T

he critical path method (CPM) of scheduling is used

widely in many project controls applications [1, 4]. A
number of commercial scheduling software packages
are in use throughout the construction industry. Most
of these software packages are based on the CPM using the
precedence diagram method (PDM) as the network analysis
algorithm [5]. The PDM scheduling method is an activity-
based methodology. Its output can be structured to furnish
powerful project control tools that are useful in executing the
project plan in a manner that fits both cost and time constraints.
Because this scheduling method has no inherent algorithmic
mechanism to manage both space and time simultaneously, the
cost engineer must assume that the durations derived from the
production rates for the crews associated with each activity will
not be hindered or conflicted by on-going work on parallel
activities [2]. Thus, there is always a possibility that two sets of
equipment and their crews will converge on the ground and
need to use the same space in order to maintain their target pro-
duction rates. If this occurs, one crew will inevitably delay the
other until the space conflict is over. When a disruption occurs
for this reason on a labor-intensive project such as a building
project, the cost is usually not as high as it is on equipment-
intensive heavy-civil construction project.
As a result of the above issue, many heavy-civil construction
project managers prefer to use linear scheduling to furnish the
basis for their project planning and scheduling system. Linear
schedules display time and space graphically on the same
instrument [1]. This allows the cost engineer to visually decon-
flict production activities on the project space representation.
Additionally, instead of being activity-based, they are produc-
tion-based and allow the cost engineer to synchronize the
schedule with the same assumed production rates that were
used in the project cost estimate. This furnishes a method for
seamlessly transitioning from project planning to project execu-
tion. A succinct synopsis of the advantages of linear scheduling
is contained in the training course material from Peter Kiewit
and Sons, Inc., a large heavy-civil construction company. It is
described as follows:
Linear schedules are simple charts that show both
when and where a given work activity will take place.
Because they put time and space together on one chart,
linear schedules allow us to see how the pieces of the proj-
ect fit together. Enhanced with color, varying shades, or
patterns they also communicate types of work and crew
movement. This is something neither bar charts nor CPM
schedules can do... [3].
The issue of achieving reliable project control systems that
are based on the production rates used in the bid arises when a
construction contractor wins a project from an owner that
requires their construction contractors to use a specific PDM-
based commercial project scheduling software package to facil-
itate the process of controlling the projects schedule [2]. Thus,
it is imperative to be able to take the output derived from a lin-
ear schedule and convert it to PDM so that it can be used direct-
ly in contract-mandated computer scheduling and project con-
trol software. Combining, the two methods is an excellent way
to develop a construction schedule. Using linear scheduling
techniques to plan the overall sequence of work for production-
driven activities is the first step in the development of the final
construction schedule and can have many advantages.
CONVERSION PROCESS
The following discussion assumes that the reader understands
both how to develop a linear schedule as well as how to devel-
op a PDM schedule. Those readers who do not have an under-
standing of both the scheduling methods are directed to the lit-
erature references before reading this paper [1,2,3,5]. The
process described below assumes that the linear schedule for a
given project has been developed and that the key production-
related decisions are made using the visual representation that
the linear schedule provides. Thus, once these important deci-
sions are made for the major activities that are associated with
ensuring the projects profitability, the cost engineer can then
convert the linear schedule into a PDM and complete the
detailed scheduling task using the following steps:
Develop a comprehensive listing of all the activities shown
in the linear schedule, including their durations (partial
days rounded up to a whole day), and their precedence rela-
tionships to other activities.
For each line activity, decide whether to show it in the
PDM as a single activity or to break it down into several,
related activities. It if is broken down, make sure the sum
of the durations of the series of new activities do not exceed
2007 AACE International Transactions
PS.05
Converting Linear Schedules to
Critical Path Method Precedence
Dr. Douglas D. Gransberg, PE CCE
PS.05
PS.05.2
2007 AACE International Transactions
the duration of the line they represent in the linear sched-
ule.
For each bar activity, increase the level of activity detail by
breaking it down into the series of activities that the bar rep-
resented and distribute the total bar duration in the linear
schedule to each of the new activities. The total duration
of the new activities that make-up the hammock represent-
ed by the bar cannot exceed the duration assigned to the bar
in the linear schedule.
Similarly, for increase the level of detail each block, if
required by determining if it should be shown in the PDM
as a single activity or a series of activities. If broken out, the
sum of the durations of the series of new activities cannot
exceed the duration of the block they represent in the lin-
ear schedule. Also, as some blocks represent a constraint
rather than a production activity, determine if it is more
appropriate to show the block in the PDM as an activity that
has duration but no resources or as a lag on the finish of a
related activity.
Assemble the final list of linear schedule activities to be
developed into a PDM network. Add to it those minor activ-
ities that were not shown on the linear schedule with their
associated durations and precedence relationships and
develop the final network in the scheduling designated soft-
ware package.
Check the initial project completion date computed by the
software against the contractual completion date. If the ini-
tial schedule is longer than the time allowed adjust the net-
works logic, if possible, to reduce the overall duration. If
this isnt possible, begin to crash activities by adding
resources to reduce their durations the required amount.
The final PDM schedule must conform to the contract
specifications and fall within the stipulated contract period.
EXAMPLE CONVERSION
The following is an example to demonstrate how this conver-
sion methodology works. A minor highway rehabilitation proj-
ect is let, and the construction contractors project manager
decides to use linear scheduling to plan the construction
sequence to ensure that none of the crew/equipment packages
conflict with each other or the other constraints imposed on the
project. The construction contract mandates that an official
schedule be submitted using a PDM-based commercial sched-
uling software package. The project description is as follows:
Mobilization will occur between STA 2+00 and STA 3+00.
It will take two days.
The first task is to demolish 1000 LF of existing pavement,
which has a sustained production rate of 100 LF/day.
After the pavement is demolished, the next activity is to
install cement treated subbase (CTSB). This crew will
have a sustained production rate of 250 LF/day.
On top of the CTSB, asphalt stabilized base (ASB) must be
installed and that crew has a sustained production rate of
200 LF/day.
Finally, Type A hot-mix asphalt paving will be laid on the
completed ASB at a sustained production rate of 400
LF/day.
A series of small concrete box culverts must be built
between STA 2+00 and 4+00. The group will take seven
working days. The specifications restrict putting equip-
ment loads on the new culverts until two days after last cul-
vert is poured. This work by accomplished by a concrete
subcontractor and includes excavation, backfill and final
grading for the culverts.
The last activity in the project is clean-up/demobilization,
and it will take two days.
The linear schedule shown in figure 1 is developed from the
above information and will be converted to a PDM. It shows
that the project can be completed in a total of 19 working days.
Table 1 is a list of the activities and their respective durations
taken directly from the linear schedule in figure 1.
This completes both Step 1, listing the activities off the linear
schedule and Step 2, the deciding how the lines on the linear
schedule will be broken down. One can see that the cost engi-
neer has chosen to break each of the production-driven activi-
ties represented by lines into separate activities as they break up
on the linear schedule. One should also not that activity 070
computed duration of 2.5 days was rounded up to three days to
allow it to be input into PDM.
Having completed the above allows the linear schedule line
activities to be related to the build culverts bar activity and the
no loads block activity. Additionally, all the important work
sequencing decisions made on the linear schedule are now rep-
resented as precedence relationships and as required with lag to
ensure that the PDM preserves the logic that went into making
those production-driven decisions.
The next step will be to convert the Build Culverts bar
activity into individual activities and replace the single activity
shown in Table 1. To do this, one can associate it as a hammock
activity and develop a list of activities and durations based on
the tasks and duration for a single culvert. This list is generated
as follows:
Figure 1Linear Schedule for Example Highway
Rehabilitation Project
excavate and prepare bed four hours;
form box culvert, eight hours;
pour and finish concrete, four hours;
backfill, three hours; and
final grading, one hours.
Looking at the above list, the cost engineer decides to simpli-
fy matters a bit by combining the backfill and final grading
for all four culverts into the single activity backfill and final
grading culverts A-D and assigns it a duration of three days.
Next, the excavation and bed preparation activity is broken into
two activities, excavate and prepare bed culverts A&B and
excavate and prepare bed culverts C&D of one-day duration
each. Similarly, the decision is made to pour the concrete for
two culverts per day creating the activities: pour concrete cul-
verts A&B and pour concrete culverts C&D of one-day dura-
tion each. Finally, each culvert is assigned a separate form cul-
vert activity with a one-day duration. The resulting output is
shown in table 2 and the fragmentary network (fragnet) for this
series of activities is shown in figure 2.
This project has some miscellaneous activities that were not
included in the linear schedule. The activities, their durations
and precedence relationships are as follows:
Guardrail must be built between STA 2+00 and 4+00. It
will take two days and can begin as soon as the paving is
completed in that area.
Striping of the road will take two days and can begin when
the pavement is ready.
Signs at stations 4+00, 7+50, 9+85, and 10+00 can be
emplaced after the paving is finished at that location. All
the signs can be installed in one working day.
Adding these activities to the activities in tables 1 and 2 com-
pletes the final activity listing (table 3) for the PDM shown in
figure 3.
PS.05.3
2007 AACE International Transactions
Table 1PDM Activities and Durations From Figure 1
Figure 2PDM Fragmentary Network for Build Culvert Work Sequence
Table 2Detailed List of Build Culverts Activities
PS.05.4
2007 AACE International Transactions
T
he above example demonstrates that the two scheduling
methods, PDM and linear scheduling can be used in
conjunction with one another to permit the cost engi-
neer to develop the construction projects work sequence in a
rational manner that creates bid based project controls for the
project throughout its construction period. The following con-
clusions can be made:
Linear scheduling provides a method to ensure the sched-
uling process is focused on those production-driven activi-
ties whose successful completion drives an equipment-
intensive projects profitability. It does this by reducing the
schedule to its most essential portions and manages both
time and space on the project site in a graphical display,
thus allowing a visual deconflicting of critical production-
driven activities.
PDM furnishes a method to organize the large amount of
detail that comes with most construction projects. It is both
understood and accepted by both owners and construction
contractors, and is often required to be used as a part of the
construction contract.
The cost engineer can accrue the benefits of both method-
ologies by using linear scheduling as a tool for planning the
sequence and timing of work for the major production
activities and then converting the linear scheduling output
to PDM. Next, all the remaining items of work can be
added to the PDM to produce the final construction sched-
ule for an equipment-intensive heavy-civil construction
project.
REFERENCES
1. Callahan, M.T., D.G. Quackenbush, , and J.E. Rowings.
Construction Project Scheduling, New York : McGraw-Hill,
(1992): pp. 86-112, 200-210.
2. Gransberg, D.D., C. M. Popescu and R.C. Ryan.
Construction Equipment Management for Engineers,
Estimators, and Construction Managers, Taylor and Francis
Books, Inc., (2006): pp.174-182.
3. Jones, C., Linear Scheduling. Presentation Slides
Unpublished Lecture given at Norman, Oklahoma, (April
4, 2005), Peter Kiewit and Sons, Inc., Dallas, Texas.
Table 3Final List of Activities for Converting Figure 7-12
to PDM
Figure 3Example Llinear Schedule Converted to PDM Network
4. Oberlender, G.D. Project Management for Engineering and
Construction. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. (2000): pp.
139-183.
5. Marchman, D.A. Construction Scheduling with Primavera
Project Planner. Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers, (1997):
pp. 97-118.
Dr. Douglas D. Gransberg, PE CCE
Associate Professor
University of Oklahoma
Construction Science Division
830 Van Vleet Oval Rm 162
Norman, OK 73019-6141, US
Phone: +1.405.325.6092
Email: dgransberg@ou.edu
PS.05.5
2007 AACE International Transactions