, and students may be led to believe that CD is
a pillar or a load-bearing wall for HRD. Load-bearing walls in buildings provide support for the
gravitational force exerted on a structure (Encarta Dictionary, 2005a). CD is often presented as
providing major structural support for the practice and scholarly endeavors associated with HRD.
Despite assertions that CD is a central element of HRD (e.g., McLagan, 1989; Swanson &
Holton, 2001; Weinberger, 1998), support for these claims are difficult to locate in the general
HRD literature. In fact, CD appears to be a relatively minor consideration in HRD research, and
rarely the explicit focus of AHRD literature.
Our recent exploration of AHRD publications identified fewer than 40 total articles to date in the
Conference Proceedings and only three in the four AHRD-refereed journals (Advances in
Developing Human Resources, Human Resource Development International, Human
Resource Development Quarterly, and Human ResourceDevelopment Review) from 1996 to
2005 that specifically discuss CD. This count is compared (using the same search parameters) to
nearly 300 references to training or training and development (another identified foundational
element of HRD) in AHRD publications overall and better than 50 times the number of CD
articles in AHRD's refereed journals. CD does not appear to be overtly supporting the HRD
structure or, to complete the analogy, may be more "window dressing"-defined as a "deceptively
appealing presentation of something"-than part of the foundation or structure of the field
(Encarta Dictionary, 2005b).
Despite this relative lack of attention to CD, examination of CD definitions is important to HRD
scholars or professionals interested in the consideration of multiple levels of analysis (Garavan,
McGuire, & O'Donnell, 2004) such as the meaningful integration of systems and organization-
level development with individualdevelopment in the workplace. In addition, CD is relevant to
HRD practice (McDonald & Hite, 2005; McLagan, 1989; Weinberger, 1998) and has a relevant
theory base. Although it is difficult to fully ascertain why exploration of CD has been fairly
limited in HRD and AHRD literature, an observation recently underscored by McDonald and
Hite (2005), a few reasons include
1. the perceived high costs of individually oriented HRD efforts in the workplace
2. the existence of often-limited views of CD as a career counselor-client relationship only
3. the creation of employee assistance programs and other outsourced or external elements that
remove traditional CD practice from the context of the organization making individuals
responsible for their owndevelopment
4. the presentation of systems and organization-level learning and performance as superordinate,
overriding concerns for individual level issues in the general HRD literature
5. a lack of foundational and theoretical literature elaborating on the often cited relationship
between CD and HRD
6. the use of different terminology across international contexts
7. the dominance of a constructivist perspective that questions the use of acontexual or
predetermined frameworks and, therefore, rejects efforts to formulate general definitions or
explorations associated with HRD and CD.
We agree with the statement by Swanson and Holton (2001) that "career development is being
overlooked as a contributor to HRD" (p. 312), and by McDonald and Hite (2005) that "HRD can
renew its commitment to career development as one of its fundamental functions" (p. 437).
Several HRD scholars have engaged in exploration of HRD-related definitions and theory as
attempts to clarify issues, identify necessary outcomes, explore related literature, and stimulate
related research, applications, and discussions (Egan, 2002; Weinberger, 1998; Woodall, 2001).
This article has a similar aim. Recognizing that there are many ways to approach explorations of
definitions and related theories, we believe, like McDonald and Hite (2005), that failure to
engage more specifically in CD-related discussion in general HRD will be a disservice to the
field and a contradiction to the explicit linkages between CD and HRD as supported in
foundational HRD literature.
Purpose and Research Questions
The purpose of this inquiry is threefold: (a) to review existing CD theories, (b) to examine
definitions of CD and their concomitant dependent variables (DVs), and (c) to apply the
outcomes of (a) and (b) to recommendations for future theory-building research connecting CD
and HRD. To this end four research questions are used to guide and inform the inquiry, namely:
Research Question 1: Based on available resources, what are definitions of CD?
Research Question 2: Based on identified CD definitions, what are related DVs of CD?
Research Question 3: What patterns exist among identified definitions and DVs?
Research Question 4: What is the potential for CD theory and definitions to inform or be
integrated into HRD theory building?
Our desire is that this elaboration of theories and definitions will stimulate discussion, aid in
the developmentof new insights, demonstrate connections between CD and HRD, and advance
the possibility for more elaboration and progress in the development of CD-related definitions,
theory building, research, and exploration in the context of HRD. In addition, our choice to
explore DVs, or outcomes, is based on our position that shared aims between CD and HRD
should be the starting point for exploring the interactions between them. According to Swanson
(1996), "The dependent variable-the outcome-is the ultimate reason for human
resource development" (p. 204). Swanson, therefore, stated, "HRD must get serious about the
dependent variable. To accomplish this, HRD scholars must be willing to learn more about the
dependent variable" (p. 206).
Limitations
It is important to note that this examination of definitions and dependent variables has several
limitations. First, we used AHRD publications to support our argument that CD is not well
represented in HRD literature. We were, however, unable to find articles in other journals that
contradicted our position. We refute but are somewhat vulnerable to the contention that all CD-
specific work is inherently HRD even if HRD is never discussed. In addition, our identification
of core CD theories, definitions, and dependent variables is limited to our methods for doing so.
Overview of Definitions, Dependent Variables, and Theory Building
Theory building is often defined as a "process for modeling real-world phenomena" (Torraco,
1997, p. 126). The use of definitions in the process of modeling elements of the real world is
essential to the theory-building process (Dubin, 1969). Without a clear understanding of the
parameters and applied problems associated with a phenomenon, theory cannot be adequately
constructed (Torraco, 1997). Nor can "coherent descriptions, explanations, and representations of
observed or experienced phenomena [be] . . . generated, verified, and refined" (Lynham, 2000, p.
161). According to Dubin (1969) theory building should be aimed toward practical outcomes
associated with explanation and prediction along with an intellectual interest in the
characteristics and nature of the phenomenon about which a theory is formulated. In addition,
Dubin's theory-then-research theory-building method requires, as the very first step, that the
units or concepts associated with theory under construction be clarified or defined. Without clear
definition, the goals of theory building in HRD-(a) to advance professionalism and maturity in
the field, (b) to help dissolve tension between HRD theory and practice, and (c) to develop
multiple approaches to HRD theory building and practice (Lynham, 2000)-cannot be
accomplished. Dubin's insight contradicts Holton's (2002) expressed concern that ongoing
exploration of HRD related definitions amounts to "scholarly 'navel examination'" (p. 275) and
further exploration may not help develop human resources or organizations. Although we share
Holton's concern that discussion of nuanced issues, such as HRD-related definitions, can seem
cumbersome, we also believe that the refinement of such discussions serve to support the goals
of theory building in HRD.
Although those studying applied fields such as HRD and CD must be concerned with practice
(McLagan, 1989), this concern is insufficient for sound theory building. Theorists, researchers,
and practitioners alike must also concern themselves with outcomes, thus ensuring that the
practice of HRD has clear aims and identifiable results (McLagan, 1989; Swanson, 1996)-what
Van de Ven (1989) and Marsick (1990) term rigor and relevance. In an effort to inform the
potential for interaction between CD and HRD at the theoretical level, we identify definitions,
clarify outcomes, associate selected CD theories, and make suggestions for further progress
associated with such theory building. Theory building in applied fields and practice can and
should be linked. Definitions play a key role in theory building for the purposes of informing
professionalism and practice-related outcomes (or DVs). In the following sections, we review
current foundational CD theories (first of a general and then a specific nature), present CD
definitions and their corresponding outcome and/or dependent variables, discuss briefly two
thematic categories of CD DVs (individual, and organizational and social), provide an
integration of CD and HRD perspectives, consider the interdependence among CD, HRD, and
multilevel applied theory building, and finally, draw some conclusions on the topic of CD as a
necessary load-bearing wall of HRD theory and practice.
Review of Core Career Development Theories
According to Hall (1987) a career can be defined as "the sequence of individually perceived
work-related experiences and attitudes that occur over the span of a person's work life" (p. 1).
CD has been defined by numerous scholars and supported by a number of theories. As identified
above, theory, theory development, and definitions have important interrelationships. Although
there may be no perfect way to organize CD theories, available literature often describes CD
theories as (a) structural or (b) developmental (Osipow, 1983). Structural theories are focused on
occupational tasks and individual attributes. Developmental theories, on the other hand, focus on
lifelong learning and human development. Chen (2003) divided CD theories into objectivist-
positivistic and constructivist approaches. Because precise categorization of CD theories into
these dualistic domains is cumbersome, we have divided 19 core CD theories into two core
categories (general and specific).
The first category deals with general CD theories (see Table 1) that include broad social science
theories and perspectives framed in CD-related contexts. The second category relates CD-
specific theories that have been most often devised by individual CD scholars. Identification of
these two categories and related theories involved not only the authors but also input from five
advanced scholars, each with 15 or more years of experience as university professors
specializing in CD. These experts were asked to review a list of CD theories frequently cited in
the literature to make recommendations or additions as core theories in CD. As a result of this
expert feedback, several theories were added to those initially identified.
The theories listed in Table 1 are limited to those identified by the researchers and experts as
foundational or core theories associated with CD. According to Osipow (1983, 1990), even
though CD theories may be clustered into groups, they are intertwined and may draw from one
another in actual practice and in empirical research. In addition, interrelationships exist between
CD theories and CD definitions. In fact, as is discussed below, there has been a call for a
convergence of CD theories into a more comprehensive theoretical framework (Chen, 2003;
Osipow, 1983; Zunker, 2002). Nonetheless, each theory identified also has distinguishing
features.
Method for Exploring CD Definitions
A review of literature, analysis, and synthesis was utilized to answer the research questions
forwarded in the current study. Electronic databases were used in the literature search aimed at
identifying a maximum number of CD definitions. Databases accessed included ABI Inform,
ERIC, and PsychInfo. Electronic journals were accessed through Interscience/Wiley, Catchword,
JSTOR, and ScienceDirect. In an effort to focus our search, articles were only selected if
published after 1979. In the case where sources identified cited CD definitions published prior to
1980, original sources were accessed. Searches for books associated with the subject of this
article were utilized using an internal electronic search engine at a major university in the central
United States and online book purchasing catalogs www.amazon.com and
www.powellsbooks.com. Books were considered for use only when a majority of references
were from refereed journals and scholarly works. The initial search was conducted using the
term career development and yielded more than 1,500 sources. In an effort to reduce the number
of sources to only scholarly works, those sources not containing references were eliminated as
were those from nonrefereed articles or books that did not use scholarly references. The
remaining articles and books were reduced to fewer than 400 by searching the text of each
publication to determine whether an explicit definition of CD was provided. The process
identified above yielded 112 resources providing explicit definitions of CD. One limitation of the
current study is that the vast majority of these sources originated from the United States. After
eliminating redundant definitions the search yielded 30 distinct definitions of CD. A small
number of the definitions were found to have modifiers (e.g., organizational CD); such modifiers
are noted in the descriptions listed in Table 2.
It is important to note that we recognize that this exploration can be challenging for the following
reasons: (a) CD literature and HRD-related literature are sometimes difficult to define; (b) given
the relatively long history of CD, providing a comprehensive list of CD definitions and theories
is problematic; (c) HRD-related literature may have CD-related implications without explicit
acknowledgment; and (d) as presented by Lee (2001), there may be resistance to the notion of
defining HRD or its domains all together.
Although CD literature and some literature in psychology and management may explore related
issues, few explore theory building explicitly. Our desire is to explore CD definitions and
stimulate integration and innovation within HRD theory-building literature and within other
HRD and AHRD journals.
Career Development Definitions and Dependent Variables
The definitions of CD are featured in Table 2. Authors, year published, and DVs were identified
and reviewed by CD experts. Then, the DVs were analyzed for themes and categorized by
outcomes as described in the next section.
DV Categories
Although CD is primarily focused on the individual and HRD tends toward a focus on larger
human systems, it is less clear, and at best understated, whether HRD and CD share similar aims.
Theory and theory building are commonly utilized to describe and generalize about a
phenomenon (Dubin, 1969). Therefore, theory, in whole or part, is connected to prediction and
"the predictions derived from them [theories] are the grounds on which modern man [or woman]
is increasingly ordering his [or her] relationships with the environing universe" (Dubin, 1969, p.
3). Understanding the intended outcomes of CD may assist in clarifying the descriptive and
predictive connections we often seek between HRD-related activity and outcomes. As a field of
practice, and to work responsibly with organizational stakeholders (Swanson, 1996), HRD
professionals and scholars must have something to say about theoretical and practice-based
results. The starting point for theory building between HRD and CD should be at the point of
mutual interest in the form of shared aims toward outcomes.
All of the definitions above contained a dependent or outcome variable. In several cases, the
definitions included more than one DV. The identification of several DVs within the definitions
presented by some authors suggests the broad views that some CD theorists have regarding the
relevance and potential for multiple impacts of CD theory and practice. Ninety-three DVs were
identified from the 30 definitions featured in Table 2. Table 3, Career Development Dependent
Variable Categories, identifies the DV categories developed from the DVs listed in Table 2. The
contents of Tables 2 and 3 were reviewed by the experts and the authors. Refinements were
made based on the feedback provided.
The individual outcomes listed in Table 3 appear to have close similarities to the trait-factor,
self-concept, and personality theories that, according to Osipow (1983, 1990), are some of the
most enduring theories in CD.
Integrating CD and HRD Perspectives
Although McLagan (1989) defined CD as an area of practice for HRD, the focus on CD in the
HRD literature rarely has gone beyond brief mention. According to Swanson and Holton (2001),
the focus of HRD-related literature coalesced around training and development (T&D) and
organization development (OD) as primary areas of emphasis. Perhaps the reason for the decline,
or ongoing absence, of CD as a focus of HRD has been the perceived hierarchy suggested in the
McLagan definition whereby OD is framed as superordinate to T&D, and CD subordinate to
T&D. As the exploration of DVs has demonstrated, CD can be associated with organization-
level interests and outcomes. CD may occur in many contexts yielding a variety of results.
In addition to being viewed as a relatively minor player in HRD, CD has often been framed
exclusively as a one-on-one relationship between an employee and a manager or HRD
practitioner. Traditional CD texts were often written for professionals in career placement or
professionals working with adults in transition. These early writings may have biased HRD
researchers and practitioners to conceptualize CD through a programmatic or counseling frame.
CD, however, need not occur exclusively in the context of individually oriented activities
(Zunker, 2002). Fundamental activities such as challenging work assignments and increased
responsibility may contribute to CD, as might participation in systemwide HRD efforts. Research
on other HRD-related activities, such as mentoring, identifies CD-related impacts such as
increased job satisfaction, increased career commitment, and higher retention levels (Egan &
Rosser, 2005).
CD has fallen off in importance in HRD because of the failure to ask questions, ascertain
outcomes, and make links between HRD- and CD-related theories, research, and practice. Recent
studies published in HRD journals regarding training results, relationships between training
activities, theory building in HRD, and the integration of learning and work could be more
impactful if they included CD perspectives. Unfortunately, CD theories and concepts are
included infrequently, thus, justifying the question, "Career development-Is it a loadbearing wall
or just window dressing?"
The current study also provides possibilities for connections and integration between theories of
CD and HRD. Trait-factor theories could be included in explorations of employee preferences
and competencies, and HRD practices. Behavioral theories present overlapping assumptions
common to those found in HRD, such as learning theory, and the formulation of practice
approaches. In addition, social systems theories support the examination of external or
environmental factors associated with learning, development, and performance. HRD studies that
include CD perspectives may provide opportunities for integrative research that examine systems
and multilevel dimensions of learning and performance.
CD, HRD, and Multilevel Theory Building
As described above, dependent or outcome variables associated with CD can be categorized into
those that focus on individual outcomes or organizational and societal outcomes. Despite the
different outcomes identified, in general, CD theories have been perceived to maintain a focus on
the individual (Upton, 2006). It has been argued that because of the frequent focus on the
individual, CD perspectives are rarely included in HRD literature (Conlon, 2003). Although
theory building in HRD has grown in recent years (as exemplified by Yang, 2003, and explored
by Torraco, 2004) and has stretched our field to consider new ways of framing HRD research
and practice, most HRD theory building has been conducted and framed at a single level-often
the group or organization level (Swanson & Holton, 2001). Turnbull (2002) stated, "Theory is
not static. It is constantly evolving, and as our organizations change in response to their external
environments, so the theories on which we build our disciplines need to keep pace" (p. 219). The
theoretical frames and the DV categories for CD identified in this article reiterate that CD cannot
be viewed solely as an individual or organizational responsibility. In actuality, CD is a multilevel
phenomenon. This multilevel interchange occurring in practice can be represented in CD theory.
Conversely, new multilevel theory building should guide more effective CD practice.
A link between individual and organizational orientations of CD may be better explored through
multilevel theory building. Klein, Tosi, and Cannella (1999) pointed out that
multilevel theories span the levels of organizational behavior and performance, typically
describing some combination of individuals, corporations, and industries. Multilevel theories
attempt to bridge the micro-macro divide, integrating the micro domain's focus on individuals . .
. with the macro domain's focus on organizations, environment, and strategy, (p. 243)
The current study and the work by Conlon (2003) expose that today's dynamic workplace has not
necessarily been operationalized appropriately by CD theories that focus exclusively at the level
of the individual because the organization does have a rational interest in CD. According to
Klein et al. (1999),
The result [of multilevel theory building] is a deeper, richer portrait of organizational life-one
that acknowledges the influence of the organizational context on individuals' actions and
perceptions and the influence of individuals' actions and perceptions on the organizational
context. . . . Multilevel theories connect the dots, making explicit the links between constructs
previously unlinked within the organizational literature, (p. 243)
Multilevel theory building may very well be the key to bridging predominantly individually
oriented CD theories with HRD theory-building efforts. It may also assist in addressing the
frequent call for convergence of existing CD theories (Chen, 2003; Osipow, 1983; Zunker,
2002).
Although little has been presented in the HRD literature regarding multilevel theory building,
there has been an ongoing discussion regarding systems theory and multilevel approaches in
HRD (Caravan et al., 2004). Systems theory emphasizes interactions between multiple levels
and, in principle, supports the multilevel theory-building concept. A systems approach not only
supports the idea that CD be examined in the context of HRD but also makes the inclusion of CD
essential. By definition, open systems include all units or elements bound within or connected to
that system (Jacobs, 1988). If we are to explore and theorize about HRD at the organizational
systems level, we must include a developmental framework at the individual level that embraces
the existing CD theories and extends HRD theory building to embrace multiple levels. We have
attempted to make a contribution to beginning that process.
There are many options for future research associated with CD in the context of HRD. Future
multilevel theory-building research will have to engage in questions of alignment between issues
at the individual level often connected with CD and HRD at the systems level. A key
consideration for future multilevel theory building in HRD will be within-unit agreement, or
homogeneity within the unit(s) of interest, and disagreement, or heterogeneity, within the unit(s)
of interest (Klein et al., 1999). Within-unit agreement is a necessary component to multilevel
theory building because there should be alignment between a given construct as a unit associated
with, in this case, the individual or CD level and the system or HRD level. Too much variability
or heterogeneity between the levels or units will diminish the likelihood for the development of a
cohesive multilevel theory.
The DV themes identified (Table 3) suggest that there are significant opportunities for
the development of multilevel HRD theories at the individual and organizational level. "Perhaps
the most common form-and a very useful one-is the cross-level model in which higher-level
variables are hypothesized to moderate the relationship between two or more lower-level
variables" (Klein et al., 1999, p. 246). Using the DVs identified in the current study, interactions
between organization-level efforts and employee achievement of
selfsatisfaction, career decisions, career objectives, development of a self-concept, and individual
alignment with organizational needs could be examined. There has been some exploration of
these interactions in HRD-related literature; however, few have led to explicit development of
multilevel theories. Although early work in the development of multilevel theories associated
with HRD is promising, there are many opportunities to expand our understanding of the
intersection between higher and lower level units or variables, such as theories of organizational
leadership examining large system and the individual impact within organizations (Waldman &
Yammarino, 1999).
Osipow ( 1990) suggested the possibilities for convergence between CD theories through an
exploration of interactions between them. The notion of CD theory convergence involves the
combining of key elements of more than one existing theory into a single theory that could
provide more explanatory power or relevance. Krumboltz (1994) utilized the analogy of
differently scaled maps to describe the diversity of approaches between CD theories. Some maps
focus on topography, highways, or even climate at varying levels of detail and emphasis. Osipow
(1990) and Chen (2003) suggested that convergence of existing CD theories could lead to new
theories. Logically extended, such an effort could create theories, as suggested by Krumbotz,
which are the product of more than one scale or level. Exploring such suggestions regarding the
integration of CD theories may be supported using multilevel theory building. Needless to say,
there is much work needed to elaborate on the theory convergence suggested by Osipow and
Chen; however, the general concept appears to be promising for CD and HRD.
Summary
A number of aforementioned HRD scholars have explored HRD-related definitions. We
examined HRD and related definitions available in the HRD literature for the purposes of
clarification and theory building. Nineteen CD theories, 30 CD definitions, 93 DVs, and 10 DV
categories and their associated theories were identified. Connections between HRD and CD and
the potential for theory building approaches were examined.
Exploration of CD has not occurred in the HRD literature with sufficient frequency, specificity,
or clarity. Through general discussions, (e.g., affirmation of the McLagan HR Wheel) many in
the HRD community imply the inclusion of CD in HRD. Despite this, CD is not being addressed
in specific terms that embrace historical literature associated with CD, nor are we examining the
extent to which CD reflects the "alignment of individual careerplanning and
organizational career management processes to achieve an optimal match of individual and
organizational needs" (McLagan, 1989, p. 6).
HRD can be viewed as emerging from multiple pathways and dimensions. Further connections
between CD theory and literature in HRD will enhance HRD research and practice. With its rich
history and theoretical frameworks, CD is important to HRD and deserves more attention in
HRD literature.




Jurnal 2
Career development for skilled migrants in Europe
Edited by Akram Al Ariss, Iris Koall, Mustafa Ozbilgin and Vesa Suutari
Introduction
Within career literature, different metaphors provide a more nuanced view of how career can be
perceived and interpreted in and from different contexts. Career metaphors ([4] Baruch 2004;
[20], [21], [22] Inkson, 2004, 2006, 2007) acknowledge the complexity inherent in career studies
and research, in that different lenses can be used through which career scholars can
explore careers. This paper considers the contemporary metaphors used in career literature
pertaining to career development in an international context in particular. It reviews those
metaphors in the context of an empirical study conducted by the author with a sample of skilled
self-initiated expatriates (SEs) ([34] Suutari and Brewster, 2000). This paper argues that a new
metaphor is required to encompass the overlapping elements influencing career opportunities and
choices; elements concerning the individual him/her-self (competencies, qualifications,
ambition), his/her relationships and roles prioritization at different points of time, work
opportunities and the economic employment situation in a particular country. The metaphor
of career "rivers" to describe the career development of the sample in the study is put forth as a
more succinct description of their experiences.
The aim of this paper is threefold. First, to provide an overview of commonly
used career metaphors used in the context of international career development. The second aim is
to propose a new metaphor, which the author feels better represents the actual careers of SEs.
The final aim of the paper is to consider the implications of the new metaphor on
future career research and practice through the presentation of a framework
of career influences/influencers, underlining the need for more holistic career research and
theorydevelopment.
In the first section of this paper, career metaphors are introduced, with a brief overview of those
considered to be the primary metaphors ([20], [22] Inkson, 2004, 2007). Next,
the career metaphors used in career development in an international context are reviewed,
including career as a "path" (e.g. [8] Cappellen and Janssens, 2005), the
"boundaryless" career ([3] Arthur and Rousseau, 1996), the "protean" career ([18] Hall, 1996)
and career "capital" ([14] DeFillippi and Arthur, 1996). Then, the research approach adopted for
the study is presented, along with the findings of relevance to this paper. Finally, the paper
makes suggestions for further research through a proposed framework
of career influences/influencers, and presents the implications of the study
for career theory development and practice.
Career metaphors
[20], [22] Inkson (2004, 2007) considers nine primary career metaphors in his conceptual
analysis of many of the career metaphors in existence. Each of those nine is outlined briefly in
this section. The first of these is the "legacy metaphor" or "career as inheritance," which [20],
[22] Inkson (2004, 2007) describes as careersinfluenced by "habitus" or the "fields" within which
one has developed and socialized ([6] Bourdieu, 1983). The common "habitus" and "fields" that
individuals may share tend to self-perpetuate, thereby helping to socialize individuals into
specific structures.
The second career metaphor Inkson calls the "craft" metaphor or "career as construction" ([20]
Inkson, 2004), but later ([22] Inkson, 2007) re-names as "actions," where individual agency
in career construction anddevelopment is the focus. The "protean career" ([18] Hall, 1996) is
included under this primary metaphor. The protean career is a career, which the individual
manages and is control of (not the organization). Third is the "season" metaphor or "career as
cycle," which relates career to life cycle and changing priorities over the course of one's life.
Next (fourth) is the "matching" metaphor or "career as fit," which is aligned with [25] Parson's
(1909) and [19] Holland's (1992) work-worker fit aspects of careers as occupations. The fifth
metaphor is the "path" metaphor, or the "career as journey," which is the most
common career metaphor ([20] Inkson, 2004, p. 103). [30] Schein's (1990) career anchors
(occupational self-concept) and [3] Arthur and Rousseau's (1996) boundaryless career concepts
fit under this metaphor umbrella, which focusses on the movement within a career,
organizationally and geographically.
The sixth metaphor Inkson classifies as the "network" metaphor, with careers perceived as
encounters and relationships (social and political). Seventh is the "theater" metaphor,
where careers "can be construed as performances, and career self-management as a performing
art" ([20] Inkson, 2004, p. 111). "Economic" is the eight metaphor, with career viewed as a
"resource" to fulfill organizational goals as in the resource-based view of the firm. Finally, the
ninth metaphor is "narrative" or "career as story," where the individual's telling of
his/her career story/ies is borne in mind and its subjectivity recognized. The research undertaken
and shared in this paper involved a detailed analysis of a collection of career narratives from
SEs. Therefore the narrative metaphor is of underlying relevance in this paper, underlining the
individuality and subjectivity of the respondents in their career development narratives.
[20] Inkson (2004, p. 100) suggests that "Other metaphors may further help us to understand
both generic and individual careers." It is this contribution to facilitating understanding
of careers that prompted the author of this paper to consider the career metaphors most
commonly associated with international careers, particularly with the international career
development of SEs. Given the breadth of primary metaphors and their sub-components as
categorized by [20], [22] Inkson (2004, 2007) and outlined briefly above, space restrictions do
not permit a detailed analysis of each in conjunction with the empirical research sample in this
paper. However, [22] Inkson (2007) himself files international careers under the career "journey"
or "path" metaphor. Other metaphors such as "protean" (under the "actions"
primary career metaphor) and "capital" (under the "resource" primary career metaphor) are also
included in the further analysis due to contemporary publications on these in relation to
international careers.
International careers and career development metaphors
International human resource management literature has traditionally focussed on the
organization-assigned expatriate (e.g. [5] Bonache et al. , 2010), possibly due to the
organization's position in controlling or co-controlling the expatriate's international move and
therefore the organization's/managerialist interest in this dimension. The organization-assigned
expatriate moves for a temporary duration, with the support of his/her employing organization, to
a host country. This move is mooted as an international career "path" ([8] Cappellen and
Janssens, 2005; [15] Dickmann and Harris, 2005), where the path may lead in different
directions both within the parent organization and externally.
Within the career "journey" or "path" metaphor, the boundaryless career metaphor ([3] Arthur
and Rousseau, 1996) reflects the changing relationship between individuals and their employers.
The premise behind the boundaryless career is that individuals are now more open to moving
across organization departments, geographies and to external organizations. The
boundaryless career has been a particularly useful concept with regards to international
assignees, where assignees may choose to move inter-organizationally after an international
assignment (e.g. [32] Stahl et al. , 2002).
Recent papers have called for a more inclusive study of career development to include micro-,
meso- and macro-perspectives in order to better explain the career development challenges faced
by non-nationals internationally ([1] Al Ariss, 2010; [2] Al Ariss and Ozbilgin, 2010; [8]
Cappellen and Janssens, 2005). This paper addresses the context within which individual career
development options emerge, thereby including meso- and macro-factors.
In the last decade, an increasing volume of research has been conducted on non-traditional
expatriates. This has been in response to calls for pluralism in international human resource
management and in the international career discipline to include international assignee types
other than the traditional organizationally assigned expatriate ([31] Scullion and Paauwe, 2004;
[7] Brewster and Suutari, 2005; [13] de Cieri et al. , 2007). This paper, in common with recent
research and publications (e.g. [1] Al Ariss, 2010; [9] Cerdin and Le Pargneux, 2010; [27]
Richardson, 2009), posits the importance of research on SEs. They are a burgeoning category of
international assignees, about whom a paucity of information exists, perhaps due to the very
different contexts (national, political) from which they come and move to, thereby rendering
their scrutiny complex and emic ([28] Richardson, 2010, p. 146).
The "protean" career metaphor ("actions" as the primary metaphor category under which [22]
Inkson, 2007 files the "protean" metaphor) has been discussed with regards to SEs (also termed
self-initiated (international) assignees (SAs)) ([11] Crowley-Henry, 2007; [12] Crowley-Henry
and Weir, 2007). The need for SEs to "morph" into different career paths due to macro-, meso-
and micro-conditions that they face at different points in time, suggests the individual controls
his/her career (micro-context). However, it is stressed that careers do not develop in a vacuum
but under the constraints and/or supports from employers (meso-context) and the formal and
informal labor policies and practices of the host country (macro-context).
The career capital metaphor (classified under Inkson's primary "resource" metaphor) developed
from [14] DeFillippi and Arthur (1996). They break career capital into three components:
knowing why, knowing how and knowing whom. "Knowing why" relates to the individual's
values and motivations; "knowing how" to the individual's skills and competences in the job; and
"knowing whom" to the contacts an individual has which aid his/her career development. In the
international career context, research has shown how an international work experience impacts
on an individual's career capital ([15] Dickmann and Harris, 2005; [16] Dickmann and Doherty,
2008; [23] Jokinen et al. , 2008). "Knowing why" findings show that an international assignment
"markedly influenced their [assigned expatriates and self-initiated expatriates] self-awareness on
personal values, work interests and capabilities" ([23] Jokinen et al. , 2008, p. 989). "Knowing
how" is improved as "individuals found new insights and preferences during their international
stays" ([16] Dickmann and Doherty, 2008, p. 155). While "knowing whom" was found to be the
most important component of career capital to international assignees, with one "key finding [...]
that most expatriate interviewees realized that their social capital had suffered as a result of
working abroad" ([15] Dickmann and Harris, 2005, p. 404).
This section has introduced the primary career metaphors and discussed those career metaphors
most applicable in the context of to international careers (expatriates and SA/SEs). The next
section introduces the research approach.
Research approach
The research shared in this paper was conducted in the region of Sophia Antipolis (Science and
Technology Park in the south of France), where 37 SEs were interviewed between mid-2002 and
mid-2005. Focussing on a particular region in the south of France renders the study a
geographical case. A limitation of all case studies ([33] Stake, 1994) is in the ability to generalize
the findings to other locations. However, the aim of the research in this instance was to uncover
the patterns of influences impacting upon the career development of the sample as interpreted by
the SEs themselves in their narratives in the context of existing career development metaphors.
Through their narratives, the respondents were able to consider, reflect upon and attempt to make
sense of the career patterns in their lives ([10] Chase, 2005). The macro-, meso- and micro-
factors (including the organizational, cultural, social, family), which impact upon the career
development of the sample is captured in narrative inquiry.
The interviews were informal and exploratory in nature; however, an interview guide was used
to ensure a degree of consistency across all interviews. Themes covered in the interview included
eliciting narratives from the interviewees on their perceived career prior to their international
move, career influences/influencers, plans; and then moving to how their careers unfolded in the
host country, a reconstruction of their careers as SEs. The interviews lasted between one and two
hours, were tape recorded and transcribed in full. On analysis of the interviews, patterns emerged
from the material, which de-constructed the career developmentobstacles and options
experienced by the SEs. QSR NVivo was used in coding and analyzing the qualitative interview
transcripts, where concepts were coded narrowly and then re-coded more broadly under headings
such as structural obstacles, serendipity, career contacts. The movement from specific cases
(careernarratives) to theory reflects an inductive approach. It is from a detailed analysis of those
transcripts that thecareer development metaphors discussed previously were reviewed and
explored.
The paper concentrates on a sub-category of SEs. Specifically, the sample that was investigated
was non-French, western SEs that had moved to the south of France of their own accord and that
are committed to remaining in the area indefinitely. A non-probability sampling technique was
adopted whereby the author approached SE contacts who then recommended other SEs that also
agreed to partake in the study. A total of 17 males and 20 females were interviewed, of 12
nationalities (western European, American, Australian), and aged between 29 and 62. Each of
them had active professional (paid work-related) careers, with their roles ranging from senior
managers, to IT consultants, to entrepreneurs, to telemarketing operators. They all can be
classified as working in "skilled" jobs. Their marital and family status ranged from single to co-
habiting or married or divorced/widowed; with and without children (of varying ages). The aim
of the study was to uncover general patterns from the sample, the members of which were all
foreign residents in the south of France for a potentially permanent duration.
This section has described the sample, sampling and research approach of the undertaking. The
next section presents the findings, where the career narratives are reviewed against the existing
international career development metaphors.
Findings and implications
The contemporary career development metaphors found in the context of international careers of
"careerpath," "boundaryless career," "protean career" and "career capital" are represented in the
research. This section provides evidence of the relevance of each metaphor for the SEs.
However, the complexity of careeroptions and choices for the SEs is highlighted in the cultural
context and labor market situation specific to the country in question, France. The requirement
evident from contemporary studies in international careers is for a more holistic, all
encompassing framework with which to explore international careers, such as from the
structure/agency perspective ([29] Richardson and Mallon, 2005) and from a micro-, meso- and
macro-perspective ([2] Al Ariss and Ozbilgin, 2010). This author argues that the metaphor of a
river better describes the career development process the SEs in the sample experience, with high
or low starts, different tributaries (opportunities and challenges) flowing in and out of
the career river at different stages; some rivers growing large, while others fading away and
perhaps then following and growing again along a different path. A river includes history (of
origin, of flow, of experience) and context (location, opportunity) in its path/journey, which this
author feels better represents the need in career research to include more elements
in career research (rather than focus on one or two aspects) in order to provide a more holistic
overview of career in action.
The career journey metaphor is evident in the SE's career narratives. Shaun (39, British, married,
two children: 2.5 years, eight months) comments that:
[...] only last week I was on an assessment centre for 3 days [...] and that's part of [a] career
developmentprogramme for me personally, but I'm one of the exceptions. I know not everyone's
being treated like this.
Shaun experiences a traditional, organizational career trajectory, moving vertically up the
hierarchy. He acknowledges he is "one of the exceptions," however. For other SEs, the
boundaryless career is more evident, with inter-organizational opportunities (meso-context)
arising thanks to their international acumen (micro-context). Donal (36, Irish, married, two step-
children) reflects that:
Certainly in the [...] roles I've ended up [...] working with or for [...] multi-cultural people and
doing different things. [...] I [...] keep dealing with [...] people that are all spread over Europe -
whether they're customers, colleagues, or whatever. [...] That's probably one of the reasons I
ended up doing what I'm doing now, because of my experience. Because I had worked with
European wide teams and that was what I was taken on to do here.
Evidence of the boundaryless career concept as a career journey the SEs encounter is present in
the careernarratives of the SEs in this study. However, it is also apparent in their narratives that
macro-conditions have impacted on the boundarylessness opportunities. Hilda (41, German,
married, seven-year-old daughter) notes that "nowadays it's not so easy to find a job."
The boundaryless and organizational career development options are therefore relevant for SEs
but within a wider context as shown above. The river metaphor which conjures up images of
water flowing not only of its own accord, but having to deal with challenges of terrain, external
challenges (such as dams being built or rivers redirected) reflects the more holistic nature
of career. The river metaphor would appear particularly relevant in the international context
where many factors seem beyond the control of the individual, such as employment policies
(macro-context), as experienced by Hilda (41, German, married, seven-year-old daughter):
I studied German to become a German teacher in France because I liked that. And then I realised
that it was not possible as a foreigner to participate to the [...] French official exams and once
you have passed them then you become a teacher at the school or at the university [...] And as a
German at that time I couldn't.
Other research has also noted the career barriers that SEs face in the macro-context ([1] Al Ariss,
2010; [27] Richardson, 2009). Due to the macro-legalities in France at the time, Hilda had to re-
assess her career(knowing why) development, and through contacts (knowing whom), she
morphed (in protean terms) her training into IT in order to proactively target a new multinational
organization she had heard was opening up in the area at the time, that was looking for
international staff in the IT area (knowing how). In keeping with the "protean career" concept,
she managed her own career development at that stage so as to better position herself for job
opportunities in the new multinational organization.
Other respondents noted the prevailing protean or self-managing aspect to career
development within an organizational career (micro-context). Steve (34, British, married) finds
that:
[...] you look after yourself here. It's a bit chaotic to be quite honest with you. You have to look
after yourself.
Those respondents with partners and/or children were further influenced by their significant
others in weighing up potential career progression and continued residency in the area. Billy (52,
Welsh, divorced, three children aged 19, 14 and 11) consciously chose to prioritize his family
over an ambitious external career developmentoption:
I think you have to take a choice at some time in your career: either you want to stay around your
family or you decide to, you want to make a career. My choice was to stay around my family, to
avoid travelling if I could. So that limited my career path.
Individual ambitions therefore need to be considered in light of a more holistic ([36] Wolfe and
Kolb, 1980) picture of career development, which includes micro-, meso- macro-, relational and
structural influences. It is the collage of influencing elements (family, ambition, organizational
support, labor policies, etc.) that determine the way the individual's career could go.
Time was also found to be very relevant in the study. The use of past experiences in building up
potential future career scenarios dependent on the structural conditions in which an individual
finds him/her-self is consciously considered by the respondents. For instance, Rick (43, British,
engaged) notes how his career has morphed from technical to business, and how his past
experiences would serve him well should he be forced to change career due to potential lay-offs
in his current organization:
One of the things I've been priding myself on is being able to pick up a new topic: [...] so you've
got two or three aspects to your job. [...] And so if I'm laid off, or if I was forced to move for one
reason or the other, I would be looking at trying to expand that [other] role out.
The combination of past experiences in developing future career pathways is a central element of
the proteancareer concept. The ability to transform over time depending on the life focus is
apparent in the narratives. The protean career also focusses on the subjective career dimension
rather than on the objective one. Learning new tasks, combining work and personal life, thereby
taking a holistic approach to careers is underlined. Individuals using their past experience in re-
inventing their careers or in progressing more in their careers, correspond with the concept of the
protean career whereby individuals morph their career focus over time, depending on
opportunity and circumstance, in order to survive. The morphing of careers within the
proteancareer concept describes how pieces of one's life's jigsaw of experiences and make-up
contribute to the direction most attractive to the individual at particular points in time and under
context specific circumstances.
This paper has focussed on the findings relating to international career development metaphors
as experienced by the sample in question. There are many opportunities and challenges faced by
the SEs in theircareer development, some of which they have no control over. The process or
evolving nature of an international career, which is influenced by chance, by the individual
(agency), by structural facilitators or limiters, and by the temporal conditions, is underlined. The
notion of taking a simple uni-dimensional approach toward examining international career
development is not practical. A more comprehensive examination ofcareer development, as
represented more aptly, the author here feels, by a river metaphor is warranted.
There is a dearth of empirical research on careers which attempt to encompass a more
comprehensive examination of factors influencing career development ([17] Gunz et al ., 2008,
p. 307). [26] Patton and McMahon (2006) have attempted to address the gap between theory and
practice in developing a systems theory framework of career development, which encompasses
individual, contextual, social and environmental elements with the acknowledgment that these
elements change over time and are subject to chance, etc. This study shows the constant
negotiation between macro-conditions (such as employment opportunity), family conditions (the
preferences of family members) and individual ambitions, which vary over time. The metaphor
of a river would better encompass the meandering, evolving, protean nature of
the careers represented in the study in reality.
Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] is built up inductively from the research conducted.
It presents a framework for more holistic career development studies, breaking down somewhat
the different careerinfluences/influencers.
Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] presents an overview of the career influencers that
emerged from the study. It unpicks different concerns that individuals have when contemplating
their career future. Different aspects impacting on career choice and development were coded
during analysis of the interviewee transcripts. These were then re-coded into broader
themes/influencers, which are presented on the left side of Table I [Figure omitted. See Article
Image.] (primary career influencers), with examples of the different aspects under those themes
on the right-hand side of Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] (dependent on).
The study found that individual and relational aspects impact on career decisions (micro-
context). Equally, the meso-context needs to be considered: concerning the organization(s)
where the individuals are employed and the work/technical job aspects, which the individual
encounters in that workplace. Additionally, societal pressures and cultural norms may insert
barriers or challenges in career progression (such as the expectation for females to support their
partners' careers). Also in the macro-context, legislation and policies existing in the particular
country where the international assignee is based, impact on career choice and opportunity. An
example of this would be the requirement of working visas or residency permits. All of these
factors, in their many varying forms as shown by the examples presented in Table I [Figure
omitted. See Article Image.], affect the individual's career development.
Importantly, these factors are not static, with different factors being prioritized at different life
points, for different people. For instance, one respondent (Susan, 39, British, single), after the
death of her father, reprioritized her career outlook from that which had previously favored
individual progression and advancement to prioritizing her work-life balance:
I'm not particularly interested in [...] rising up a ladder in a corporation [...] I have a very
different attitude now because my father died when I was 25 [...] And so now I tend to really live
my life where [...] money isn't [...] the be all and end all.
The diversity of influencers, varying in priority over time, adds further weight to the
conceptualization ofcareers as rivers, with the potential of moving into different streams,
growing, or subsiding at varying points in an individual's career. This framework is useful as a
guide for further developing career research and theory, particularly in an international context.
The different influencers could be investigated quantitatively with a large sample in order to
ascertain if there are common trends with regards to individual characteristics (age, gender,
relationship status, family status, etc.) and prioritization of career influencers. A longitudinal
qualitative study would also shed light on exploring motivations for career influence
prioritization change over time.
The framework is also of benefit to HRM professionals in the career development practice. It
persuades practitioners to re-consider career development processes in their organizations so that
other influencers besides job, organization and the individual's ability and skills are taken into
account. It highlights that at different periods during an individual's life, different priorities come
to the forefront, which may require differentcareer development options, such as the ability to
take career breaks, reducing working hours or to increase responsibility, depending on the
individual's personal circumstances and opportunities in the organization. The framework
presented in Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] serves as a check-list which HRD
practitioners can use when assessing the development support an organization provides to its
employees, depending on the relative prioritization of the factors at each career
development meeting, recognizing that these prioritizations will change depending on individual
circumstances.
The implication of this study for practice is to highlight the requirement to re-develop HRD
and career development within organizations, particularly for non-national employees that face
even more influencers (as depicted in Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.]). It suggests
that more innovative approaches to HRD and career development are required within
organizations; approaches that accept the different influencers impacting on an
individual's career choices from a structure (meso, macro) and agent (micro/individual)
standpoint over time.
Conclusions: limitations and further research opportunities
This paper was limited in its analysis of specific metaphors relating to the career development of
international assignees. Further research could be conducted of a broader scale in order to more
comprehensively encompass each of [20] Inkson's (2004, 2007) nine primary career metaphors
and their sub-components in an analysis of international career development. In that respect, the
analysis shared in this paper could be seen as a preliminary discussion on career metaphors most
pertinent for SEs and other categories of international assignees.
The research collected, coded thematically and inductively from the interview transcripts, and
analyzed thecareer narratives collected from the respondents during in-depth interviews. While
the use of the QSR NVivo software package for coding and analysis facilitated the coding and
recoding of themes into trees and nodes, other researchers may have coded differently, which is
always a consideration in qualitative research undertakings.
This paper suggests a more nuanced metaphor (river) to describe the SEs career development.
The research was conducted in a specific geographical case study location where an
ethnographical approach was adopted and narratives were collected. Despite the specificity of
the research, the author suggests that the more holistic nature of the study contributes to
the development of career theory, which attempts to incorporate multiple aspects which impact
upon career development.
Contemporary career theory notes the "need to tailor psychological contractual conditions to the
specific needs of the individual" ([24] Larsen and Ellehave, 2000, p. 114). This mirrors [35]
Swart and Kinnie (2004) that organizations adopting a uniform, one size fits all approach
to career management is not sufficient. This underlines the requirement for different
individual career alternatives to be discussed in career management sessions (potentially using
elements from Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] for guidance).
While the career metaphors analyzed in this study showed their relevance and existence among
the SEs, the description of careers running along a river that meanders, can run dry, go to sea,
grow wider, deeper or shallower over its course seems a more nuanced description of
the careers this study explored. However, one should not dismiss other metaphors in contributing
new ones. [20] Inkson (2004, p. 98): "Every metaphor has its own strengths and weaknesses, its
applicability and non-applicability to the specific situation. True understanding comes from
considering a range of metaphors." Thus the river metaphor described in this paper should be
considered as one of many different perspectives with which to view careers, but which seems to
aptly describe the sample considered as well as to enable a more holistic incorporation
of career influencers.