UPLB reacts to ABS-CBN's Maalala

Mo Kaya episode

Written by the Office of Public Relations

Friday, 06 March 2009 15:10
UPLB has issued an official statement to ABS-CBN Broadcasting Corporation in light of a recent episode of their Maalala Mo Kaya program which inadvertently cast a bad light on the University and
its constituents.
The complete letter is as follows:
Our attention has been called by constituents and alumni to an episode featured in Maala-ala Mo Kaya entitled "Blusa," which was aired on ABS-CBN on Feb. 28 and on TFC recently. Our
constituents and alumni were concerned whether the episode was based on truth.
The story was of a woman who allegedly graduated BS AgriBusiness, summa cum laude, from the University of the Philippines Los Baños or UPLB, who could not find a job, and ended up a stripper.
We tried to find out who the subject was by tracking all 27 of our summa cum laude graduates from the time the University was established in 1909. We could not find anyone matching the subject as
portrayed in "Blusa."
Whether or not the subject was a UPLB graduate, we deeply sympathize with her and her family. However, in the interest of maintaining its reputation as a truthful storyteller, the MMK should have a
mechanism to validate claims by letter senders especially those that require a stretch of imagination as to be believed.
While indeed touching and a perfect example of a human-interest story, "Blusa" regrettably affected the reputation of UPLB as an educational institution and its constituents and alumni. We therefore
request ABS-CBN to set the record straight and correct the wrong impression that it created among its viewers. We also make an appeal to producers of similar programs to be more prudent in
reporting stories with claims that would affect the reputation not only of a school but also of its alumni in the Philippines and abroad.

Thank you.

http://www.uplb.edu.ph/index.php/news-and-announcements/79-uplb-reacts-to-controversial-maalala-mo-kaya-episode

Editorial
Rebelyn

Philippine Daily Inquirer

First Posted 00:23:00 03/09/2009

PERHAPS they killed her because of her name? The 20-year-old teacher abducted by unknown armed men last Wednesday in Davao City and found dead late on Thursday in Carmen, Davao del
Norte bore an unusual name: Rebelyn. It is only human nature to speculate that her name was an act of everyday poetry, chosen in homage to her father.
Rebelyn’s father, Leoncio Pitao, is a rebel in deed: He is better known as Commander Parago of the New People’s Army.
By all accounts, Rebelyn had chosen the straight and narrow; if she was suspected by the military or the police of aiding the communist insurgency, or being an insurgent herself, there is no
evidence, no offer of proof. Her only crime was to be her father’s daughter.
When news spread that Rebelyn had gone missing, and then that she had been found tortured to death, public opinion in Davao City immediately hardened into the fact of perception: That she had
been abducted and killed because her father was a communist guerilla.
The wealth of man-on-the-street interviews in the wake of her death provides a vivid snapshot of what people familiar with the situation or who had heard about the killing were thinking. The thoughts
of a mother (of a 20-year-old daughter too, as it happens) were representative: “She’s innocent and she has nothing to do with her father’s revolution.”
It also quickly became conventional wisdom that the military was behind the gruesome crime. A cigarette vendor spoke for many when he said, in the vernacular: “Who else could do that? Are we
idiots? They can deny it, but we know that it is only the military that has the capacity and the motive to do something as brutal as that.”
The public perception that military agents were behind the kidnapping, possible rape and killing of an innocent settled swiftly, discomfiting responsible military officers. Maj. Randolph Cabangbang,
the spokesperson of the Armed Forces’ Eastern Mindanao Command, confessed that he was upset. “It’s really a concern. And we are bothered. That is why we have opened our doors to
investigations for the truth to really come out. We want this issue to come to its end.”
In Malacañang, President Macapagal-Arroyo ordered the Presidential Committee on Human Rights to conduct an investigation, and asked the independent Commission on Human Rights to conduct
a parallel probe too. “The President ordered the investigation of the reported killing of the daughter of Commander Parago. The state also recognizes that this is a violation of human rights and that
those responsible should be punished,” Press Secretary Cerge Remonde said.
At least that much is clear: This is a human rights case, not an ordinary crime. We can start from that.
But where do we end? We can readily assume that many members of the military found Rebelyn’s death a terrible and needless act. They would have thought so not only out of common decency
but also because of a basic precept of warfare. Families of combatants ought not to be included in the order of battle.
But as has come to light in the last several years, the military continues to harbor extremists or mercenaries, who will not think twice about abducting UP students or killing peasant leaders. Under
the Arroyo administration, this failure to end “special operations” (or this willingness to continue using them) has a symbol: now-retired general Jovito Palparan.
The idiosyncratic tough-guy mayor of Davao City, Rodrigo Duterte, who is friends with Commander Parago, called Rebelyn’s killing “a deed most foul.” (To be sure, this is also how kith and kin of the
Davao Death Squad’s many victims must feel, when they see their child or cousin or friend or playmate dead in the street. The only difference is that they’re not friends of Duterte’s.)
We can agree with Duterte on this one. The problem is, Duterte himself is a poster boy for the get-tough policies of the Arroyo administration. The President has reserved special praise for Duterte’s
no-nonsense approach to law and order, and even appointed him, once upon a time, as her consultant. But as should be clear by now, President Arroyo has other consultants, other poster boys for
sanctioned violence. Rebelyn was just another victim.
http://opinion.inquirer.net/inquireropinion/editorial/view/20090309-193036/Rebelyn
Human rights
Human rights refer to the "basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled."[1] Examples of rights and freedoms which have come to be commonly thought of as human rights include civil
and political rights, such as the right to life and liberty, freedom of expression, and equality before the law; and social, cultural and economic rights, including the right to participate in culture, the right
to food, the right to work, and the right to education.

“ All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of
brotherhood. ”

[edit] History
Main article: History of human rights
The earliest sign of human rights has been found on the Cyrus Cylinder written during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia/Iran. The history of human rights covers thousands of years and draws upon
religious, cultural, philosophical and legal developments throughout recorded history. Several ancient documents and later religions and philosophies included a variety of concepts that may be
considered to be human rights. Notable among such documents are the Edicts of Ashoka issued by Ashoka the Great of India between 272-231 BC; and the Constitution of Medina of 622 AD,
drafted by Muhammad to mark a formal agreement between all of the significant tribes and families of Yathrib (later known as Medina), including Muslims, Jews and Pagans.[3][4] The English Magna
Carta of 1215 is particularly significant in the history of English law, and is hence significant in international law and constitutional law today.

Much of modern human rights law and the basis of most modern interpretations of human rights can be traced back to relatively recent history. The 1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against
Slavery was the first public document of its kind that declared equal rights for all humans. The British Bill of Rights (or “An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subject and Settling the
Succession of the Crown”) of 1689 made illegal a range of oppressive governmental actions in the United Kingdom. Two major revolutions occurred during the 18th century, in the United States
(1776) and in France (1789), leading to the adoption of the United States Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen respectively, both of which
established certain legal rights. Additionally, the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 encoded a number of fundamental rights and freedoms into law.
These were followed by developments in philosophy of human rights by philosophers such as Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill and G. W. F. Hegel during the 18th and 19th centuries. The term
human rights probably came into use sometime between Paine's The Rights of Man and William Lloyd Garrison's 1831 writings in The Liberator saying he was trying to enlist his readers in "the great
cause of human rights"[5]
Many groups and movements have managed to achieve profound social changes over the course of the 20th century in the name of human rights. In Western Europe and North America, labour
unions brought about laws granting workers the right to strike, establishing minimum work conditions and forbidding or regulating child labour. The women's rights movement succeeded in gaining for
many women the right to vote. National liberation movements in many countries succeeded in driving out colonial powers. One of the most influential was Quaid - Azam's movement to free his native
India from British rule. Movements by long-oppressed racial and religious minorities succeeded in many parts of the world, among them the civil rights movement, and more recent diverse identity
politics movements, on behalf of women and minorities in the United States.
The establishment of the International Committee of the Red Cross, the 1864 Lieber Code and the first of the Geneva Conventions in 1864 laid the foundations of International humanitarian law, to
be further developed following the two World Wars.
The World Wars, and the huge losses of life and gross abuses of human rights that took place during them were a driving force behind the development of modern human rights instruments. The
League of Nations was established in 1919 at the negotiations over the Treaty of Versailles following the end of World War I. The League's goals included disarmament, preventing war through
collective security, settling disputes between countries through negotiation, diplomacy and improving global welfare. Enshrined in its Charter was a mandate to promote many of the rights which
were later included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
At the 1945 Yalta Conference, the Allied Powers agreed to create a new body to supplant the League's role. This body was to be the United Nations. The United Nations has played an important role
in international human rights law since its creation. Following the World Wars the United Nations and its members developed much of the discourse and the bodies of law which now make up
international humanitarian law and international human rights law.
[edit] International norms
[edit] Humanitarian Law
The Geneva Conventions came into being between 1864 and 1949 as a result of efforts by Henry Dunant, the founder of the International Committee of the Red Cross. The conventions safeguard
the human rights of individuals involved in armed conflict, and build on the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions, the international community's first attempt to formalize the laws of war and war crimes
in the nascent body of secular international law. The conventions were revised as a result of World War II and readopted by the international community in 1949.
The Geneva Conventions define what is today referred to as humanitarian law. The International Committee of the Red Cross is the controlling body of the Geneva conventions.
[edit] Universal Declaration of Human Rights
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a non-binding declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly[7] in 1948, partly in response to the atrocities of World War II.
Although the UDHR is a non-binding resolution, it is now considered to be a central component of international customary law which may be invoked under appropriate circumstances by national and
other judiciaries.[8] The UDHR urges member nations to promote a number of human, civil, economic and social rights, asserting these rights are part of the "foundation of freedom, justice and peace
in the world." The declaration was the first international legal effort to limit the behaviour of states and press upon them duties to their citizens following the model of the rights-duty duality.

“ ...recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the
world ”

—Preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948

The UDHR was framed by members of the Human Rights Commission, with former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt as Chair, who began to discuss an International Bill of Rights in 1947. The members
of the Commission did not immediately agree on the form of such a bill of rights, and whether, or how, it should be enforced. The Commission proceeded to frame the UDHR and accompanying
treaties, but the UDHR quickly became the priority.[9] Canadian law professor John Humprey and French lawyer René Cassin were responsible for much of the cross-national research and the
structure of the document respectively, where the articles of the declaration were interpretative of the general principle of the preamble. The document was structured by Cassin to include the basic
principles of dignity, liberty, equality and brotherhood in the first two articles, followed successively by rights pertaining to individuals; rights of individuals in relation to each other and to groups;
spiritual, public and political rights; and economic, social and cultural rights. The final three articles place, according to Cassin, rights in the context of limits, duties and the social and political order in
which they are to be realized.[9] Humphrey and Cassin intended the rights in the UDHR to be legally enforceable through some means, as is reflected in the third clause of the preamble:[9]

“ Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of
law. ”

—Preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948

Some of the UDHR was researched and written by a committee of international experts on human rights, including representatives from all continents and all major religions, and drawing on
consultation with leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi. The inclusion of both civil and political rights and economic, social and cultural rights[9][11] was predicated on the assumption that basic human
[10]

rights are indivisible and that the different types of rights listed are inextricably linked. This principle was not then opposed by any member states (the declaration was adopted unanimously, with the
abstention of the Eastern Bloc, Apartheid South Africa and Saudi Arabia), however this principle was later subject to significant challenges.[11]
The Universal Declaration was bifurcated into two distinct and different covenants, a Covenants on Civil and Political Rights and another Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Over the
objection of the more developed states [Capitalist], which questioned the relevance and propriety of such provisions in covenants on human rights, both begin with the right of people to self-
determination and to sovereignty over their natural resources. Then the two covenants go different ways (see, Louis Henkin, The International Bill of Rights: The Universal Declaration and the
Covenants, in International Enforcement of Human Rights 6-9, Bernhardt and Jolowicz, eds, (1987))
The drafters of the Covenants initially intended only one instrument. The original drafts included only political and civil rights, but economic and social rights were added early. Western States then
fought for, and obtained, a division into two covenants. They insisted that economic and social right were essentially aspirations or plans, not rights, since their realization depended on availability of
resources and on controversial economic theory and ideology. These, they said, were not appropriate subjects for binding obligations and should not be allowed to dilute the legal character of
provisions honoring political-civil rights; states prepared to assume obligations to respect political-civil rights should not be mitments. There was wide agreement and clear recognition that the means
required to enforce or induce compliance with socio-economic undertakings were different from the means required for civil-political rights. See Louis Henkin, Introduction, The International Bill of
Rights 9-10 (1981).
Because of the divisions over which rights to include, and because some states declined to ratify any treaties including certain specific interpretations of human rights, and despite the Soviet bloc
and a number of developing countries arguing strongly for the inclusion of all rights in a so-called Unity Resolution, the rights enshrined in the UDHR were split into two separate covenants, allowing
states to adopt some rights and derogate others.[citation needed] Though this allowed the covenants to be created, one commentator has written that it denied the proposed principle that all rights are
linked which was central to some interpretations of the UDHR.[12][13]

[edit] Law
Human rights law is a system of laws, both domestic and international, designed to promote human rights.
[edit] Treaties
In 1966, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) were adopted by the United Nations,
between them making the rights contained in the UDHR binding on all states that have signed this treaty, creating human rights law.
Since then numerous other treaties (pieces of legislation) have been offered at the international level. They are generally known as human rights instruments. Some of the most significant are:
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD) (adopted 1966, entry into force: 1969) [1]
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) (entry into force: 1981) [2]
• United Nations Convention Against Torture (CAT) (adopted 1984, entry into force: 1984) [3]
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) (adopted 1989, entry into force: 1989) [4]
• International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families (ICRMW) (adopted 1990, entry into force: 2003)
[edit] Enforcement of law
Main article: Human rights law
The enforcement of international human rights law is the responsibility of the Nation State, and its the primary responsibility of the State to make human rights a reality. There is currently no
international court that upholds human rights law (the International Criminal Court deals with crimes against humanity, war crimes and genocide), although the Council of Europe is responsible for
both the European Convention on Human Rights, and the European Court of Human Rights that acts as a court of last appeal for human rights issues in member states (see the section Europe
below).[14]
In practice, many human rights are very difficult to legally enforce due to the absence of consensus on the application of certain rights, the lack of relevant national legislation or of bodies empowered
to take legal action to enforce them.
[edit] Universal Jurisdiction
Main article: Human rights law
Universal jurisdiction is a controversial principle in international law whereby states claim criminal jurisdiction over persons whose alleged crimes were committed outside the boundaries of the
prosecuting state, regardless of nationality, country of residence, or any other relation with the prosecuting country. The state backs its claim on the grounds that the crime committed is considered a
crime against all, which any state is authorized to punish. The concept of universal jurisdiction is therefore closely linked to the idea that certain international norms are erga omnes, or owed to the
entire world community, as well as the concept of jus cogens.[15]
[edit] International bodies
[edit] United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is the only multilateral governmental agency with universally accepted international jurisdiction for universal human rights legislation.[16] Human rights are primarily
governed by the United Nations Security Council and the United Nations Human Rights Council, and there are numerous committees within the UN with responsibilities for safeguarding different
human rights treaties. The most senior body of the UN with regard to human rights is the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. The United Nations has an international mandate to:

“ ...achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human
rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion. ”

—Article 1-3 of the United Nations Charter

[edit] Human Rights Council
The United Nations Human Rights Council, created at the 2005 World Summit to replace the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, has a mandate to investigate violations of human
rights.[17] The Human Rights Council is a subsidiary body of the General Assembly[18] and reports directly to it. It ranks below the Security Council, which is the final authority for the interpretation of
the United Nations Charter.[19] Forty-seven of the one hundred ninety-one member states sit on the council, elected by simple majority in a secret ballot of the United Nations General Assembly.
Members serve a maximum of six years and may have their membership suspended for gross human rights abuses. The Council is based in Geneva, and meets three times a year; with additional
meetings to respond to urgent situations.[20]
Independent experts (rapporteurs) are retained by the Council to investigate alleged human rights abuses and to provide the Council with reports.
The Human Rights Council may request that the Security Council take action when human rights violations occur. This action may be direct actions, may involve sanctions, and the Security Council
may also refer cases to the International Criminal Court (ICC) even if the issue being referred is outside the normal jurisdiction of the ICC.[21]
[edit] Security Council
The United Nations Security Council has the primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security and is the only body of the UN that can authorize the use of force (including in
the context of peace-keeping operations), or override member nations sovereignty by issuing binding Security Council resolutions. Created by the UN Charter, it is classed as a Charter Body of the
United Nations. The UN Charter gives the Security Council the power to:
• Investigate any situation threatening international peace;
• Recommend procedures for peaceful resolution of a dispute;
• Call upon other member nations to completely or partially interrupt economic relations as well as sea, air, postal, and radio communications, or to sever diplomatic relations; and
• Enforce its decisions militarily, if necessary.
The Security Council hears reports from all organs of the United Nations, and can take action over any issue which it feels threatens peace and security, including human rights issues. It has at times
been criticised for failing to take action to prevent human rights abuses, including the Darfur crisis, the Srebrenica massacre and the Rwandan Genocide.[citation needed]
The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court recognizes the Security Council the power to refer cases to the Court, where the Court could not otherwise exercise jurisdiction.
[edit] Other UN Treaty Bodies
A modern interpretation of the original Declaration of Human Rights was made in the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action adopted by the World Conference on Human Rights in 1993. The
degree of unanimity over these conventions, in terms of how many and which countries have ratified them varies, as does the degree to which they are respected by various states. The UN has set
up a number of treaty-based bodies to monitor and study human rights, under the leadership of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR). The bodies are committees of independent
experts that monitor implementation of the core international human rights treaties. They are created by the treaty that they monitor.
• The Human Rights Committee promotes participation with the standards of the ICCPR. The eighteen members of the committee express opinions on member countries and make
judgements on individual complaints against countries which have ratified the treaty. The judgements are not legally binding.
• The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights monitors the ICESCR and makes general comments on ratifying countries performance. It does not have the power to receive
complaints.
• The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination monitors the CERD and conducts regular reviews of countries' performance. It can make judgements on complaints, but these
are not legally binding. It issues warnings to attempt to prevent serious contraventions of the convention.
• The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women monitors the CEDAW. It receives states' reports on their performance and comments on them, and can make
judgements on complaints against countries which have opted into the 1999 Optional Protocol.
• The Committee Against Torture monitors the CAT and receives states' reports on their performance every four years and comments on them. It may visit and inspect individual countries
with their consent.
• The Committee on the Rights of the Child monitors the CRC and makes comments on reports submitted by states every five years. It does not have the power to receive complaints.
• The Committee on Migrant Workers was established in 2004 and monitors the ICRMW and makes comments on reports submitted by states every five years. It will have the power to
receive complaints of specific violations only once ten member states allow it.
Each treaty body receives secretariat support from the Treaties and Commission Branch of Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights (OHCHR) in Geneva except CEDAW, which is
supported by the Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW). CEDAW meets at United Nations headquarters in New York; the other treaty bodies generally meet at the United Nations Office in
Geneva. The Human Rights Committee usually holds its March session in New York City.
[edit] Regional human rights
The three principal regional human rights instruments are the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, the American Convention on Human Rights (the Americas) and the European
Convention on Human Rights.
See also: List of human rights articles by country and National human rights institutions
[edit] Africa
The African Union (AU) is a supranational union consisting of fifty-three African states.[22] Established in 2001, the AU's purpose is to help secure Africa's democracy, human rights, and a sustainable
economy, especially by bringing an end to intra-African conflict and creating an effective common market.[23]
The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights is the regions principal human rights instrument and emerged under the aegis of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) (since replaced by the
African Union). The intention to draw up the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights was announced in 1979 and the Charter was unanimously approved at the OAU's 1981 Assembly.
Pursuant to its Article 63 (whereby it was to "come into force three months after the reception by the Secretary General of the instruments of ratification or adherence of a simple majority" of the
OAU's member states), the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights came into effect on 21 October 1986 – in honour of which 21st of October was declared "African Human Rights Day".[24]
The African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights (ACHPR) is a quasi-judicial organ of the African Union tasked with promoting and protecting human rights and collective (peoples') rights
throughout the African continent as well as interpreting the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights and considering individual complaints of violations of the Charter. The Commission has
three broad areas of responsibility:[25]
• Promoting human and peoples' rights
• Protecting human and peoples' rights
• Interpreting the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights
In pursuit of these goals, the Commission is mandated to "collect documents, undertake studies and researches on African problems in the field of human and peoples, rights, organise seminars,
symposia and conferences, disseminate information, encourage national and local institutions concerned with human and peoples' rights and, should the case arise, give its views or make
recommendations to governments" (Charter, Art. 45).[25]
With the creation of the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights (under a protocol to the Charter which was adopted in 1998 and entered into force in January 2004), the Commission will have
the additional task of preparing cases for submission to the Court's jurisdiction.[26] In a July 2004 decision, the AU Assembly resolved that the future Court on Human and Peoples' Rights would be
integrated with the African Court of Justice.
The Court of Justice of the African Union is intended to be the “principal judicial organ of the Union” (Protocol of the Court of Justice of the African Union, Article 2.2).[27] Although it has not yet been
established, it is intended to take over the duties of the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, as well as act as the supreme court of the African Union, interpreting all necessary laws
and treaties. The Protocol establishing the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights entered into force in January 2004[28] but its merging with the Court of Justice has delayed its establishment.
The Protocol establishing the Court of Justice will come into force when ratified by 15 countries.[29]
There are many countries in Africa accused of human rights violations by the international community and NGOs.[30]
Americas
The Organization of American States (OAS) is an international organization, headquartered in Washington, D.C., United States. Its members are the thirty-five independent states of the Americas.
Over the course of the 1990s, with the end of the Cold War, the return to democracy in Latin America[citation needed], and the thrust toward globalization, the OAS made major efforts to reinvent itself to fit
the new context. Its stated priorities now include the following: [31]
• Strengthening democracy
• Working for peace
• Protecting human rights
• Combating corruption
• The rights of Indigenous Peoples
• Promoting sustainable development
The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (the IACHR) is an autonomous organ of the Organization of American States, also based in Washington, D.C. Along with the Inter-American Court
of Human Rights, based in San José, Costa Rica, it is one of the bodies that comprise the inter-American system for the promotion and protection of human rights.[32] The IACHR is a permanent body
which meets in regular and special sessions several times a year to examine allegations of human rights violations in the hemisphere. Its human rights duties stem from three documents:[33]
• the OAS Charter
• the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man
• the American Convention on Human Rights
The Inter-American Court of Human Rights was established in 1979 with the purpose of enforcing and interpreting the provisions of the American Convention on Human Rights. Its two main
functions are thus adjudicatory and advisory. Under the former, it hears and rules on the specific cases of human rights violations referred to it. Under the latter, it issues opinions on matters of legal
interpretation brought to its attention by other OAS bodies or member states.[34]
Many countries in the Americas, such as the United States, Colombia, Cuba, and Venezuela, have been accused of human rights violations.
Membership and expansion of the Asia Cooperation Dialogue. Note that the Republic of China (Taiwan) is recognised or acknowledged by the member states as part of the People's Republic of
China (PRC), but de facto does not have any representation.
Main articles: Human rights in Asia, Human rights in East Asia, Human rights in Central Asia, and Human Rights in the Middle East
There are no Asia-wide organisations or conventions to promote or protect human rights. Countries vary widely in their approach to human rights and their record of human rights protection.
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)[35] is a geo-political and economic organization of 10 countries located in Southeast Asia, which was formed in 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, the
Philippines, Singapore and Thailand.[36] The organisation now also includes Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar and Cambodia.[35] Its aims include the acceleration of economic growth, social progress,
cultural development among its members, and the promotion of regional peace[35]
The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is an economic and political organization of eight countries in Southern Asia, representing almost 1.5 billion people. It was
established in 1985 by India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Maldives and Bhutan. In April 2007, at the Association's 14th summit, Afghanistan became its eighth member.[37]
The Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (CCASG) is a trade bloc involving the seven Arab states of the Persian Gulf, with many economic and social objectives. Created in 1981, the
Council comprises the Persian Gulf states of Yemen Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.[38]
The Asia Cooperation Dialogue (ACD) is a body created in 2002 to promote Asian cooperation at a continental level, helping to integrate the previously separate regional organizations of political or
economical cooperation. The main objectives of the ACD are as follows:[39]
• To promote interdependence among Asian countries in all areas of cooperation by identifying Asia's common strengths and opportunities which will help reduce poverty and improve the
quality of life for Asian people whilst developing a knowledge-based society within Asia and enhancing community and people empowerment;
• To expand the trade and financial market within Asia and increase the bargaining power of Asian countries in lieu of competition and, in turn, enhance Asia's economic competitiveness
in the global market;
• To serve as the missing link in Asian cooperation by building upon Asia's potentials and strengths through supplementing and complementing existing cooperative frameworks so as to
become a viable partner for other regions;
• To ultimately transform the Asian continent into an Asian Community, capable of interacting with the rest of the world on a more equal footing and contributing more positively towards
mutual peace and prosperity.
None of the above organisations have a specific mandate to promote or protect human rights, but each has some human rights related economic, social and cultural objectives.[40][39]
A number of Asian countries are accused of serious human rights abuses by the international community and human rights organisations.[41]
The Council of Europe, founded in 1949, is the oldest organisation working for European integration. It is an international organisation with legal personality recognised under public international law
and has observer status with the United Nations. The seat of the Council of Europe is in Strasbourg in France. The Council of Europe is responsible for both the European Convention on Human
Rights and the European Court of Human Rights.[14] These institutions bind the Council's members to a code of human rights which, though strict, are more lenient than those of the United Nations
charter on human rights.[citation needed] The Council also promotes the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and the European Social Charter.[42] Membership is open to all European
states which seek European integration, accept the principle of the rule of law and are able and willing to guarantee democracy, fundamental human rights and freedoms.[43]
The Council of Europe is separate from the European Union, but the latter is expected to accede to the European Convention and potentially the Council itself.[citation needed] The EU also has a separate
human rights document; the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.[44]
The European Convention on Human Rights defines and guarantees since 1950 human rights and fundamental freedoms in Europe.[45] All 47 member states of the Council of Europe have signed
this Convention and are therefore under the jurisdiction of the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg.[45] In order to prevent torture and inhuman or degrading treatment (Article 3 of the
Convention), the Committee for the Prevention of Torture was established. [46]
The European Court of Human Rights is the only international court with jurisdiction to deal with cases brought by individuals (rather than states).[45]
Oceania
See also: Human rights in Australia
There are no regional approaches or agreements on human rights for Oceania, but most countries have a well-regarded human rights record.
Australia is the only western democracy with no constitutional or legislative bill of rights, but a number of laws have been enacted to protect human rights and the Constitution of Australia has been
found to contain certain implied rights by the High Court. However, Australia has been criticised at various times for its immigration policies, treatment of asylum seekers, treatment of its indigenous
population, and foreign policy.

1
Transcontinental country.

[edit] Philosophies
Several theoretical approaches have been advanced to explain how and why human rights become part of social expectations.
One of the oldest Western philosophies on human rights is that they are a product of a natural law, stemming from different philosophical or religious grounds.
Other theories hold that human rights codify moral behavior which is a human social product developed by a process of biological and social evolution (associated with Hume). Human rights are also
described as a sociological pattern of rule setting (as in the sociological theory of law and the work of Weber). These approaches include the notion that individuals in a society accept rules from
legitimate authority in exchange for security and economic advantage (as in Rawls) - a social contract.
[edit] Natural rights
Main articles: Natural law and Natural right
Natural law theories base human rights on a “natural” moral, religious or even biological order that is independent of transitory human laws or traditions.
Socrates and his philosophic heirs, Plato and Aristotle, posited the existence of natural justice or natural right (dikaion physikon, δικαιον φυσικον, Latin ius naturale). Of these, Aristotle is often said to
be the father of natural law,[47] although evidence for this is due largely to the interpretations of his work by Thomas Aquinas.[48]
The development of this tradition of natural justice into one of natural law is usually attributed to the Stoics.[49]
Some of the early Church Fathers sought to incorporate the until then pagan concept of natural law into Christianity. Natural law theories have featured greatly in the philosophies of Thomas
Aquinas, Francisco Suárez, Richard Hooker, Thomas Hobbes, Hugo Grotius, Samuel von Pufendorf, and John Locke.
In the Seventeenth century Thomas Hobbes founded a contractualist theory of legal positivism on what all men could agree upon: what they sought (happiness) was subject to contention, but a
broad consensus could form around what they feared (violent death at the hands of another). The natural law was how a rational human being, seeking to survive and prosper, would act. It was
discovered by considering humankind's natural rights, whereas previously it could be said that natural rights were discovered by considering the natural law. In Hobbes' opinion, the only way natural
law could prevail was for men to submit to the commands of the sovereign. In this lay the foundations of the theory of a social contract between the governed and the governor.
Hugo Grotius based his philosophy of international law on natural law. He wrote that "even the will of an omnipotent being cannot change or abrogate" natural law, which "would maintain its objective
validity even if we should assume the impossible, that there is no God or that he does not care for human affairs." (De iure belli ac pacis, Prolegomeni XI). This is the famous argument etiamsi
daremus (non esse Deum), that made natural law no longer dependent on theology.
John Locke incorporated natural law into many of his theories and philosophy, especially in Two Treatises of Government. Locke turned Hobbes' prescription around, saying that if the ruler went
against natural law and failed to protect "life, liberty, and property," people could justifiably overthrow the existing state and create a new one.
The Belgian philosopher of law Frank Van Dun is one among those who are elaborating a secular conception[50] of natural law in the liberal tradition. There are also emerging and secular forms of
natural law theory that define human rights as derivative of the notion of universal human dignity.[51]
The term "human rights" has replaced the term "natural rights" in popularity, because the rights are less and less frequently seen as requiring natural law for their existence.[52]
[edit] Social contract
The Swiss-French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau suggested the existence of a hypothetical social contract where a group of free individuals agree for the sake of the common good to form
institutions to govern themselves. This echoed the earlier postulation by Thomas Hobbes that there is a contract between the government and the governed - and led to John Locke's theory that a
failure of the government to secure rights is a failure which justifies the removal of the government.
International equity expert Paul Finn has echoed this view:

“ the most fundamental fiduciary relationship in our society is manifestly that which exists between the community (the people) and the state, its agencies and
officials. ”

[53]
—Paul Finn
The relationship between government and the governed in countries which follow the English law tradition is a fiduciary one. In equity law, a politician's fiduciary obligations are not only the duties of
good faith and loyalty, but also include duties of skill and competence in managing a country and its people. Originating from within the Courts of Equity, the fiduciary concept exists to prevent those
holding positions of power from abusing their authority. The fiduciary relationship between government and the governed arises from the governments ability to control people with the exercise of its
power. In effect, if a government has the power to abolish any rights, it is equally burdened with the fiduciary duty to protect such an interest because it would benefit from the exercise of its own
discretion to extinguish rights which it alone had the power to dispose of.[53]
[edit] Reciprocity
The Golden Rule, or the ethic of reciprocity states that one must do unto others as one would be treated themselves; the principle being that reciprocal recognition and respect of rights ensures that
one's own rights will be protected. This principle can be found in all the world's major religions in only slightly differing forms, and was enshrined in the "Declaration Toward a Global Ethic" by the
Parliament of the World's Religions in 1993.
[edit] Other theories of human rights
The philosopher John Finnis argues that human rights are justifiable on the grounds of their instrumental value in creating the necessary conditions for human well-being.[54][55] Interest theories
highlight the duty to respect the rights of other individuals on grounds of self-interest:

“ Human rights law, applied to a State's own citizens serves the interest of states, by, for example, minimizing the risk of violent resistance and protest and by keeping the level of
dissatisfaction with the government manageable ”

[56]
—Niraj Nathwani in Rethinking refugee law
The biological theory considers the comparative reproductive advantage of human social behavior based on empathy and altruism in the context of natural selection.[57][58][59]
Main article: Human security
Human security is an emerging school of thought which challenges the traditional, state-based conception of security and argues that a people-focused approach to security is more appropriate in
the modern interdependent world and would be more effective in advancing the security of individuals and societies across the globe.
Philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has argued to the effect that those who speak most vehemently about their rights, doubt at the bottom of their soul if they truly have any.
[edit] Critiques of Human Rights
Philosophers who have criticized the concept of human rights include Jeremy Bentham, Edmund Burke, and Karl Marx. A recent critique has been advanced by Charles Blattberg in his essay "The
Ironic Tragedy of Human Rights." Blattberg argues that rights talk, being abstract, demotivates people from upholding the values that rights are meant to assert.[60]
[edit] Concepts in human rights
[edit] Indivisibility and categorization
The most common categorization of human rights is to split them into civil and political rights, and economic, social and cultural rights.
Civil and political rights are enshrined in articles 3 to 21 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). Economic,
social and cultural rights are enshrined in articles 22 to 28 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(ICESCR).
[edit] Indivisibility
The UDHR included both economic, social and cultural rights and civil and political rights because it was based on the principle that the different rights could only successfully exist in combination:

“ The ideal of free human beings enjoying civil and political freedom and freedom from fear and want can only be achieved if conditions are created whereby everyone may enjoy his civil
and political rights, as well as his social, economic and cultural rights ”

—International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights, 1966
This is held to be true because without civil and political rights the public cannot assert their economic, social and cultural rights. Similarly, without livelihoods and a working society, the public cannot
assert or make use of civil or political rights (known as the full belly thesis).
The indivisibility and interdependence of all human rights has been confirmed by the 1993 Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action:
 “ All human rights are universal, indivisible and interdependent and related. The international community must treat human rights globally in a fair and equal manner, on the same footing,
and with the same emphasis ”

—Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, World Conference on Human Rights, 1993
This statement was again endorsed at the 2005 World Summit in New York (paragraph 121).
Although accepted by the signatories to the UDHR, most do not in practice give equal weight to the different types of rights. Some Western cultures have often given priority to civil and political
rights, sometimes at the expense of economic and social rights such as the right to work, to education, health and housing. For example, in the United States there is no universal access to
healthcare free at the point of use.[61] That is not to say that Western cultures have overlooked these rights entirely (the welfare states that exist in Western Europe are evidence of this). Similarly the
ex Soviet bloc countries and Asian countries have tended to give priority to economic, social and cultural rights, but have often failed to provide civil and political rights.
[edit] Categorization
Opponents of the indivisibility of human rights argue that economic, social and cultural rights are fundamentally different from civil and political rights and require completely different approaches.
Economic, social and cultural rights are argued to be:[62]
• positive, meaning that they require active provision of entitlements by the state (as opposed to the state being required only to prevent the breach of rights)
• resource-intensive, meaning that they are expensive and difficult to provide
• progressive, meaning that they will take significant time to implement
• vague, meaning they cannot be quantitatively measured, and whether they are adequately provided or not is difficult to judge
• ideologically divisive/political, meaning that there is no consensus on what should and shouldn't be provided as a right
• socialist, as opposed to capitalist
• non-justiciable, meaning that their provision, or the breach of them, cannot be judged in a court of law
• aspirations or goals, as opposed to real 'legal' rights
Similarly civil and political rights are categorized as:
• negative, meaning the state can protect them simply by taking no action
• cost-free
• immediate, meaning they can be immediately provided if the state decides to
• precise, meaning their provision is easy to judge and measure
• non-ideological/non-political
• capitalist
• justiciable
• real 'legal' rights
In The No-Nonsense Guide to Human Rights Olivia Ball and Paul Gready argue that for both civil and political rights and economic, social and cultural rights it is easy to find examples which do not
fit into the above categorisation. Amongst several others, they highlight the fact that maintaining a judicial system, a fundamental requirement of the civil right to due process before the law and other
rights relating to judicial process, is positive, resource-intensive, progressive and vague, while the social right to housing is precise, justiciable and can be a real 'legal' right.[63]
Another categorization, offered by Karel Vasak, is that there are three generations of human rights: first-generation civil and political rights (right to life and political participation), second-generation
economic, social and cultural rights (right to subsistence) and third-generation solidarity rights (right to peace, right to clean environment). Out of these generations, the third generation is the most
debated and lacks both legal and political recognition. This categorisation is at odds with the indivisibility of rights, as it implicitly states that some rights can exist without others. Prioritisation of rights
for pragmatic reasons is however a widely accepted necessity. Human rights expert Philip Alston argues:

“ If every possible human rights element is deemed to be essential or necessary, then nothing will be treated as though it is truly
important. ”

[64]
—Philip Alston
He, and others, urge caution with prioritisation of rights:

“ ...the call for prioritizing is not to suggest that any obvious violations of rights can be
ignored. ”

—Philip Alston[64]

“ Priorities, where necessary, should adhere to core concepts (such as reasonable attempts at progressive realization) and principles (such as non-discrimination, equality and
participation. ”

—Olivia Ball, Paul Gready[65]

Some human rights are said to be "inalienable rights." The term inalienable rights (or unalienable rights) refers to "a set of human rights that are fundamental, are not awarded by human power, and
cannot be surrendered."
[edit] Universalism vs. cultural relativism
Main articles: Cultural relativism, Moral relativism, Moral universalism, and Universal ethic
The UDHR enshrines universal rights that apply to all humans equally, whichever geographical location, state, race or culture they belong to.
Proponents of cultural relativism argue for acceptance of different cultures, which may have practices conflicting with human rights.
For example female genital mutilation occurs in different cultures in Africa, Asia and South America. It is not mandated by any religion, but has become a tradition in many cultures. It is considered a
violation of women's and girl's rights by much of the international community, and is outlawed in some countries.
Universalism has been described by some as cultural, economic or political imperialism. In particular, the concept of human rights is often claimed to be fundamentally rooted in a politically liberal
outlook which, although generally accepted in Europe, Japan or North America, is not necessarily taken as standard elsewhere.
For example, in 1981, the Iranian representative to the United Nations, Said Rajaie-Khorassani, articulated the position of his country regarding the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by saying
that the UDHR was "a secular understanding of the Judeo-Christian tradition", which could not be implemented by Muslims without trespassing the Islamic law.[66] The former Prime Ministers of
Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew, and of Malaysia, Mahathir bin Mohamad both claimed in the 1990s that Asian values were significantly different from western values and included a sense of loyalty and
foregoing personal freedoms for the sake of social stability and prosperity, and therefore authoritarian government is more appropriate in Asia than democracy. This view is countered by Mahathir's
former deputy:

“ To say that freedom is Western or unAsian is to offend our traditions as well as our forefathers, who gave their lives in the struggle against tyranny and
injustices. ”

—A Ibrabim in his keynote speech to the Asian Press Forum title Media and Society in Asia, 2 December 1994
and also by Singapore's opposition leader Chee Soon Juan who states that it is racist to assert that Asians do not want human rights.[67][68]
An appeal is often made to the fact that influential human rights thinkers, such as John Locke and John Stuart Mill, have all been Western and indeed that some were involved in the running of
Empires themselves.[69][70]
Cultural relativism is a self-detonating position; if cultural relativism is true, then universalism must also be true. Relativistic arguments also tend to neglect the fact that modern human rights are new
to all cultures, dating back no further than the UDHR in 1948. They also don't account for the fact that the UDHR was drafted by people from many different cultures and traditions, including a US
Roman Catholic, a Chinese Confucian philosopher, a French zionist and a representative from the Arab League, amongst others, and drew upon advice from thinkers such as Mahatma Gandhi.[11]
Michael Ignatieff has argued that cultural relativism is almost exclusively an argument used by those who wield power in cultures which commit human rights abuses, and that those who's human
rights are compromised are the powerless.[71] This reflects the fact that the difficulty in judging universalism versus relativism lies in who is claiming to represent a particular culture.
Although the argument between universalism and relativism is far from complete, it is an academic discussion in that all international human rights instruments adhere to the principle that human
rights are universally applicable. The 2005 World Summit reaffirmed the international community's adherence to this principle:

“ The universal nature of human rights and freedoms is beyond

question. ”

—2005 World Summit, paragraph 120

[edit] State and non-state actors
Companies, NGOs, political parties, informal groups, and individuals are known as non-State actors. Non-State actors can also commit human rights abuses, but are not generally subject to human
rights law other than under International Humanitarian Law, which applies to individuals.[citation needed] Also, certain national instruments such as the Human Rights Act 1998 (UK), impose human rights
obligations on certain entities which are not traditionally considered as part of government ("public authorities").[citation needed]
Multinational companies play an increasingly large role in the world, and are responsible for a large number of human rights abuses.[72] Although the legal and moral environment surrounding the
actions of governments is reasonably well developed, that surrounding multinational companies is both controversial and ill-defined.[citation needed] Multinational companies' primary responsibility is to
their shareholders, not to those affected by their actions. Such companies may be larger than the economies of some the states within which they operate, and can wield significant economic and
political power. No international treaties exist to specifically cover the behavior of companies with regard to human rights, and national legislation is very variable. Jean Ziegler, Special Rapporteur of
the UN Commission on Human Rights on the right to food stated in a report in 2003:

“ the growing power of transnational corporations and their extension of power through privatization, deregulation and the rolling back of the State also mean that it is now time to develop
binding legal norms that hold corporations to human rights standards and circumscribe potential abuses of their position of power. ”

—Jean Ziegler[73]
In August 2003 the Human Rights Commission's Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights produced draft Norms on the responsibilities of transnational corporations and
other business enterprises with regard to human rights.[74] These were considered by the Human Rights Commission in 2004, but have no binding status on corporations and are not monitored.[75]
[edit] Theory of value and property
See also: Property
Henry of Ghent articulated the theory that every person has a property interest in their own body.[76] John Locke uses the word property in both broad and narrow senses. In a broad sense, it covers
a wide range of human interests and aspirations; more narrowly, it refers to material goods. He argues that property is a natural right and it is derived from labour."[77] In addition, property precedes
government and government cannot "dispose of the estates of the subjects arbitrarily." To deny valid property rights according to Locke is to deny human rights. The British philosopher had
significant impacts upon the development of the Government of the UK and was central to the fundamental founding philosophy of the United States. Karl Marx later critiqued Locke's theory of
property in his Theories of Surplus Value, seeing the beginnings of a theory of surplus value in Locke's works. In Locke's Second Treatise he argued that the right to own private property was
unlimited as long as nobody took more than they could use without allowing any of their property to go to waste and that there were enough common resources of comparable quality available for
others to create their own property. Locke did believe that some would be more "industrious and rational" than others and would amass more property, but believed this would not cause shortages.
Though this system could work before the introduction of money, Marx argued in Theories of Surplus Value that Locke's system would break down and claimed money was a contradiction of the law
of nature on which private property was founded.[78]
[edit] Reproductive rights
Main article: reproductive rights
Reproductive rights are rights relating to reproduction and reproductive health.[79] The World Health Organisation defines reproductive rights as follows:

“ Reproductive rights rest on the recognition of the basic right of all couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing and timing of their children and to have
the information and means to do so, and the right to attain the highest standard of sexual and reproductive health. They also include the right of all to make decisions concerning
reproduction free of discrimination, coercion and violence. ”

[14]
—World Health Organisation
Reproductive rights were first established as a subset of human rights at the United Nation's 1968 International Conference on Human Rights.[80] The sixteenth article of the resulting Proclamation of
[81][80]
Teheran states, "Parents have a basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number and the spacing of their children."
Reproductive rights may include some or all of the following rights: the right to legal or safe abortion, the right to control one's reproductive functions, the right to quality reproductive healthcare, and
the right to education and access in order to make reproductive choices free from coercion, discrimination, and violence.[82] Reproductive rights may also be understood to include education about
contraception and sexually transmitted infections, and freedom from coerced sterilization and contraception, protection from gender-based practices such as female genital cutting (FGC) and male
genital mutilation (MGM).[79][80][82][83]
[edit] Legal issues
[edit] Human rights vs. national security
See also: National security and Anti-terrorism legislation
With the exception of non-derogable human rights (international conventions class the right to life, the right to be free from slavery, the right to be free from torture and the right to be free from
retroactive application of penal laws as non-derogable[84]), the UN recognises that human rights can be limited or even pushed aside during times of national emergency - although

“ the emergency must be actual, affect the whole population and the threat must be to the very existence of the nation. The declaration of emergency must also be a last resort and a
temporary measure ”

—United Nations. The Resource[84]

Rights that cannot be derogated for reasons of national security in any circumstances are known as peremptory norms or jus cogens. Such United Nations Charter obligations are binding on all
states and cannot be modified by treaty.
Examples of national security being used to justify human rights violations include the Japanese American internment during World War II,[85] Stalin's Great Purge,[86] and the actual and alleged
modern-day abuses of terror suspects rights by some western countries, often in the name of the so-called War on Terror.[87][88]
[edit] Human rights violations
Human rights violations occur when any state or non-state actor breaches any part of the UDHR treaty or other international human rights or humanitarian law. In regard to human rights violations
of United Nations laws. Article 39 of the United Nations Charter designates the UN Security Council (or an appointed authority) as the only tribunal that may determine UN human rights violations.
Human rights abuses are monitored by United Nations committees, national institutions and governments and by many independent non-governmental organizations, such as Amnesty International,
Human Rights Watch, World Organisation Against Torture, Freedom House, International Freedom of Expression Exchange and Anti-Slavery International. These organisations collect evidence and
documentation of alleged human rights abuses and apply pressure to enforce human rights laws.
Only a very few countries do not commit significant human rights violations, according to Amnesty International. In their 2004 human rights report (covering 2003), the Netherlands, Norway,
Denmark, Iceland and Costa Rica are the only (mappable) countries that did not (in their opinion) violate at least some human rights significantly.[89]
There are a wide variety of databases available which attempt to measure, in a rigorous fashion, exactly what violations governments commit against those within their territorial jurisdiction.[citation needed]
An example of this is the list created and maintained by Prof. Christian Davenport at the University of Maryland.[90]
Wars of aggression, war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide, are breaches of International humanitarian law and represent the most serious of human rights violations.
When a government closes a geographical region to journalists, it raises suspicions of human rights violations. Seven regions are currently closed to foreign journalists:
• Chechnya, Russia [5]
• Jaffna, Sri Lanka [6]
• Myanmar (Burma)
• North Korea
• Papua, Indonesia [7]
• Peshawar, Pakistan [8]
• Tibet, People's Republic of China [9]
Currently-debated rights
Events and new possibilities can affect existing rights or require new ones. Advances of technology, medicine, and philosophy constantly challenge the status quo of human rights thinking.
[edit] Environmental rights
The onset of various environmental issues, especially climate change, has created potential conflicts between different human rights. Human rights ultimately require a working ecosystem and
healthy environment, but the granting of certain rights to individuals may damage these. Such as the conflict between right to decide number of offspring and the common need for a healthy
environment, as noted in the tragedy of the commons.[91] In the area of environmental rights, the responsibilities of multinational corporations, so far relatively unaddressed by human rights
legislation, is of paramount consideration. [citation needed]
Environmental Rights revolve largely around the idea of a right to a livable environment both for the present and the future generations.
[edit] Future generations
In 1997 UNESCO adopted the Declaration on the Responsibilities of the Present Generation Towards the Future Generation. The Declaration opens with the words:

“ Mindful of the will of the peoples, set out solemnly in the Charter of the United Nations, to 'save succeeding generations from the scourge of war' and to safeguard the values and
principles enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and all other relevant instruments of international law. ”

—Declaration on the Responsibilities of the Present Generation Towards the Future Generation
Article 1 of the declaration states "the present generations have the responsibility of ensuring that the needs and interests of present and future generations are fully safeguarded." The preamble to
the declaration states that "at this point in history, the very existence of humankind and its environment are threatened" and the declaration covers a variety of issues including protection of the
environment, the human genome, biodiversity, cultural heritage, peace, development, and education. The preamble recalls that the responsibilities of the present generations towards future
generations has been referred to in various international instruments, including the Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (UNESCO 1972), the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio de Janeiro, 1992), the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (UN Conference on
Environment and Development, 1992), the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action (World Conference on Human Rights, 1993) and a number of UN General Assembly resolutions relating to
the protection of the global climate for present and future generations adopted since 1990.[92]
[edit] Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender (LGBT) rights
Main article: LGBT social movements
Some organizations argue that LGBT issues, such as same-sex marriage, gay adoption rights, and protection from discrimination should be considered human rights.[93][94][95][96] Canadian courts have
recognized certain rights under section fifteen of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Current campaigns, such as the Human Rights Campaign, specifically focus on the rights of the
LGBT community.[97]
Part of this debate includes a proposed UN declaration on LGBT rights which would for the first time condemn “discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity.”[98] While receiving
widespread global support, including signatures from the member states of the European Union, opposition has come from several UN member nations, as well as the Vatican, where the Vatican’s
permanent observer at the UN, indicated his belief that the declaration would discriminate against states which support "traditional" marriage.[99]
[edit] Trade
Although both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights emphasize the importance of a right to work, neither of these
documents explicitly mention trade as a mechanism for ensuring this fundamental right. And yet trade plays a key role in providing jobs.[100]
Some experts argue that trade is inherent to human nature and that when governments inhibit international trade they directly inhibit the right to work and the other indirect benefits, like the right to
education, that increased work and investment help accrue.[101] Others have argued that the ability to trade doesn't affect everyone equally -- often groups like the rural poor, indigenous groups and
women are less likely to access the benefits of increased trade. [102]
On the other hand, others think that it is no longer primarily individuals but companies that trade, and therefore it cannot be guaranteed as a human right.[citation needed] Additionally, trying to fit too many
concepts under the umbrella of what qualifies as a human right has the potential to dilute their importance. Finally, it is difficult to define a right to trade as either "fair"[103] or "just" in that all trade
regimes create winners and losers, and changing the rules only creates different losers, not necessarily fewer.[104]
[edit] Water
See also: Water politics and Right to water
There is no current universal human right to water, binding or not, enshrined by the United Nations or any other multilateral body. In November 2002, the United Nations Committee on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights issued a non-binding comment affirming that access to water was a human right:

“ the human right to water is indispensable for leading a life in human dignity. It is a prerequisite for the realization of other human
rights. ”

—United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

This principle was reaffirmed at the 3rd and 4th World Water Councils in 2003 and 2006. This marks a departure from the conclusions of the 2nd World Water Forum in The Hague in 2000, which
stated that water was a commodity to be bought and sold, not a right.[105] There are calls from many NGOs and politicians to enshrine access to water as a binding human right, and not as a
commodity.[106]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights

Human Rights Violations

By
Michelle Maiese

What it Means to Violate Human Rights

"The 'disappearances' of detainees in the custody of Russian federal forces in Chechnya is a major human rights crisis that the Russian government and the international community must address."

"While combat between federal forces and Chechen rebels has for the most part ceased, the 'disappearance,' torture, and summary execution of detainees continues, marking the transition from a
classical internal conflict into a 'dirty war,' where human rights violations and not the conquest or defense of territory are the hallmarks." -- Human Rights Watch, click here for web page.
There is now near-universal consensus that all individuals are entitled to certain basic rights under any circumstances. These include certain civil liberties and political rights, the most fundamental of
which is the right to life and physical safety. Human rights are the articulation of the need for justice, tolerance, mutual respect, and human dignity in all of our activity.[1] Speaking of rights allows us
to express the idea that all individuals are part of the scope of morality and justice.
To protect human rights is to ensure that people receive some degree of decent, humane treatment. To violate the most basic human rights, on the other hand, is to deny individuals their
fundamental moral entitlements. It is, in a sense, to treat them as if they are less than human and undeserving of respect and dignity. Examples are acts typically deemed "crimes against humanity,"
including genocide, torture, slavery, rape, enforced sterilization or medical experimentation, and deliberate starvation. Because these policies are sometimes implemented by governments, limiting
the unrestrained power of the state is an important part of international law. Underlying laws that prohibit the various "crimes against humanity" is the principle of nondiscrimination and the notion that
certain basic rights apply universally.[2]
The Various Types of Violations
The number of deaths related to combat and the collateral damage caused by warfare are only a small part of the tremendous amount of suffering and devastation caused by conflicts. Over the
course of protracted conflict, assaults on political rights and the fundamental right to life are typically widespread. Some of the gravest violations of the right to life are massacres, the starvation of
entire populations, and genocide. Genocide is commonly understood as the intentional extermination of a single ethnic, racial, or religious group. Killing group members, causing them serious bodily
or mental harm, imposing measures to prevent birth, or forcibly transferring children are all ways to bring about the destruction of a group. Genocide is often regarded as the most offensive crime
against humanity.
The term "war crime" refers to a violation of the rules of jus in bello (justice in war) by any individual, whether military or civilian.[3] The laws of armed conflict prohibit attacks on civilians and the use
of weapons that cause unnecessary suffering or long-term environmental damage.[4] Other war crimes include taking hostages, firing on localities that are undefended and without military
significance, such as hospitals or schools, inhuman treatment of prisoners, including biological experiments, and the pillage or purposeless destruction of property.[5] Although clearly outlawed by
international law, such war crimes are common. According to Kofi Annan, Secretary-General of the United Nations, it is increasingly true that "the main aim...[of conflicts]... is the destruction not of
armies but of civilians and entire ethnic groups."[6]
Women and girls are often raped by soldiers or forced into prostitution. For a long time, the international community has failed to address the problem of sexual violence during armed conflict.[7]
However, sexual assaults, which often involve sexual mutilation, sexual humiliation, and forced pregnancy, are quite common. Such crimes are motivated in part by the long-held view that women
are the "spoils" of war to which soldiers are entitled. Trafficking in women is a form of sexual slavery in which women are transported across national borders and marketed for prostitution. These so-
called "comfort women" are another example of institutionalized sexual violence against women during wartime. Sexual violence is sometimes viewed as a way to destroy male and community pride
or humiliate men who cannot "protect" their women. It is also used to silence women who are politically active, or simply inflict terror upon the population at large.[8] Mass rapes may also form part of
a genocidal strategy, designed to impose conditions that lead to the destruction of an entire group of people. For example, during the 1990s, the media reported that "rape and other sexual atrocities
were a deliberate and systematic part of the Bosnian Serb campaign for victory in the war" in the former Yugoslavia.[9]
Rather than simply killing off whole populations, government forces may carry out programs of torture. Torture can be either physical or psychological, and aims at the "humiliation or annihilation of
the dignity of the person."[10] Physical torture might include mutilation, beatings, and electric shocks to lips, gums, and genitals.[11] In psychological torture, detainees are sometimes deprived of
food and water for long periods, kept standing upright for hours, deprived of sleep, or tormented by high-level noise.
Torture is used in some cases as a way to carry out interrogations and extract confessions or information. Today, it is increasingly used as a means of suppressing political and ideological dissent, or
for punishing political opponents who do not share the ideology of the ruling group.[12]
In addition to torture, tens of thousands of people detained in connection with conflicts "disappear" each year, and are usually killed and buried in secret.[13] Government forces "take people into
custody, hold them in secret, and then refuse to acknowledge responsibility for their whereabouts or fate."[14] This abduction of persons is typically intended to secure information and spread terror.
In most cases, interrogations involve threats and torture, and those who are arrested are subsequently killed.[15] Corpses are buried in unmarked graves or left at dumpsites in an attempt to conceal
acts of torture and summary execution of those in custody.[16] Because people disappear without any trace, families do not know whether their loved ones are alive or dead.
Various lesser forms of political oppression are often enacted as well. Individuals who pose a threat to those in power or do not share their political views may be arbitrarily imprisoned, and either
never brought to trial or subject to grossly unfair trial procedures. Mass groups of people may be denied the right to vote or excluded from all forms of political participation. Or, measures restricting
people's freedom of movement may be enforced. These include forcible relocations, mass expulsions, and denials of the right to seek asylum or return to one's home.[17]
Political oppression may also take the form of discrimination. When this occurs, basic rights may be denied on the basis of religion, ethnicity, race, or gender. Apartheid, which denies political rights
on the basis of race, is perhaps one of the most severe forms of discrimination. The system of apartheid in South Africa institutionalized extreme racial segregation that involved laws against
interracial marriage or sexual relations and requirements for the races to live in different territorial areas. Certain individuals were held to be inferior by definition, and not regarded as full human
beings under the law.[18] The laws established under this system aimed at social control, and brought about a society divided along racial lines and characterized by a systematic disregard for
human rights.
In addition, women are uniquely vulnerable to certain types of human rights abuses -- in addition to the sexual abuse mentioned above, entrenched discrimination against women is prevalent in
many parts of the world and leads to various forms of political and social oppression. This includes strict dress codes and harsh punishments for sexual "transgressions," which impose severe
limitations on women's basic liberties. In addition, women in some regions (Africa , for example) suffer greater poverty than men and are denied political influence, education, and job training.[19]
Human Rights Violations and Intractable Conflict

Helen Chauncey likens their work in acheiving coexistence to the early human-rights era.
Many have noted the strong interdependence between human rights violations and intractable conflict. Abuse of human rights often leads to conflict, and conflict typically results in human rights
violations. It is not surprising, then, that human rights abuses are often at the center of wars and that protection of human rights is central to conflict resolution.[20]
Violations of political and economic rights are the root causes of many crises. When rights to adequate food, housing, employment, and cultural life are denied, and large groups of people are
excluded from the society's decision-making processes, there is likely to be great social unrest. Such conditions often give rise to justice conflicts, in which parties demand that their basic needs be
met.
Indeed, many conflicts are sparked or spread by violations of human rights. For example, massacres or torture may inflame hatred and strengthen an adversary's determination to continue fighting.
Violations may also lead to further violence from the other side and can contribute to a conflict's spiraling out of control.
On the flip side, armed conflict often leads to the breakdown of infrastructure and civic institutions, which in turn undermines a broad range of rights. When hospitals and schools are closed, rights to
adequate health and education are threatened. The collapse of economic infrastructure often results in pollution, food shortages, and overall poverty.[21] These various forms of economic
breakdown and oppression violate rights to self-determination and often contribute to further human tragedy in the form of sickness, starvation, and lack of basic shelter. The breakdown of
government institutions results in denials of civil rights, including the rights to privacy, fair trial, and freedom of movement. In many cases, the government is increasingly militarized, and police and
judicial systems are corrupted. Abductions, arbitrary arrests, detentions without trial, political executions, assassinations, and torture often follow.
In cases where extreme violations of human rights have occurred, reconciliation and peacebuilding become much more difficult. Unresolved human rights issues can serve as obstacles to peace
negotiations.[22] This is because it is difficult for parties to move toward conflict transformation and forgiveness when memories of severe violence and atrocity are still primary in their minds.
What Can Be Done?

Helen Chauncey explains why the human rights movement is very inspirational for their work on coexistence.
International humanitarian law has been enacted to preserve humanity in all circumstances, even during conflicts. Such law "creates areas of peace in the midst of conflict, imposes the principle of a
common humanity, and calls for dialogue."[23] It rules out unlimited force or total war and seeks to limit the use of violence in the hopes of maintaining the necessary conditions for a return to peace.
Various international committees are in place to monitor compliance with human rights standards and report any violations. When breaches do occur, they are brought to the attention of international
tribunals or tried in an international court or war crimes tribunal.
But conflicts sometimes progress beyond the state at which international law can help. As the number of victims grows and more individuals are taken prisoner, tortured, or executed, it becomes
more difficult to resort to the legal path.[24]
In addition, it is often difficult to "reconcile the safeguarding of human rights with conflict resolution."[25] Many peacekeeping and conflict-prevention initiatives have failed both to protect human rights
and help the parties towards conflict resolution. In part this is due to the fact that while wars between states have diminished, wars within states have escalated. Many internal conflicts involve a
surge in organized violence. Genocide, crimes against humanity, and aggression against civilians have become a central part of warfare in these "internal" conflicts. Such violence often arises out of
identity issues -- in-group/out-group dynamics -- and attempts of one ethnic or religious group to gain and maintain political control and to exclude other groups.[26] Such conflicts are often not fought
over principles or ideas, but rather focus on differences. The "outsiders" are dehumanized, making human rights violations such as severe discrimination or ethnic cleansing all the more
psychologically feasible. Thus, attacks on human rights are often at the very heart of these internal conflicts.[27]
In response, public authorities must regain control of organized violence. This means a re-establishment of the rule of law and a rebuilding of trust in public authorities. In addition, more inclusive,
democratic values are needed to defuse exclusivist ideals.[28] In the face of such violations, leaders must champion international legal norms and human rights. These human rights norms are
central to the maintenance of civil society, and necessary for grounding attitudes of tolerance and mutual respect within communities.
Serious difficulties arise, however, when those in power are responsible for human rights violations. In this case, outside intervention is necessary to stop the abuse.
The Question of Humanitarian Intervention
There is much disagreement about when and to what extent outside countries can engage in humanitarian intervention. More specifically, there is debate about the efficacy of using military force to
protect the human rights of individuals in other nations. This sort of debate stems largely from a tension between state sovereignty and the rights of individuals.
Some defend the principles of state sovereignty and nonintervention, and argue that other states must be permitted to determine their own course. It is thought that states have diverse conceptions
of justice, and international coexistence depends on a pluralist ethic whereby each state can uphold its own conception of the good. Among many, there is "a profound skepticism about the
possibilities of realizing notions of universal justice."[29] States that presume to judge what counts as a violation of human rights in another nation interfere with that nation's right to self-
determination. In addition, requiring some country to respect human rights is liable to cause friction and can lead to far-reaching disagreements.[30] Thus, acts of intervention may disrupt interstate
order and lead to further conflict.[31]
Others think, "Only the vigilant eye of the international community can ensure the proper observance of international standards, in the interest not of one state or another but of the individuals
themselves."[32] They maintain that massive violations of human rights, such as genocide and crimes against humanity, warrant intervention, even if it causes some tension or disagreement. Certain
rights are inalienable and universal, and "taking basic rights seriously means taking responsibility for their protection everywhere."[33] If, through its atrocious actions, a state destroys the lives and
rights of its citizens, it temporarily forfeits its claims to legitimacy and sovereignty.[34] Outside governments then have a positive duty to take steps to protect human rights and preserve life. In
addition, it is thought that political systems that protect human rights reduce the threat of world conflict.[35] Thus, intervention might also be justified on the ground of preserving international security.
Nevertheless, governments are often reluctant to commit military forces and resources to defend human rights in other states.[36] In addition, the use of violence to end human rights violations
poses a moral dilemma insofar as such interventions may lead to further loss of innocent lives.[37] It is imperative that the least amount of force necessary to achieve humanitarian objectives be
used, and that intervention not do more harm than good. Lastly, there is a need to ensure that intervention is legitimate, and motivated by genuine humanitarian concerns. The purposes of
intervention must be apolitical and disinterested. However, if risks and costs of intervention are high, it is unlikely that states will intervene unless their direct interests are involved.[38]
Many note that in order to truly address human rights violations, we must strive to understand the underlying causes of these breaches. These causes have to do with underdevelopment, economic
pressures, various social problems, and international conditions.[39] Indeed, the roots of repression, discrimination, and other denials of human rights stem from deeper and more complex political,
social, and economic problems. It is only by understanding and ameliorating these root causes and strengthening civil society that we can truly protect human rights.
Child Marriage: A Violation of Human Rights
In collaboration with the World Population Foundation, IHEU has launched a joint campaign against the horror of child marriage, a practice all-too prevalent in many parts of the world, and likely to
affect over 100 million girls within the next ten years. The following statement, based on a review article by Diana Brown, was submitted to the UN Human Rights Council on behalf of IHEU and the
World Population Foundation on 27 February 2006.

Child Marriage: A Violation of Human Rights

Child marriage is a violation of human rights. WPF and IHEU therefore urge all governments to end child marriage: a practice in which the parents of a child arrange a marriage with another child or
an adult. In most cases young girls get married off to significantly older men when they are still children. Child marriages must be viewed within a context of force and coercion, involving pressure
and emotional blackmail, and children that lack the choice or capacity to give their full consent. Child marriage must therefore always be considered forced marriage because valid consent is absent
- and often considered unnecessary. Child marriage is common practice in Niger, Chad, Mali, Bangladesh, Guinea, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Mozambique, Nepal, Uganda and
Cameroon, where over 50% of girls are married by the age of 18. More than 30% of girls are married by the age of 18 in another eighteen countries, mostly in Asia and Africa [1]. Poverty, protection
of girls, fear of loss of virginity before marriage and related family honour, and the provision of stability during unstable social periods are suggested as significant factors in determining a girl’s risk of
becoming married as a child [2]. Statistics show that child marriage is most common among the poorest groups in society [3].
Physical, social and psychological consequences of child marriage

Young girls who get married will most likely be forced into having sexual intercourse with their, usually much older, husbands. This has severe negative health consequences as the girl is often not
psychologically, physically and sexually mature. Child brides are likely to become pregnant at an early age and there is a strong correlation between the age of a mother and maternal mortality and
morbidity. Girls aged l0-14 are five times more likely to die in pregnancy or childbirth than women aged 20-24 and girls aged 15-19 are twice as likely to die [4]. The body of a young girl is not yet
ready for pregnancy and childbirth, which leads to complications such as obstructed labour and obstetric fistula. Obstetric fistula can also be caused by the early sexual relations associated with child
marriage, which take place sometimes even before menarche. Good prenatal care reduces the risk of childbirth complications, but in many instances, due to their limited autonomy or freedom of
movement, young wives have no access to health services, which aggravates the risks of maternal complications and mortality for pregnant adolescents. Because young girls are not ready for the
responsibilities and roles of being a wife, sexual partner and a mother, child marriage has a serious negative impact on their psychological well-being and personal development.
On top of pregnancy-related complications, young married girls are also at high risk of contracting HIV/AIDS. Girls are disproportionately affected by HIV/AIDS as compared to boys due to physical
and social factors. Young married girls are even at higher risk because their older husbands may already be infected in previous sexual relationships. Furthermore, the age difference between the
girl and the husband and her low economic status make it almost impossible for the girl to negotiate safe sex or demand fidelity.
Girls and women who are married younger, especially when married as children, are more likely to experience domestic violence and to believe that it is justified for a man to beat his wife. In
addition, child brides are least likely to take action against this abuse [5]. Domestic violence seriously endangers the physical and mental health of women and girls and can even put their lives at
risk.
Gender inequality is both a cause as well as a consequence of child marriage. Child brides usually have lower levels of education than girls who get married at an older age. Education is therefore
seen as a way to prevent child marriages. Once a girl is married, she experiences a lack of autonomy to make personal decisions about her life. Early marriage, together with its relation to low levels
of education, high levels of violence and abuse, severe health risks and harmful power dynamics, results in increased vulnerability to poverty for girls and young women.
Human Rights Violation

Child marriage is a violation of human rights and is prohibited by a number of international conventions and other instruments. Nonetheless, it is estimated that in the next ten years more than 100
million girls are likely to be married before the age of 18 [6].
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) states that men and women of full age are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution. Marriage shall be
entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending parties.
The Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages (1964) says that no marriage shall be legally entered into without the full and free consent of
both parties. States should specify a minimum age for marriage (not less than 15 years) and all marriages should be registered by the competent authority.
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination of Women (1979) states that the betrothal and the marriage of a child shall have no legal effect, and all necessary action,
including legislation, should be taken to specify a minimum age for marriage and to make the registration of marriages in an official registry compulsory. In their general recommendations of 1994,
the Committee considers that the minimum age for marriage should be 18 years for both men and women.
The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (1990) prohibits child marriage and the betrothal of girls and boys. Effective action, including legislation, should be taken to specify the
minimum age of marriage to be 18 years.
Concrete Action Points

We call on all governments to take all necessary action to end child marriage by:
• The full implementation of the above mentioned Human Rights Conventions
• Adopting a clear and unambiguous position on child and forced marriages and rectifying the legislative loopholes between religious, customary and civil marriages (Ouagadougou Declaration on
Child Marriage, October 2003)
• Introducing laws to raise the legal age of marriage to 18 years, as agreed in the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child
• Raising the awareness of all stakeholders, including parents, on the negative impacts of child marriage
• Creating safety nets for girls and young women who escape a forced, and often violent, marriage
• Creating and maintaining birth, death and marriage data registries with full national coverage in all countries as recommended in the Pinheiro report on violence against children (2006)
• Promoting and protecting the sexual and reproductive health and rights of girls and young women, through legislation, availability of services and information and community outreach
• Promoting gender equality and the right of girls and young women to education
We urge governments to include a strong statement against child marriage in the outcome documents and resolutions of the CSW’s 51st session on ‘The elimination of all forms of discrimination and
violence against the girl child’. We also urge the Commission on the Status of Women to take this statement to the forthcoming review of the Children’s Summit in April 2007.
World Population Foundation
International Humanist and Ethical Union
[1] UNICEF, Early Marriage, a Harmful Traditional Practice. Statistical exploration, 2005
[2] UNICEF, Early Marriage: Child Spouses, 2001
[3] Ibid
[4] UNFPA, Child Marriage Factsheet, 2005
[5] IPPF and the Forum on Marriage and the Rights of Women and Girls. Ending Child Marriage, A Guide for Global Policy Action, 2006
[6] UNFPA, State of the World Population, 2005
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I truley agree who believes
Submitted by feliduca on 22 October, 2008 - 18:08.
I truley agree who believes that child marriage should be abolished but before rushing toward decision,We should look at the loopholes in stucture of our society.
Today even after 60 years of post-independence and in an era were education has became pivotal part of our life girls in villages and even in urban area are considered as burden for parents.This
fact is well evident by loooking at the rate of infancy killing and sex ratio of our country.
Even today when a girl is born every parent think their prime responsibility is to get her married as soon as possible,she is considered as a libility rather than a gift so with this we should first make
attempt to washover this aging trend which made our society and country deploid of ethics despite of its magnificent history
It's such a shame to still
Submitted by johannabartley on 3 October, 2008 - 19:03.
It's such a shame to still be reading about these problems in these modern times we're supposed to be living in. If it was the year 1700 then I'd find these things normal but not now. Kids have
enough problems growing up and dealing with all the changes of the body and the mind so they don't need marriage problems besides those. Poor kids, they don't even have the mentality to make
their own choices...
»
Countries must stop forcing
Submitted by miketor on 4 April, 2008 - 16:11.
Countries must stop forcing marriage on young kids, an arranged marriage is one thing but to make a young child marry an old man or a child is wrong. Nothing good can come of this emotionally
and physically, the future has nothing but marriage problems in it for the kids when they get older.
»
http://www.iheu.org/child-marriage-a-violation-of-human-rights

Human Rights Work

Let's talk about your involvement in the people's response to the political crisis that occurred [in 1992.] There was a confrontation with the authorities in Thailand resulting in the killing, by the
authorities, of more than 40 people. You were involved in organizing a crisis center to respond to that situation and essentially to create a grassroots organizational response. Tell us a little about
that experience and what you learned.
I must say that the work that I could do during the May Crisis in 1992 was because the democracy movement won in that crisis. If the Suchinda government had won it, we couldn't have done
anything. So that's the main factor that helped us to do this job. And what we have established is a connection between the casualties that we saw and the government. We were invited to be the
fact-finding committee in the government.We conveyed the names of the casualty families to the government. We tried to negotiate for them what they wanted, that's one thing. We discussed the
situation with the casualty families and the NGOs, and the way that we tried to make the government listen to us was that we talked to the media. So we informed the media of our progress all along
the way. And the government had to keep their promise. So that's what we did in this crisis. But I have to stress again, I myself did not do it alone. There were lots of people, lots of volunteers came
to work with us.
If in our audience there are young people who listen to you and say, "I want to do that," how do you tell them to prepare for a career like this in human rights work?
I think first you need to have a heart to listen to people. I think listening is the main thing, particularly the different concepts, different ways of thinking, different ideas. So we have to listen to various
groups of people. And through that listening, I think we learn. And then we know various things about the diversity in this world, different from us. And in some situations we can join in the process of
making the situations better. So I think, to me, there is one clue -- listen to people, particularly to different thoughts.
So, accept the fact that there's complexity: listen. You're doing a lot of translating, I understand; you're talking to different groups to find some sort of a meeting point to solve this problem.
Not only do we have to listen to different ideas, but we have to listen to different groups of people, like those who have different skin colors, or sex, or are from another country, because in this way,
sometimes you learn that things in this world are sometimes very cruel to the people and you may find something that you will not find if you do not listen.
http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/conversations/Kritaya/krit-con4.html

Sex Traffic
In your work in demography, you have been looking at migration, and that has led you to this second, very significant agenda which is looking at the traffic in and out of Thailand, and between Asian
countries, of women and children for the sex industry. Tell us a little about your work in that area.
I work with the nongovernmental organizations on this topic of the trafficking in women and girls. I work with a foundation for women, and a task force to end child exploitation in Thailand. So what I
can provide for them is the findings from my research. And one of my current research projects is on trafficking. Actually it is a large research project because it consists of nine research topics. One
among them is trafficking. And to me I think this topic has clearly shown how the workers, how the women, have their rights violated. So I intend to choose this topic to discuss more in public,
because I think this is the most important topic among the nine topics that I'm working on now.
Earlier, in your lecture at the Institute of International Studies, you read from many of the interviews that you've conducted with women who are victims of this trafficking. My sense is that your work
as a demographer, combined with your heart, your soul, as you mentioned earlier, involves listening to the victims and telling their story through interviews. Is that a fair assessment?
I think that the information that we collect and find out is useful information. It is accurate and reliable information. This also depends on the methodology, the instruments that we use. We use both
the quantitative and qualitative to collect these sorts of data. The presentation that I just did was mainly based on the qualitative part, but actually we have a quantitative part as well, to support it
more in terms of the macro picture. So in this way, when we release our findings, I think it is more convincing to the people and the government. And I think it's the one way that may help to solve
this problem. And also we have to accept that when we (not only myself alone) work as a team, sometimes we have to do the social welfare work. So what we have done is to send three girls back
home. And we have one girl who is HIV infected. We took this girl out from the sex establishments and sent her to a refuge.
It's hard to capture the horror and degradation involved in this phenomenon, but we're talking about women and children, young girls, from Burma or China, taken or going abroad and becoming
objects in a very exploitative and degrading sex industry. As a social scientist, what do you see as the main cause of this very horrifying phenomenon? Is the market creating it? Development and
modernization leading to a breakdown in institutions? Tell us a little about what you see as the main causes.
I think that there are two main causes. One is a structural factor.
This is sad to say, that the Thai social structure tends to accept this sort of abuse, and not only to accept -- we have laws, we have bills that vitally support the existence of these sex establishments.
That's one thing. And also, we have a Mafia that is also involved in the political parties, so this keeps the abuse going. The second reason is a cultural factor. I don't know about other countries, but
in Thailand the sexual behavior of Thai men accepts prostitution. Every class of Thai men accept it, practice it. So they don't see it as a problem. So when it comes to the policymakers, who are
mostly men, of course, they don't see this as a problem. They know there are many women who are brought into prostitution in Thailand. They know that some are treated with brutal violence. But
they don't think it's a terrible picture. They think it's just the unlucky cases. And, because of the profit, I think there are many people with an interest involved, so they try to turn a blind eye to this
problem.
So how do you change things? What are the most effective levers of power to make a difference, to turn the tide? If you can't put a complete stop to it, how can you at least affect its growth and
hopefully work toward making it something less of a problem?
I want to reply to this question that we have to have a long-term and a short-term strategy.
For the long term, we need education reform and political reform. For the education reform, I think that gender sensitivity, gender equality is the main thing. We need to invest in our education. That's
one thing. And for the political reform, because right now if you want to be a politician in Thailand, you have to use a lot of money. For one person to get one seat, you have to invest I think at least
10 or 20 million ba, I don't know how much in dollars, but I think in some provinces it's 100 million ba, so it's over a million dollars. So you have to buy votes from the people. This is why women like
myself who may want to join a party do not have enough money to run the election. So we have to reform our political system to make it more open.
I think we have many ways to get this system reformed. I don't want to go into the details but we are trying to do it now, campaigning in Thailand now for political reform. If we get good politicians we
hope that our social problems will be more easily solved, or get more attention from the government. For our short-term strategy, I think what we need is strength from the nongovernment (NGO)
movement. We work locally at the provincial or district level to try to get the officials at that local area to listen to us. And also we work through the network with international organizations. In Thai
society, we work in this way, and it's proved that we can solve some problems at a certain level. For example, with Thai prostitution, we once asked the Prime Minister of a town to sign a petition and
post it in a newspaper that he himself wants to eradicate child prostitution in Thailand. And that helped. But what we have to do is take issue by issue to try to solve this problem.
http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/conversations/Kritaya/krit-con3.html
Convention on the Rights of the Child
UNICEF’s mission is to advocate for the protection of children’s rights, to help meet their basic needs and to expand their opportunities to reach their full potential. UNICEF is guided in doing this by
the provisions and principles of the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
Built on varied legal systems and cultural traditions, the Convention is a universally agreed set of non-negotiable standards and obligations. These basic standards—also called human rights—set
minimum entitlements and freedoms that should be respected by governments. They are founded on respect for the dignity and worth of each individual, regardless of race, colour, gender,
language, religion, opinions, origins, wealth, birth status or ability and therefore apply to every human being everywhere. With these rights comes the obligation on both governments and individuals
not to infringe on the parallel rights of others. These standards are both interdependent and indivisible; we cannot ensure some rights without—or at the expense of—other rights.
A legally binding instrument
The Convention on the Rights of the Child is the first legally binding international instrument to incorporate the full range of human rights—civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights. In 1989,
world leaders decided that children needed a special convention just for them because people under 18 years old often need special care and protection that adults do not. The leaders also wanted
to make sure that the world recognized that children have human rights too.
The Convention sets out these rights in 54 articles and two Optional Protocols. It spells out the basic human rights that children everywhere have: the right to survival; to develop to the fullest; to
protection from harmful influences, abuse and exploitation; and to participate fully in family, cultural and social life. The four core principles of the Convention are non-discrimination; devotion to the
best interests of the child; the right to life, survival and development; and respect for the views of the child. Every right spelled out in the Convention is inherent to the human dignity and harmonious
development of every child. The Convention protects children's rights by setting standards in health care; education; and legal, civil and social services.
By agreeing to undertake the obligations of the Convention (by ratifying or acceding to it), national governments have committed themselves to protecting and ensuring children's rights and they
have agreed to hold themselves accountable for this commitment before the international community. States parties to the Convention are obliged to develop and undertake all actions and policies in
the light of the best interests of the child.

http://www.unicef.org/crc/
 Introduction

Human rights are recognized as fundamental by the United Nations and, as such, feature prominently in the Preamble of the Charter of the United Nations: "... to reaffirm faith in fundamental human
rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small...". One of the early acts of the General Assembly was to draft and adopt
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (resolution 217 A of 10 December 1948).
As an indication of the continuing importance of this vast field, the General Assembly created the Human Rights Council in 2006. This new body is charged, inter alia, to review and improve the
mechanisms of human rights monitoring; UN documentation related to human rights is evolving to reflect the new practices.
The Organization's prominent role in this area is carried out by a number of human rights bodies. When researching human rights issues, a distinction must be made between Charter-based and
treaty-based human rights bodies.
Charter-based bodies:
• derive their establishment from provisions contained in the Charter of the United Nations,
• hold broad human rights mandates,
• address an unlimited audience, and
• take action based on majority voting.
Treaty-based bodies:
• derive their existence from provisions contained in a specific legal instrument,
• hold more narrow mandates (i.e., the set of issues codified in the legal instrument involved),
• address a limited audience (i.e., only those countries that have ratified the legal instrument in question), and
• base their decision-making on consensus.
Reflecting this distinction, the human rights documentation posted on the website of the Office of the High Commissioner is organized into two databases: Charter-based bodies and Treaty bodies. A
third database, the Universal Human Rights Index, provides access to human rights information by country, by rights, or by body.
By resolution 48/141 of 20 December 1993, the General Assembly created the post of United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights
(www.ohchr.org) provides secretariat support for all UN human rights bodies.
• Each year the High Commissioner reports on the activities carried out by the Office of the High Commissioner; this report is issued as Supplement No. 36 to the Official Records of the
General Assembly (e.g., A/63/36). A complete list of the annual reports, can be found in the UN-I-QUE database.

• Statements made by the High Commissioner can be retrieved through the OHCHR Media Centre.

• The Office of the High Commissioner also administers the communications/complaints procedures available under the various human rights bodies.

Charter-based bodies

Human Rights Council

The Human Rights Council was established by General Assembly resolution 60/251 of 15 March 2006. The Council meets at least three times annually and reports to the General Assembly.
• Working documents are issued under the series symbol A/HRC/-.

• Summary records of meetings are issued under the series symbol A/HRC/[session]/SR.[meeting number] (e.g., A/HRC/6/SR.27: summary record of the 27th meeting of the 6th session
on 11 December 2007).

• The sessional reports are published as Supplement 53 to the Official Records of the General Assembly (e.g., A/63/53 + Add.1). They provide summaries of the work concluded and
contain the texts of resolutions and decisions adopted by the Council. A complete list of the sessional reports (2006 onwards) can be found in the UN-I-QUE database.

• Resolutions and decisions are not released as separate documents in paper format but may be retrieved as individual items through the Charter-based bodies database.

• Full text documents of the Council are retrievable from the Charter-based bodies database, UNBISnet, and the Official Document System of the UN (ODS).

• UN Headquarters press releases for the Council, issued under the series symbol HRC/-, are accessible through the search option at the Press Releases website. Press releases from
the Office of the High Commissioner can be retrieved through the OHCHR Media Centre website.
The Council has responsibility for the special procedures originally established by the Commission on Human Rights. The special procedures include special rapporteurs, special representatives,
independent experts, and working groups, that investigate, discuss, and report on specific human rights issues under a country mandate or thematic mandate.
• A complete listing of these reports can be found in the UN-I-QUE database (e.g., reports on extrajudicial, summary and arbitrary executions).

• The full text of recent reports can be retrieved from the Charter-based bodies database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).

• The Universal Human Rights Index database provides access to documents by country, by rights, or by body (including the special procedures of the Human Rights Council).
In addition, by General Assembly resolution resolution 60/251 of 15 March 2006, the Human Rights Council is mandated to undertake a universal periodic review of each state's fulfillment of its
human rights obligations and commitments. The modalities of the universal periodic review were decided in the fifth session of the Council (see A/62/53). The Secretary-General has compiled
guidelines on the form and content of reports to be submitted by States parties to the international human rights treaties (HRI/GEN/2/Rev.5, as at August 2008 only English, Russian and Spanish
have been issued).

Commission on Human Rights

The Commission on Human Rights was established by Economic and Social Council resolution 5 (I) of 16 February 1946. The Commission met in annual and, when required, special sessions and
reported to the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). The Commission on Human Rights concluded its 62nd and final session on 27 Mar. 2006; its work is continued by the Human Rights
Council.
• Working documents were issued under the series symbol E/CN.4/-. The full text of recent documents can be retrieved from the Charter-based bodies database, UNBISnet and the
Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• Summary records of meetings were issued under the series symbol E/CN.4/[year]/SR.[meeting number] (e.g., E/CN.4/1997/SR.52: summary record of the 52nd meeting of the 53rd
session on 9 April 1997). The full text of recent meeting records can be retrieved from the Charter-based bodies database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• The sessional reports carried a double symbol (series E/- and E/CN.4/-) and were published as Supplements to the Official Records of the Economic and Social Council (e.g., E/2006/23-
E/CN.4/2006/122 [final report]). They provide summaries of the work concluded and contain the texts of resolutions and decisions adopted by the Commission (resolutions and decisions are not
released as separate documents in paper format but may be retrieved as individual items through the Charter-based bodies database). A complete listing of the sessional reports (1947-2006) can be
found in the UN-I-QUE database. The full text of recent reports is retrievable from the Charter-based bodies database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• UN Headquarters press releases for the Commission, issued under the series symbol HR/CN/-, are accessible through the search option at the Press Releases website. Press releases
from the Office of the High Commissioner can be retrieved through the OHCHR Media Centre website.
The Commission had established special procedures: special rapporteurs, representatives or experts and working groups that investigated, discussed and reported on specific human rights issues
under a country mandate or thematic mandate. A complete listing of these reports can be found in the UN-I-QUE database (e.g., reports on extrajudicial, summary and arbitrary executions). The full
text of recent reports can be retrieved from the Charter-based bodies database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).

Human Rights Council Advisory Committee

The Human Rights Council Advisory Committee was established by Human Rights Council resolution 5/1 of 18 June 2007; General Assembly resolution 62/219 of 22 December 2007, inter alia,
endorses the decision of the Human Rights Council to adopt resolution 5/1 (see A/62/53).
This is a new body and the pattern of documentation has not yet been established. The Advisory Committee supercedes the Subcommission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights.

Subcommission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights

The Subcommission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights was established by the Commission on Human Rights under the authority of Economic and Social Council resolution 9 (II) of
21 June 1946. The name was changed from Subcommission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities by ECOSOC decision 1999/256 of 27 July 1999. The Subcommission met in
annual sessions from 1947 - 2006. Prior to 19 June 2006, the Subcommission reported to the Commission on Human Rights; its final report was submitted to the Human Rights Council. A complete
listing of the sessional reports (1947-2006) can be found in the UN-I-QUE database. The work of the Subcommission is continued by the Human Rights Council Advisory Committee.
• From 1947 to 19 June 2006, working documents were issued under the series symbol E/CN.4/Sub.2/-. The working documents of the final session were issued under the series symbol
A/HRC/Sub.1/-. The full text of recent documents can be retrieved from the Charter-based bodies database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• From 1947 to 19 June 2006, summary records were issued under the series symbol E/CN.4/Sub.2/[year]/SR.[meeting number] (e.g., E/CN.4/Sub.2/2001/SR.4: summary record of the
4th meeting of the 53rd session on 1 August 2001). The summary records of the meetings of the final session were issued under the series symbol A/HRC/Sub.1/[session]/SR.[meeting number]
(e.g., A/HRC/Sub.1/58/SR.1: summary record of the 1st meeting of the 58th session on 7 August 2006; as at 30 July 2008 most of the summary records of these meetings have been issued in
English only). The full text of recent meeting records can be retrieved from the Charter-based bodies database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• The sessional reports carried a double symbol (series E/CN.4/- and E/CN.4/Sub.2/-; e.g., E/CN.4/2006/2-E/CN.4/Sub.2/2005/44; the final report has the symbol A/HRC/2/2-
A/HRC/Sub.1/58/36 + Corr.1). They provide summaries of the work concluded and contain the text of resolutions and decisions adopted by the Subcommission (resolutions and decisions are not
released as separate documents in paper format but may be retrieved as individual items through the Charter-based bodies database). A complete listing of these reports (1947-2006) can be found
in the UN-I-QUE database. The full text of recent reports is retrievable from the Charter-based bodies database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• UN Headquarters press releases for the Subcommission, issued under the series symbol HR/CN/-, are accessible through the search option at the Press Releases website. Press
releases from the Office of the High Commissioner can be retrieved through the OHCHR Media Centre website.
Reports were also presented to the Subcommission by working groups and special rapporteurs. A complete listing of these reports can be found in the UN-I-QUE database (e.g., reports on
contemporary forms of slavery). The full text of recent reports can be retrieved from the Charter-based bodies database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).

Treaty-based bodies

Committee against Torture

The Committee against Torture was established pursuant to Article 17 of the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment to supervise the
implementation of the Convention. The current status of the Convention is posted on the website of the High Commissioner. The Committee meets in two sessions each year in Geneva.
• Working documents are issued under the series symbol CAT/C/-. The full text of recent documents can be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official Document
System of the United Nations (ODS).
• Summary records of meetings are issued under the series symbol CAT/C/SR.[meeting number] (e.g., CAT/C/SR.382: summary record of the 382nd meeting on 7 May 1999). The full
text of recent meeting records can be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).

• The sessional reports are issued as Supplement No. 44 to the Official Records of the General Assembly (e.g., A/63/44). A complete listing of these reports (1988 onwards) can be found
in the UN-I-QUE database. The full text of recent reports can be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• UN Headquarters press releases for the Committee, issued under the series symbol HR/-, are accessible through the search option at the Press Releases website. Press releases from
the Office of the High Commissioner can be retrieved through the OHCHR Media Centre website.
States Parties to the Convention are required by Article 19 to submit an initial report on the measures taken to give effect to their undertakings under the Convention within one year after its entry
into force for the State Party concerned and thereafter every four years. A complete listing of these reports can be found in the UN-I-QUE database (e.g., reports submitted by Canada). The full text
of recent reports as well as report preparation guidelines can be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).

Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights was established by Economic and Social Council resolution 1985/17 to supervise the implementation of the International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights but functions like a treaty body. The current status of the Covenant is posted on the website of the High Commissioner. The Committee currently meets in three
sessions each year in Geneva.
• Working documents are issued under the series symbol E/C.12/-. The full text of recent documents can be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official Document
System of the United Nations (ODS).
• Summary records of meetings are issued under the series symbol E/C.12/[year]/SR.[meeting number] (e.g., E/C.12/1999/SR.37: summary record of the 37th meeting of the 21st session
on 19 November 1999). The full text of recent meeting records can be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• The sessional reports carry a double symbol (E/- and E/C.12/-) and are issued as Supplements to the Official Records of the Economic and Social Council (e.g., E/2008/22-
E/C.12/2007/3). A complete listing of these reports (1987 onwards) can be found in the UN-I-QUE database. The full text of recent reports is retrievable from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet
and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• UN Headquarters press releases for the Committee, issued under the series symbol HR/-, are accessible through the search option at the Press Releases website. Press releases from
the Office of the High Commissioner can be retrieved through the OHCHR Media Centre website.
States Parties to the Covenant are required by Economic and Social Council resolution 1988/4 to submit an initial report on the measures they have adopted and the progress made in achieving the
observance of the rights recognized within the Covenant within two years of its entry into force for the State Party concerned and thereafter every five years. A complete listing of these reports can
be found in the UN-I-QUE database (e.g., reports submitted by Denmark). The full text of recent reports as well as report preparation guidelines can be retrieved from the Treaty body database,
UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).

Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women

The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women was established pursuant to Article 17 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women to
supervise the implementation of the Convention. The current status of the Convention is posted on the website of website of the High Commissioner. The Committee meets in two sessions each
year. Beginning in 2008, the meetings are held in Geneva; previously all meetings were held in New York.
• Working documents are issued under the series symbol CEDAW/C/-. The full text of recent documents is available on the High Commissioner's website and can also be retrieved from
the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• Summary records of meetings are issued under the series symbol CEDAW/C/SR.[meeting number] (e.g., CEDAW/C/SR.827: summary record of the 827th meeting on 5 January 2008).
The full text of recent meeting records can be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• The sessional reports are issued as Supplement No. 38 to the Official Records of the General Assembly (e.g., A/63/38). A complete listing of these reports (1982 onwards) can be found
in the UN-I-QUE database. The reports are also issued cumulatively in the series The Work of CEDAW. The full text of recent documents is available on the High Commissioner's website and can
also be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• Press releases, issued under the series symbol WOM/-, are accessible through the search option at the at the Press Releases website.
States Parties to the Convention are required by Article 18 to submit an initial report on the legislative, judicial, administrative or other measures which they have adopted and which give effect to the
provisions of the Convention within one year after its entry into force for the State Party concerned and thereafter every four years. A complete listing of these reports can be found in the UN-I-QUE
database (e.g., reports submitted by Costa Rica). The full text of recent reports as well as report preparation guidelines can be retrieved from the website, the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and
the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).

Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination

The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination was established pursuant to Article 8 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination to supervise
the implementation of the Convention. The current status of the Convention is posted on the website of the High Commissioner. The Committee meets in two sessions each year in Geneva.
• Working documents are issued under the series symbol CERD/C/-. The full text of recent documents can be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official
Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• Summary records of meetings are issued under the series symbol CERD/C/SR.[meeting number] (e.g., CERD/C/SR.1346: summary record of the 1346th meeting on 10 August 1999).
The full text of recent meeting records can be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• The sessional reports are issued as Supplement No. 18 to the Official Records of the General Assembly (e.g., A/63/18). A complete listing of these reports (1970 onwards) can be found
in the UN-I-QUE database. The full text of recent reports can be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• UN Headquarters press releases for the Committee, issued under the series symbol RD/-, are accessible through the search option at the at the Press Releases website. Press releases
from the Office of the High Commissioner can be retrieved through the OHCHR Media Centre website.
States Parties to the Convention are required by Article 9 to submit an initial report on the legislative, judicial, administrative or other measures which they have adopted and which give effect to the
provisions of the Convention within one year after its entry into force for the State Party concerned and thereafter every two years. A complete listing of these reports can be found in the UN-I-QUE
database (e.g., reports submitted by Botswana). The full text of recent reports as well as report preparation guidelines can be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official
Document System of the United Nations (ODS).

Committee on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families
The Committee on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Worker and Members of Their Families was established pursuant to Article 72 of the Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All
Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families to supervise the implementation of the Convention. The current status of the Convention is posted on the website of the High Commissioner. The
Committee meets in Geneva.
• Working documents are issued under the series symbol CMW/C/-. The full text of recent documents can be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official
Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• Summary records of meetings are issued under the series symbol CMW/C/SR.[meeting number] (e.g., CMW/C/SR.12: summary record of the 12th meeting on 26 Apr. 2005). The full
text of recent meeting records can be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• The sessional reports are issued as Supplement No. 48 to the Official Records of the General Assembly (e.g., A/63/48). A complete listing of these reports (2004 onwards) can be found
in the UN-I-QUE database. The full text of the reports is retrievable from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• UN Headquarters press releases for the Committee, issued under the series symbol HR/-, are accessible through the search option at the at the Press Releases website. Press releases
from the Office of the High Commissioner can be retrieved through the OHCHR Media Centre website.
States Parties to the Convention are required by Article 73 to submit an initial report on measures adopted which give effect to the rights recognized therein and on the progress made on the
enjoyment of those rights within one year of its entry into force for the State Party concerned and thereafter every five years. A complete listing of these reports can be found in the UN-I-QUE
database (e.g., report submitted by Mali). The full text of recent reports as well as provisional guidelines on report preparation can be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the
Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).

Committee on the Rights of the Child

The Committee on the Rights of the Child was established pursuant to Article 43 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child to supervise the implementation of the Convention. The current status of
the Convention is posted on the website of the High Commissioner. The Committee meets in three sessions each year in Geneva.
• Working documents are issued under the series symbol CRC/C/-. The full text of recent documents can be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official Document
System of the United Nations (ODS).
• Summary records of meetings are issued under the series symbol CRC/C/SR.[meeting number] (e.g., CRC/C/SR.391: summary record of the 391st meeting on 2 June 1997). The full
text of recent meeting records can be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• Sessional reports of the Committee are issued as Supplement No. 41 to the Official Records of the General Assembly (e.g., A/63/41). A complete listing of these reports (1991 onwards)
can be found in the UN-I-QUE database. The full text of recent reports is retrievable from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• UN Headquarters press releases for the Committee, issued under the series symbol HR/-, are accessible through the search option at the Press Releases website. Press releases from
the Office of the High Commissioner can be retrieved through the OHCHR Media Centre website.
States Parties to the Convention are required by Article 44 to submit an initial report on measures adopted which give effect to the rights recognized therein and on the progress made on the
enjoyment of those rights within two years of its entry into force for the State Party concerned and thereafter every five years. A complete listing of these reports can be found in the UN-I-QUE
database (e.g., reports submitted by Thailand). The full text of recent reports as well as report preparation guidelines can be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official
Document System of the United Nations (ODS).

Human Rights Committee

The Human Rights Committee was established pursuant to Article 28 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The current status of the Covenant is posted on the website of the
High Commissioner. The Committee meets in three sessions each year in New York and Geneva.
• Working documents are issued under the series symbol CCPR/C/-. The full text of recent documents can be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official
Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• Summary records of meetings are issued under the series symbol CCPR/C/SR.[meeting number] (e.g., CCPR/C/SR.1690: summary record of the 1690th meeting on 24 July 1998). The
full text of recent meeting records can be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
• The sessional reports are issued as Supplement No. 40 to the Official Records of the General Assembly (e.g., A/62/40 (Vol.I) and A/62/40 (Vol.II)). A complete listing of these reports
(1977 onwards) can be found in the UN-I-QUE database. The full text of recent reports can be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the Official Document System of the United
Nations (ODS).
• From 1977-1987, the Committee published a Yearbook; since 1987, this publication has been continued by the Official Records of the Human Rights Committee.
• UN Headquarters press releases for the Committee, issued under the series symbol HR/CT/-, are accessible through the search option at the Press Releases website. Press releases
from the Office of the High Commissioner can be retrieved through the OHCHR Media Centre website.
States Parties to the Covenant are required by Article 40 to submit an initial report on the measures they have adopted which give effect to the rights recognized within the Covenant and on the
progress made in the enjoyment of those rights within one year of its entry into force for the State Party concerned and thereafter every five years. A complete listing of these reports can be found in
the UN-I-QUE database (e.g., reports submitted by Jordan). The full text of recent reports as well as report preparation guidelines can be retrieved from the Treaty body database, UNBISnet and the
Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS).
The Committee also considers communications under the Optional Protocol received from individuals who assert that their rights (as enumerated in the Covenant) have been violated without
domestic redress. The texts of the Committee's final decisions under the Protocol are included in its annual reports (e.g., A/62/40 (Vol. II)), as well as periodically cumulated on a selective basis.

http://www.un.org/Depts/dhl/resguide/spechr.htm

On 10 December 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted and proclaimed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the full text of which appears in the following pages.
Following this historic act, the Assembly called upon all Member countries to publicize the text of the Declaration and "to cause it to be disseminated, displayed, read and expounded principally in
schools and other educational institutions, without distinction based on the political status of countries or territories."

Useful Links
• Other language versions
• Human Rights Day 10 December
• 60th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
PREAMBLE
Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world,
Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy
freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people,
Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law,
Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations,
Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and
women and have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,
Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in co-operation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental
freedoms,
Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge,
Now, Therefore THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY proclaims THIS UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end
that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by
progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples
of territories under their jurisdiction.

^ Top
Article 1.
• All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
^ Top
Article 2.
• Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion,
national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a
person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.
^ Top
Article 3.
• Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
^ Top
Article 4.
• No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.
^ Top
Article 5.
• No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.
^ Top
Article 6.
• Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.
^ Top
Article 7.
• All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this
Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.
^ Top
Article 8.
• Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.
^ Top
Article 9.
• No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.
^ Top
Article 10.
• Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge
against him.
^ Top
Article 11.
• (1) Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for
his defence.
• (2) No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was
committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed.
^ Top
Article 12.
• No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the
protection of the law against such interference or attacks.
^ Top
Article 13.
• (1) Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state.
• (2) Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.
^ Top
Article 14.
• (1) Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.
• (2) This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
^ Top
Article 15.
• (1) Everyone has the right to a nationality.
• (2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality.
^ Top
Article 16.
• (1) Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage,
during marriage and at its dissolution.
• (2) Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses.
• (3) The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State.
^ Top
Article 17.
• (1) Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others.
• (2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.
^ Top
Article 18.
• Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others
and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.
^ Top
Article 19.
• Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas
through any media and regardless of frontiers.
^ Top
Article 20.
• (1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
• (2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association.
^ Top
Article 21.
• (1) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives.
• (2) Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country.
• (3) The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage
and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.
^ Top
Article 22.
• Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the
organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality.
^ Top
Article 23.
• (1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.
• (2) Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work.
• (3) Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by
other means of social protection.
• (4) Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests.
^ Top
Article 24.
• Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay.
^ Top
Article 25.
• (1) Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary
social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.
• (2) Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection.
^ Top
Article 26.
• (1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and
professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
• (2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote
understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
• (3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.
^ Top
Article 27.
• (1) Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.
• (2) Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author.
^ Top
Article 28.
• Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized.
^ Top
Article 29.
• (1) Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his personality is possible.
• (2) In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect
for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society.
• (3) These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
^ Top
Article 30.
• Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the
rights and freedoms set forth herein.
http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html

Crusade against women and child abuse bats for community awareness
Published: February 19, 2009

Print
Bayambang, Pangasinan (19 February) -- Government, non-government agencies and private sectors agreed to cooperate with each other to form a solid front at the regional and local levels in
order to plan and implement an effective campaign against women and child abuse.

The Group, known as the Regional Crusade Against Women and Child Abuse (RCAWCA) recently met with its members to plan an integrated awareness and prevention campaign in the whole
Region 1, particularly in the schools and communities.

Commission on Human Rights Regional Director Anita Chauhan presided over the meeting held at the Lozano garden in barangay Buenlag, Bayambang town which happens to be the hometown of
the current RCAWCA chair, Norma J. Lozano, who is also the Region 1 chair of the National Anti Poverty Commission.

The RCAWCA, as explained by Chauhan, is a crusade or movement organized in 2002 through Resolution No. 2 series of 2000 passed by the Regional Development Council

Government agencies that signed up as members include the Department of Social Welfare and Development, Philippine National Police, National Economic Development Authority, Commission on
Human Rights, Department of Education, Department of Labor and Employment, Commission on Higher Education, Department of Health Department of Justice, Civil Service Commission,
Philippine Information Agency, Department of Budget and Management, Nutrition, Bureau of Jail Management and Penology, Regional Trial Court, Child Protection Units of government hospitals
and Gender and Development Centers.

NGOs and private sectors were also tapped as members.

Eight activities were identified by the body for the action plan: resource generation, procurement of IEC materials, capacity building, campaign to LGUs for tarpaulins, advocacy for Gender and
Development, membership expansion, directory of agency/institution hotlines and member action plan on child and women abuse.

For the women's month celebration, RCAWA plans to have a motorcade from Pangasinan to Ilocos Norte on March 20, where the contest dubbed as 'Katangi- tanging Babae sa Pamayanan" will
also be launched. (PIA-Pangasinan)

http://www.humanrights.gov.ph/index.php?categoryid=4

RDC-8 tackles integration of rights-based approach in dev't policies

Published: February 9, 2009

Print
Tacloban City (February 9) -- The Development Administration Committee of the Regional Development Council of Eastern Visayas is set to meet on February 9, 2009 in order to tackle among
others, the integration of the rights-based approach in the development policies, plans and programs.

Department of Budget and Management Regional Director Imelda Laceras who is the chairperson of the committee informed that the meeting will be conducted from 8:00 o'clock in the morning to
5:00 o'clock in the afternoon at the NEDA 8 Conference Room.

The rights-based approach is seen as a means of empowering people to exercise their voice, and influence processes of change and social transformation. It is also a means of helping the state to
clarify its responsibilities towards its citizens by respecting, protecting and fulfilling their rights.

It is also a means of helping donors to identify how pro-poor political change can best be supported and a means of helping to support principles of international conventions into practical action.

A rights-based approach to development supposes that participatory and democratic governance and rule of law are needed to assure these and other fundamental rights and freedoms to
subsistence, participation and security.

A human rights based approach to development requires that development interventions (projects and programs) reflect, above all, not breaking fundamental human rights (the "no harm" principle)
and that explicit linkages are made to human rights standards in policies and programs.

It further assumes that human rights implementation is defined as an overarching goal of development; that it is recognized and reflected that the state should uphold a legally grounded
accountability to human rights respect, protection and fulfillment, and thus secure capabilities and freedoms of people; that development policies and programs are making people active subjects of
development by social, political and legal empowerment, including empowerment of people to claim their rights and that the principle of non-discrimination is respected, and that social equality
enhanced. In particular, development interventions should draw attention to vulnerable groups.

Aside from the rights-based approach to development, the Committee will also conduct a planning workshop for the DAC 2009 work program. (PIA 8)

http://www.humanrights.gov.ph/index.php?categoryid=4&p2_start=1
CHR chief urges new perspective on human rights
Published: December 5, 2008

Print
Iloilo (5 December) -- Human rights perspective is also a consciousness of the beauty of life, not just about issues related to horrible things such as torture, disappearances, or extrajudicial killings,
says Commission on Human Rights chief Leila M. de Lima.

The Commission on Human Rights (CHR) of the Philippines is leading the commemoration of the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR).

The CHR, through memorandum circular no. 1 series of 2008, enjoins all entities in the public sector to lead in the celebration of the momentous event, which hinges on the theme, "Justice and
Dignity for all of Us."

De Lima said this theme reinforces the vision of the UDHR as a commitment to universal dignity and justice.

She said that as the UHDR Foundation reaches its 60th year, the modern world truly recognizes the value 0f this document's role in molding the awareness of mankind on the importance of
promoting, protecting and fulfilling one's human rights.

The CHR has lined up activities for a 60-day commemoration, which started October 9, 2008.
In Iloilo City and province, the CHR, the Office of the Presidential Assistant for Regional Development (OPARD) and the Philippine Information Agency (PIA), are working hand in hand with other
agencies, including the military in undertaking different information and education activities to highlight positive observance of Human Rights day.

The Human Rights Week that culminates on December 10, is being ushered in by media relations activities through program guestings, while the HR day on the 10th will start with a Walk for Peace
with contenders emanating from various points in the city and then converge at the Freedom grandstand for an ecumenical celebration.

The OPARD's Task Force Kasangga is also spearheading the activities, to support the perspective of human rights promotion bringing positive implications. (PIA 6)

http://www.humanrights.gov.ph/index.php?categoryid=4&p2_start=2
NGO starts monitoring human rights of PWDs
Published: October 31, 2008

Print
Quezon City (31 October) -- The Katipunan ng Maykapansanan sa Pilipinas, Inc. (KAMPI) has launched a campaign to monitor the human rights of persons with disabilities (PWDs) in partnership
with Disability Rights Promotion International (DRPI), university-based project in Canada.

The campaign launch was made during a training activity sponsored by KAMPI and DRPI last October 20-27 at Norfil Foundation Bldg. in Quezon City with the theme "Monitoring the Individual
Human Rights Experiences of Persons with Disabilities in the Philippines."

In her speech during the event, Dr. Marcia Rioux, Co-Director of DRPI said: "One of the objectives of the study is to let the small group of people help another set or group of people. It is the same as
stating that disabled persons help other PWDs from other parts of the globe. We are a small body but with a spirit of great sense of determination that will make a difference."

Dr. Rioux also said: "Our government will put things in order, like making pertinent laws, but it is up to us to bring change and justice. If each person joins the other person and this group of persons
will be joined by other people in their (respective) countries it will surely bring great changes. And that's how big changes happen in history... It is like putting it this way, great things starts from small
beginnings. This will lead not only in making other laws (related to PWDs) but in the effective implementation and improvement of present laws specifically the UNCRPD".

After the training, eight (8) Site Coordinators and 18 Monitors will conduct their field work to interview the different types of persons with disabilities in four (4) major areas namely: NCR, Luzon,
Visayas, and Mindanao. Notably, these Site Coordinators and Monitors are not your usual abled persons but are persons with disabilities themselves. Interview guides, including the training
materials used, were translated into their respective dialects as well as in Braille (for visual impaired monitors).

KAMPI Secretariat Executive Director Sonia Rina Figueroa also explained that, "what is unique in this study is that the persons with disabilities are the ones themselves who will conduct their
research and interviews on individual human rights experiences with their fellow persons with disabilities. It is monitoring and documenting their own experiences and consequently reporting the
outputs of their research. All involved persons in this research are PWDs. The Secretariat itself is a practitioner of this dictum. Non- PWDs involved in this project, during the training and the field
work, are limited only to the Head Data Analyst and the guides and interpreters of the Site Coordinators and Monitors."

The project will run from October 2008 to January 2009. KAMPI and DRPI is doing this project of collecting information about the lives and experiences of persons with disabilities in order to see if
their human rights are being respected in the Philippines.

According to the materials prepared by DRPI for the training, the information collected will be studied and reports will be written. It noted that "The names of participants will not be mentioned in the
reports unless they have given their clear permission to do so. These reports will then be made available to organizations of persons with disabilities, other groups working to improve the lives of
persons with disabilities, the media and governments."

"The reports to be derived and made from this project are to be used to: let people know about violations of the rights of persons with disabilities, help stop human rights violations, provide facts to
back up arguments for changes in laws, policies, and programs to improve the lives of persons with disabilities, keep track of the steps that the government has taken or has failed to take in order to
fulfill the promises it has made to persons with disabilities when it signed agreements at the United Nations saying that it would protect, promote and fulfill the rights of persons with disabilities."

The training was also supported by ExIST, Inc. for logistics and events secretariat support, the National Council on Disability Affairs (NCDA) for the use of one of their rooms as one of the training
venues, the National Commission on Culture and the Arts (NCCA), and the Department of Education (DECS) for assisting KAMPI in putting into Braille the training material. Among the special
guests of the event were: Dr. Renante A. Basas (Director IV) from the Commission on Human Rights, Mr. Mateo Lee, Jr. (OIC- NCDA), and Mr. Lauro Purcil, Jr. (Chairman of the National Committee
on UN Convention of Sectoral Council of PWD). (KAMPI/PIA)

http://www.humanrights.gov.ph/index.php?categoryid=4&p2_start=3
The government has initiated programs and campaigns to prevent human rights violations, ensure respect for all human rights and coordinate related activities throughout the Philippine system.
Various agencies of the government target specific sectors that are more at risk to suffer human rights violations. This section provides a listing of government agencies and the specific programs
and projects they are undertaking to ensure that human rights is upheld in the country.
http://www.humanrights.gov.ph/index.php?categoryid=3

Sixty-first session
Agenda item 105 (e)
Elections to fill vacancies in subsidiary organs
and other elections: election of fourteen members
of the Human Rights Council
Note verbale dated 18 April 2007 from the Permanent Mission of the Philippines to the United Nations addressed to the President of the General Assembly
The Permanent Mission of the Republic of the Philippines to the United Nations presents its compliments to the President of the sixty-first session of the General Assembly of the United
Nations and in relation to the candidature of the Republic of the Philippines for re-election to the Human Rights Council for the term 2007-2010, earlier conveyed to all the Permanent Missions to
the United Nations in New York through a note dated 3 November 2006, as well as through the Chair of the Asian Group in October 2006, has the honour to enclose herewith the Philippines
commitments and voluntary pledges in accordance with General Assembly resolution 60/251.
Annex to the note verbale dated 18 April 2007 from the Permanent Mission of the Philippines to the United Nations addressed to the President of the General Assembly
Commitments of the Philippines in the Human Rights Council
The Constitution of the Philippines enshrines the Philippines’ solemn commitment to human rights by devoting an Article on Social Justice and Human Rights, creating an Independent
Commission on Human Rights, and declaring it a State policy to value the dignity of every human person and guarantee full respect for human rights. The Philippines is a party to all the seven core
international instruments on human rights. Verily, the Philippines has a wealth of experience, both glorious and painful, in the area of human rights, as it struggled to build itself as a democratic and
republican State, the first such in the region.
With this history and commitment to protect and promote human rights at the national, regional and international levels, the Philippines is now seeking re–election to the Human Rights
Council at the elections to be held by the General Assembly on 17 May 2007. In connection therewith, the Philippines submits these
Commitments and voluntary pledges
1. The Philippines firmly believes that the congruence of domestic and international human rights protection and promotion is a key factor for the advancement of all human rights. If re-elected
into the Council, the Philippines will continue to focus on the vital importance of bridging national, regional and international human rights goals, standards and strategies.
2. The Philippines has a long tradition of promoting and protecting human rights in Asia and throughout the world. As a founding member of the United Nations, it worked for the inclusion of “self-
determination of peoples” as one of the purposes of the Organization and the addition of the words “or independence” as a basic objective of the trusteeship system which enabled countries under
colonial rule to become independent and achieve membership in the United Nations. If re-elected into the Council, the Philippines will continue to play an active role in upholding the rights and
welfare of the disadvantaged and vulnerable groups, including women, children, indigenous peoples, migrants and persons with disabilities. The Philippines will likewise continue to be a voice for
vulnerable groups and will support human rights-based approaches that address their concerns in a comprehensive, positive and practical way.
3. The Philippines will continue to be sensitive to current and emerging human rights challenges, particularly those associated with modern-day dynamics and phenomena, such as globalization,
anti-terrorism and security efforts. In this regard, the Philippines will help ensure that the Council is able to effectively address human rights crises, including gross and systematic violations of
human rights.
4. In testimony to its firm commitment to the value and sanctity of human life and in the belief that the defence of life is strengthened by eliminating the exercise of judicial authorization to take
life, the Philippines abolished the death penalty and will actively campaign towards its abolition worldwide.
5. The Philippines will continue to participate in and promote constructive discussion and cooperation in the Council, with a view to enhancing capacities of States in effectively addressing
human rights challenges and ensuring that the Human Rights Council becomes a partner, and not an opponent of States in question, particularly those requesting international assistance in
enhancing capacities in promoting and protecting human rights. In this regard, the Philippines looks forward to the timely establishment of the universal periodic review.
6. The Philippines will continue to play an active role in establishing the institutional foundations and mechanisms of the Council.
7. The Philippines will continue to help and assist the Council in promoting constructive engagement with civil society, ensuring opportunities to effectively contribute to the work of the Council.
8. The Philippines will further contribute to improving the work methods and strengthening the mechanisms and systems of special procedures of the Commission on Human Rights in order that
they effectively serve the goals of the Council.
9. To effectively complement its work in the Council, the Philippines will continue its leadership role in the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and its active participation in the
Committee on the Protection of the Rights of Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families.
10. The Philippines will continue to support efforts aimed at the adoption of a Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.
11. Recognizing that different faiths, religions and spirituality traditions share many common values and principles which are vital to the building of peaceful communities and societies, the
Philippines will continue to promote and support initiatives on inter-faith dialogue, in the context of promoting human rights.
12. Taking into account the importance of the right to development to all human rights, the Philippines will continue to support advancing discussions on the right to development with a view to
ensuring its realization.
 Regional level
13. Having successfully steered the twelfth Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Summit where the importance of the creation of an ASEAN human rights mechanism was
recognized, the Philippines will continue its role as initiator in the establishment of an ASEAN human rights mechanism.
14. The Philippines shall continue to actively pursue its task as the ASEAN focal point in efforts to fight human trafficking and in promoting women’s and children’s rights, while simultaneously
integrating human rights in the issues of international terrorism and transnational crimes, and HIV and AIDS.
15. In recognition of the contributions of migrant workers to the society and the economy of both sending and receiving States in the region, as was emphasized in the ASEAN Declaration on the
Protection and Promotion of the Rights of Migrant Workers, the Philippines will continue to advance the cause of migrant workers.
National level
16. Having ratified all of the seven core international human rights treaties and a number of their protocols, the Government of the Philippines shall strengthen domestic support for the signing
and ratification of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance.
17. Having fulfilled its earlier commitment to sign the Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights aiming at the abolition of the death penalty, the
Philippines shall strengthen domestic support for its ratification as well as the signing and ratification of the Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture.
18. Having fulfilled its commitment to strengthen the Presidential Human Rights Committee, the Philippines shall support the Committee in fulfilling its mandate to, firstly, act as the primary
advisory body to the President on human rights issues; secondly, institutionalize the preparation of treaty implementation reports; and, thirdly, prepare and monitor the implementation of the
Government’s National Human Rights Plans of Action.
19. The Philippines condemns extrajudicial killings in the strongest terms and, in cooperation with the international and national human rights community, shall continue to strongly address the
issue.
20. In line with its commitment to uphold justice and strengthen efforts to address impunity, special bodies, such as the Melo Commission and Task Force Usig, were created to undertake a
comprehensive investigation of cases of extrajudicial killings. The Philippine Supreme Court has established 99 special courts to specially and preferentially hear and expeditiously decide on such
cases. Furthermore, the Philippine Government has strengthened its witness protection programme and established a Human Rights Office in its armed forces. The Government’s strong
institutional response to the issue has already resulted in a number of convictions, with many more cases under active investigation and prosecution.
21. As part of mainstreaming human rights in the work of all government agencies and entities, and, building on the Philippines’ strength as UNESCO prize awardee on human rights education,
the Government will improve access to justice of the poor and other vulnerable sectors of society, including by enhancing training programmes, particularly on women’s and children’s rights, for
judges, public defenders and military and police personnel.
22. The Philippines will continue to strengthen the Commission on Human Rights of the Philippines, an independent constitutional body responsible for the monitoring of the human rights
situation in the country and investigation of cases of human rights violations.
23. Having presented its combined fifth and sixth implementation reports on the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women as well as having submitted its
consolidated implementation reports on the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Philippines shall continue to improve its reporting system and submit more timely
reports to the relevant treaty monitoring bodies. The Philippines shall likewise be more active in implementing the relevant concluding observations and recommendations of these bodies.
24. In furtherance of its constitutional policy to promote the right of the people to effective and reasonable participation in governance, the Philippines shall continue its engagement of civil society
and other relevant parties to actively utilize the various United Nations human rights complaints mechanisms and shall endeavour to submit timely replies to communications filed under these
mechanisms.
25. The Philippines will continue its efforts in instilling a human rights-based approach in the realization of the Millennium Development Goals, the right to development and economic and social
and cultural rights, as embodied in national development policies, plans and programmes.
26. Having recently enacted the Human Security Act of 2007, the Philippines shall ensure that measures embodied in the law for the protection of human rights are strictly observed.
http://www.humanrights.gov.ph/index.php?categoryid=2

Child marriage
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Child marriage usually refers to two separate social phenomena which are practiced in some societies. The first and more widespread practice is that of marrying a young child (generally defined as
below the age of fifteen) to an adult. In practice, it is almost always a young girl married to a man.
The second practice is a form of arranged marriage in which the parents of two children from different families arrange a future marriage. In this practice, the individuals who become betrothed often
do not meet one another until the wedding ceremony, which occurs when they are both of a marriageable age.[citation needed]} Which age this is differs by local custom. In most practicing cultures, this
age is at or after the onset of puberty.[citation needed]}
Child marriage has been prevalent in many cultures throughout human history, but has gradually diminished since some countries started to urbanize, changing the ways of life for the people of
these countries.[citation needed]} An increase in the advocation of human rights, whether as women's rights or as children's rights, has caused the traditions of child marriage to decrease greatly as it was
considered unfair and dangerous for the children. Today, child marriage is usually only practiced in countries where cultural practices and traditions of child marriage still have a strong influence, or
where the living standards and conditions create a strong incentive for child marriage.[citation needed]}
Child marriages may have many purposes. The nobility of some cultures tend to use child marriage among different factions or states as a method to secure political ties between them. For example,
the son or daughter of the royal family of a weaker power would sometimes be arranged to marry into the royal family of a stronger neighbouring power, thus preventing itself from being assimilated.
In the lower classes, if they were fortunate, families could use child marriages as means to gain financial ties with wealthier people, ensuring their successions.
In child betrothals, a child's parents arrange a match with the parents of a child from another family (social standing, wealth and expected education all play a part), thus unilaterally determining the
child's future at a young age. It is thought by adherents that physical attraction is not a suitable foundation upon which to build a marriage and a family.[citation needed]} A separate consideration is the age
at which the wedding, as opposed to the engagement, takes place.
Families are able to cement political and/or financial ties by having their children inter-marry. The betrothal is considered a binding contract upon the families and the children. The breaking of a
betrothal can have serious consequences both for the families and for the betrothed individuals themselves.
Africa
Despite many countries enacting marriageable age laws to limit marriage to a minimum age of 16 to 18, depending on jurisdiction, traditional marriages are widespread. Poverty, tradition, and
conflict make the incidence of child marriage in Sub-Saharan Africa similar to South Asia.[1]
In many tribal systems, a man pays a bride price to the girl's family in order to marry her. (Compare with the customes of dowry and dower.) In many parts of Africa, this payment, in cash, cattle, or
other valuables, decreases as a girl gets older. Even before puberty it is common for a married girl to leave her parents to be with her husband. Many marriages are poverty related, with parents
needing the bride price to feed, clothe, educate, and house the rest of the family. Meanwhile, a male child in these countries is more likely to gain a full education, gain employment and pursue a
working life, thus tending to marry later. In Mali, the female:male ratio of marriage before age 18 is 72:1; in Kenya, 21:1.[1]
The various UN commissioned reports indicate that in many Sub-Saharan countries, there is a high incidence of marriage among girls younger than 15. Many governments have tended to overlook
the particular problems that child marriage has resulted in, including obstetric fistulae, prematurity, stillbirth, sexually transmitted diseases (including cervical cancer), and malaria.[1]
In parts of Ethiopia and Nigeria, over 50% of girls are married before the age of 15 and some girls are married as young as the age of 7.[2] In parts of Mali, 39% of girls are married before the age of
15. In Niger and Chad, over 70% of girls are married before the age of 18.[1]
In South Africa, there are legal provisions made for respecting the marriage laws of traditional marriages whereby a person might be married as young as 12 for females and 14 for males.[1]
Early marriage is cited as "a barrier to continuing education for girls (and boys)". This includes absuma (arranged marriages set up between cousins at birth), bride kidnapping, and elopement
decided on by the children[3].
[edit] United States
Laws regarding child marriage vary throughout the United States, though generally children 16 and over may marry with parental consent. Under 16 generally require a court order in addition to the
parental consent.[4]
Until 2008, the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, practiced child marriage through the concept 'spiritual (religious only) marriages,' as soon as girls are ready to bear
children, as part of its polygamy practice and laws have raised the age of legal marriage in response to criticism of the practice.[citation needed] In 2008, the Church changed its policy in the United States
to no longer marry individuals younger than the local legal age.[citation needed]
In 2007, church leader Warren Jeffs was convicted of being an accomplice to statutory rape of a minor due to arranging a marriage between a 14-year-old girl and a 19-year-old man.[5] In March
2008, the state of Texas believed that children at the Yearning For Zion Ranch were being married to adults and were being abused.[6] The state of Texas removed all 468 children from the ranch
and placed them into temporary state custody.[6] FLDS denied the charges. The charges were eventually dropped in court as there was no solid evidence in support of this, and it was determined that
the state entered the ranch illegally.[citation needed]
[edit] South Asia
The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 was passed during the tenure of british rule on pre-partition India, and forbade a male younger than twenty-one or a female younger than eighteen to get
married. A marriage fell under the scope of this Act if either of the contracting parties met the established criterion of a child.[7]
South Asia has the highest prevalence of child marriage of any region in the world in the world. In 2009 49% of women aged 20-24 had been married prior to the age of 18.[8]
[edit] India
In an effort to curb the practice of child marriages the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Himachal Pradesh have passed laws that mandate the registration of all marriages in
order to make it a valid marriage.[citation needed] However, mass marriages that involve children are frequently ignored by authorities.[9]
According to “National Plan of Action for Children 2005,” (published by the Department of Women and Child Development of India) a goal has been set to eliminate child marriage completely by
2010. This plan is proving to be successful, though it is still difficult to monitor every child due to the sheer population of India.[10]
According to UNICEF’s “State of the World’s Children-2009” report, 47% of India's women aged 20-24 were married before the legal age of 18, with 56% in rural areas.[11] The report also showed that
40% of the world's child marriages occur in India.[12]
[edit] Pakistan
Despite the aforementioned Act, the traditions is still practiced in some areas through Vani and other customs like Watta satta and Swara[13]. The minimum legal age for marriage is 18 for men and
16 for girls.[14]
[edit] Bangladesh
According to statistics from 2005, 45% of women then between 25 and 29 were married by the age of 15 in Bangladesh.[2] According to the “State of the World’s Children-2009” report, 63% of all
women aged 20-24 were married before the age of 18. [15]
The Ministry of Women and Children Affairs is making progress in increasing women's education and employment opportunities. This, combined with specific education about child marriage and
cooperation with religious leaders, is hoped to decrease child marriage.[citation needed]
[edit] Middle East
[edit] Yemen
Though there is no reliable national data on the incidence of child marriage in Yemen, sample surveys suggest one in two brides are 18 or under. [16] Yemen’s legal minimum marriage age of 15 was
revoked a decade ago to allow parents to decide when their daughters should marry.
Child marriage in Yemen is prompted by the high cultural value ascribed to shaping a young bride to fit the traditions and habits of the groom’s family. It is also fueled by poverty as some parents sell
their daughters for a dowry. [17]
Some advocates of child marriage defend the practice on religious grounds – in line with an interpretation of the Koran claiming there is no prescribed age for marriage. [18] However, Islam does
prescribe that a bride or groom must be mature physically (have gone through puberty) and emotionally.[citation needed]
Civil society activists are lobbying the Yemeni legislature to re-instate a legal minimum age for marriage. The move follows extensive media exposure surrounding the cases of three young girls:
Arwa, 9; Nujood, 10; and Reem, 12 – who escaped from abusive marriages. [19]
[edit] Saudi Arabia
The widespread prevalence of Child Marriage in the Islamic monarchy of Saudi Arabia has been documented by Human rights groups [1][2]. Saudi clerics have justified the marriage of girls as young
as 9, with sanction from the judiciary[3].There are no laws defining the minimum age for marriage in Saudi Arabia, and girls as young as eight years of age can marry[4].
[edit] Contemporary practice
On October 30, 2008, police in Pakistan raided a child marriage and arrested two men on suspicion of organising the wedding of their two children to end their families' feud. In addition a marriage
registrar in the Nazimabad area near Karachi claimed that a four-year-old girl and a seven-year-old boy were being wedded unlawfully.[14]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_marriage

Child Marriage (Bal Vivaaha)

Author : Sudheer Birodkar Child-marriage is another 'blessing' of the medieaval age and it was born from the same compulsions that ; perpetuated Sati.
Child-marriage was not prevalent in ancient India. The most popular form of marriage was Swayamvara where grooms assembled at the bride' s house and the bride selected her spouse. Svayam-
vara can be translated as self selection of one' s husband, Svayam = self, Vara = husband. Instances of Swayamvara ceremony are found in our national epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Various types of marraiges were prevalant in ancient India Gandharva Vivaha (love marriage), Asura Viviha (marriage by abduction) etc., But among these Bal-Viviha is conspicuous in its absence.
There are many reasons to believe that this custom originated in the medieval ages. As mentioned earlier in the turbulent atmosphere of the medieavel ages, law and order was not yet a universal
phenomenon and arbitrary powers were concentrated in the hands of a hierarchy led by a despotic monarch. In India the Sultans of Delhi who held the place of the despotic monarch, came from a
different type of culture. They were orthodox in their beliefs with a fanatical commitment to their religion and a ruthless method in its propagation. Intolerant as they were to all forms of worship other
than their own, they also exercised contempt for members of other faiths. (See note at the end of this chapter).
Women as it is are at the receiving and during any war, arson, plunder, etc. During the reign of the Delhi Sultans these were the order of the day and the worst sufferers were Hindu women. During
these dark days were spawned customs like child-marriage and selection of women from the rest of the society, wearing of the Ghungat (veil). This age also perpetuated customs like Sati and
looking upon the birth of a female baby as an ill omen, even killing newly born baby girls by drowning them in a tub of milk. Amidst the feeling of insecurity, the presence of young unmarried girls was
a potential invitation for disaster.
The predatory Sarasenic feudal lords and princelings of Sarasenic origins who stalked all over India in the middle ages were a source of constant threat . Hence parents would seek to get over with
the responsibilities of their daughters by getting them married off before they reached the marriage age. The custom of child marriages with the 'bride' and 'groom' still in their cradles was a
culmination of this tendency. This way the danger to a growing girl's virginity was somewhat reduced.
Alongwith this principal reason, there were a few other reasons arising from the nature of the feudal society which were conducive for the prevalence of this practice. In a feudal society, qualities like
rivalry, personal honour, hereditary friendship or enmity are rated very highly. Because of this, military alliances play a very important role in preserving or destroying the balance of power between
the various kingdoms and fiefdoms. To ensure that the military alliances entered into were observed by both parties, practices like exchanging Juvenile members of the respective families who were
educated and brought up at each other's palaces were followed.
They were a sort of captives who were held to ensure that the military alliances between the two kingdoms or clans were honoured. But a more lasting bond that could back up military alliances
were-matrimonial alliances between members of the two famlies . But such matrimonial alliances could be worked out smoothly only if the bride and groom were ready to accept each others Young
men and women of marriageable age are bound to be choosy. This difficulty could be avoided when the marriage was between two children or babies where there was no question of their having
any sense of choice as to who their partners in life should be.
The caste hierarchy also perhaps had its role to play in perpetuating such a system. Caste which is based on birth and heredity does not allow marriages between members of different castes . But
as youngsters whose emotions and passions could be ruled by other considerations might violate this injunction. Out of the necessity to preserve itself, the hereditary caste system could have
helped in nourishing the practice of child-marriage.
Among other subsidiary considerations which could have helped to preserve this custom might be the belief that adults (or adolescent) boys and girls would indulge in loose moral practices. This
consideration would have - been more relevant in the context of the puritanical and orthodox environment of the bygone ages. The practice could also have been perpetuated, especially among- the
economically weaker sections, by the consideration of keeping marriage expenses to a minimum. A child-marriage need not have been as grand an affair as adult marriages.
http://www.vivaaha.org/child.htm

The challenge
Marriage before the age of 18 is a reality for many young women. According to UNICEF's estimates, over 60 million women aged 20-24 were married or in union before the age of 18.

Factors that influence child marriage rates include: The state of the country's civil registration system, which provides proof of age for children; the existence of an adequate legislative framework
with an accompanying enforcement mechanism to address cases of child marriage; and the existence of customary or religious laws that condone the practice2.

A violation of human rights

In many parts of the world parents encourage the marriage of their daughters while they are still children in hopes that the marriage will benefit the children both financially and socially and relieve
financial burdens on the family. In actuality, child marriage is a violation of human rights, compromising the girls’ development and often resulting in early pregnancy and social isolation, with little
education and poor vocational training reinforcing the gendered nature of poverty. The right to 'free and full' consent to a marriage is recognized in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights - with
the recognition that consent cannot be 'free and full' when one of the parties involved is not sufficiently mature to make an informed decision about a life partner.

The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women mentions the right to protection from child marriage in article 16, which states: "The betrothal and the marriage of a
child shall have no legal effect, and all necessary action, including legislation, shall be taken to specify a minimum age for marriage...". While marriage is not considered directly in the Convention on
the Rights of the Child, child marriage is linked to other rights - such as the right to express their views freely, the right to protection from all forms of abuse, and the right to be protected from harmful
traditional practices - and is frequently addressed by the Committee on the Rights of the Child. Other international agreements related to child marriage are the Convention on Consent to Marriage,
Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages and the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child and the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People's Rights on the
Rights of Women in Africa.

Child marriage was also identified by the Pan-African Forum against the Sexual Exploitation of Children as a type of commercial sexual exploitation of children3. Young married girls are a unique,
though often invisible, group. Required to perform large amounts of domestic work, under pressure to demonstrate fertility, and responsible for raising children while still children themselves, married
girls and child mothers face constrained decision-making and reduced life choices. Boys are also affected by child marriage but the issue impacts girls in far larger numbers and with more intensity.

Cohabitation -- when a couple lives together as if married -- raises the same human rights concerns as marriage. Where a girl lives with a man and takes on the role of caregiver for him, the
assumption is often that she has become an adult woman, even if she has not yet reached the age of 18. Additional concerns due to the informality of the relationship -- for example, inheritance,
citizenship and social recognition -- might make girls in informal unions vulnerable in different ways than those in formally recognized marriages.

Risk factors for child marriage

MORE THAN 60 MILLION CHILD BRIDES
Number of women aged 20–24 who were married or in union before age 18, by region (2006)

The literature suggests that many factors interact to place a child at risk of marriage. Poverty, protection of girls, family honour and the
provision of stability during unstable social periods are considered as significant factors in determining a girl's risk of becoming married
while still a child. Jenson and Thornton found little overall change in the average age at marriage for age cohorts born between 1950 and
1970 in most regions, as well as little change in the incidence of child marriage. Focusing primarily on Benin, Colombia, India and Turkey,
Jenson and Thornton noted strong correlations between a woman's age at marriage and the level of education she achieves, the age at
which she gives birth to her first child and the age of her husband. Women who married at younger ages were more likely to believe that
it is sometimes acceptable for a husband to beat his wife and were more likely to experience domestic violence themselves. The age gap
between partners is thought to contribute to these abusive power dynamics and to increase the risk of untimely widowhood, although
Westoff notes that older husbands may be better providers for the household.

Closely related to the issue of child marriage is the age at which girls become sexually active. Women who are married before the age of
18 tend to have more children than those who marry later in life. According to Bhattacharya, 97 per cent of women surveyed in India in
1992-1993 did not use any contraception before their first child was born. However, the Population Council and UNICEF found that, in
Pakistan, a substantial number of young married women indicated an interest in the use of contraception in the future. Pregnancy related
deaths are known to be a leading cause of mortality for both married and unmarried girls between the ages of 15 and 19, particularly
among the youngest of this cohort.

CHILD MARRIAGE IS MORE LIKELY IN POOR HOUSEHOLDS THAN IN RICH HOUSEHOLDS

Percentage of women aged 20–24 who were married or in union before age 18, by wealth index quintile (1987–2006)

Protection from HIV/AIDS is another reason for child marriage. Parents seek to marry off their girls to protect their health and their
honour, and men often seek younger women as wives as a means to avoid infection. In some contexts, however, the evidence does not
support this hypothesis and practice. Bhattacharya found that in India, 75 per cent of people living with HIV/AIDS are married10. In fact,
the demand to reproduce and the stigma associated with safe-sex practices lead to very low condom use among married couples worldwide, and heterosexual married women who report
monogamous sexual relationships with their husbands are increasingly becoming a high-risk group for HIV/AIDS.

Strategies to end the practice of child marriage

 Evidence shows that the more education a girl receives, the less likely she is to marry as a child. Improving access to education for both girls and boys and eliminating gender gaps in education
are important strategies in ending the practice of child marriage. Legislative, programmatic and advocacy efforts to make education free and compulsory, as well as to expand Education for All
programming beyond the primary level, are indicated by the strong significance of educational attainment in terms of reducing the number of girls who are married. Increasing the level of compulsory
education may be one tactic to prolong the period of time when a girl is unavailable for marriage.

 It is also important to capitalize on the window of opportunity created by the increasing gap in time between the onset of puberty and the time of marriage by providing substantive skills
enhancing programmes and opportunities. There is a need to develop methods to protect girls at risk of child marriage and to address the concerns of girls and women who are already married by
ensuring the fulfillment of their right to a full education and providing them with life skills-based training to ensure that they can earn a livelihood.

 Efforts are also required to protect girls who are in union. Decreasing the pressure on young women to conceive through education and advocacy on the dangers of early motherhood should be
considered. Similar consideration should be given to ways to improve access to effective contraceptive methods.

 Services for survivors of domestic violence should be accessible. Outreach efforts should consider targeting women who were married before age 18 as potentially in need of assistance.
Mapping child marriage levels within countries may be a useful practice for programmatic purposes when determining where to launch new prevention campaigns. It can also be used to track future
progress by comparing child marriage levels at different points in time.

 Further data collection and research is also required to explore the impact of child marriage on boys and men. The demand-and-supply relationship of child marriage should be qualitatively
explored to illuminate dynamics, such as the reasons why households marry their children and why men prefer younger brides, in order to inform programming strategies.

http://www.childinfo.org/marriage.html

Child Brides
The Problem of Early, Forced Marriage
By Sheri & Bob Stritof, About.com
Throughout the world, the problem of early, forced marriages of children is considered to be a violation of basic human rights. It has been estimated that 49 countries have a significant child bride
problem.
Here is an overview of the problem of child brides and solutions to the issue of early marriages.
Saying No to Child Marriage
Breaking out of the tradition to marry young is difficult. These girls do not often receive support from their families to say no to marriage.
Additionally, cultural, economic, and religious aspects of the communities when they live make it nearly impossible for the girls to break free from marrying early.
The Problem of Child Brides and Forced Marriages
• Egypt, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Pakistan, India, and the Middle East: In the rural villages of these countries many young girls are rarely allowed out of their homes
unless it is to work in the fields or to get married.
These uneducated girls are often married off at the young age of 11. Some families allow girls who are only 7 years old to marry. It is very unusual for a girl to reach the age of 16 and not be married.
 In Afghanistan , it is believed that between 60 and 80 percent of marriages are forced marriages.
 Even though the legal age to get married in Egypt is 16, and in India and Ethiopia, the age is 18, these laws are quite often ignored.
• England and the United States: The issue of child brides has also reached other countries such as England and the United States where secret illegal weddings are being performed.
The Center for Law and Social Policy (CLASP) found in a study, Is Teen Marriage a Solution? that marriages by teens in the United States jumped tremendously in the 1990s.
The awareness of early forced marriage and sexual abuse of young girls in the United States was increased by the April 2008 rescue of numerous children living on a ranch owned by a polygamist
sect in Texas.
United Nations Report on the Violation of Basic Human Rights of Child Brides
According to "Factsheet: Early Marriage" (page 4), a report issued by the United Nations, these early marriage unions violate the basic human rights of these girls by putting them into a life of
isolation, service, lack of education, health problems, and abuse.
The UNICEF paper states: "UNICEF believes that, because marriage under the age of 18 may threaten a child's human rights (including the right to education, leisure, good health, freedom of
expression, and freedom from discrimination), the best way to ensure the protection of children's rights is to set a minimum age limit of 18 for marriage.
UNICEF is opposed to forced marriages at any age, where the notion of consent is non-existent and the views of bride or groom are ignored, particularly when those involved are under age."
http://marriage.about.com/od/arrangedmarriages/a/childbride.htm
Teenage Marriage: Weigh it carefully!
The rapid increase in the number of early marriages over the past several years coupled with the extremely high rate of divorce within this same group makes this subject extremely important.
If you are a teenager and are seriously considering an early marriage, these are a number of potential problem areas of which you should be aware, so that, if you do decide that this is the best
course of action, you will be alert to the possible difficulties which could lie ahead.
First, the problem of adequate financial support is obvious. Although money does not buy happiness, it is true that a tight financial situation can create tensions which can undermine an otherwise
happy relationship. While some financial problems are to be expected in almost any new marriage, it is important to take time to think sensibly, so that such problems will not destroy what could
otherwise be a beautiful relationship, if not undertaken prematurely.
This is not to suggest that you wait about marriage until every possible financial problem has been completely solved, but rather simply suggests that you do not close your eyes to the real situation
whatever it may be.
Talk with other young couples who have been married for several months to get a more realistic idea of the financial problems you are likely to face. It is unfortunate, but true, that what sounds like a
lot of money to you now, may seem to be very little when monthly bills must be met.
It is also a good idea to realize that if parents or in-laws are depended upon too heavily for financial support that this can provide the basis for other later family conflicts as well. Regardless of the
good intentions involved, it is almost always true that the person who controls the money ultimately rules the situation.
Although some newly married couples find it necessary to temporarily make their home with their parents, this is generally not a wise choice unless absolutely necessary and then only for as short a
period of time as possible. (Genesis 2:24). The old proverb which states that "no house is large enough for two women" can also apply to other members of the family as well. Not only does this type
of arrangement tend to produce family conflicts, but the lack of privacy also tends to make early sexual adjustments much more difficult, thereby producing an atmosphere which can lead to far more
serious problems in later years.
A second problem which must be faced by those who enter into an early marriage is the problem of personal maturity. While immature and irresponsible actions may sometimes seem funny before
marriage, they can become serious pitfalls within the marriage bond. This is one reason why a courtship of at least several months should precede any marriage, since even the most irresponsible
and self-centered person can put on a good front for a few weeks or months.
Two keys to the real personality of a young man are, first, the kind of things it takes to make him angry, and second, the way he treats his mother. With only extremely rare exceptions a person who
mistreats his mother will after marriage soon also be finding equally plausible sounding excuses for mistreating his wife. Don't let anyone fool you, regardless of all the promises which may be made,
the habits of a lifetime are very hard to change. This same principle, of course, holds equally true for a young lady as well.
One of the surest signs of immaturity and irresponsibility in both young men and young women is a lack of willingness to do a reasonable share of work in a consistent, dependable way prior to
marriage. When such an indifferent attitude is demonstrated before marriage, you can be sure that it is only likely to become worse after marriage.
A third potential problem to be considered is the problem of growing apart. This simply means that while two young people in their middle teenage years have much in common, that in many cases,
our ideals and goals change as we pass the teenage years, to such an extent that we may easily find ourselves married for life to a person with whom we will ultimately have very little in common.
Perhaps the worst mistake of all is to marry simply to get away from an unpleasant situation at home. Even if you are presently facing home problems which seem almost unbearable, you will not
have to remain in such a situation forever. When you marry, however, it is for life. (Matthew 19:3-9). So don't let current personal problems drive you into a marriage which you may otherwise not
really want. Such a choice usually proves to be a very poor trade indeed, and one that often leads to a lifetime of regret.
The extremely high rate of divorce among those who marry early should act as a large caution sign to those contemplating an early marriage. Sometimes early marriages work out beautifully and if
you decide to marry at an early age, you may very well be among them. Those which have been successful, however, have almost always been those which have been entered into only after very
serious thought and consideration. If you are a Christian, you need to spend time in prayer and meditation before reaching a final decision. If you are not yet a Christian, a right relationship with God
would be a valuable asset to you in reaching such an important decision.
Early marriage, though possessing certain inherent dangers, is widely practiced in contemporary America.
By way of discussing the dangers of early marriage, may I point out that true love is the only basis upon which a successful marriage may be constructed. (Many happy marriages are made, they do
not just happen.) One problem here is a proper definition of love. "Love is a dynamic that seeks the highest good of its object, regardless of sacrifice or suffering." In Ephesians 5:25, Paul says:
"Husbands love your wives, even as Christ also loved the church and gave himself up for it." True love would therefore dictate that one not subject one's loved one to undue sacrifice and suffering
due to one's own lack of preparation and ability to provide adequately for them. While money is not the basis of a happy marriage, it can be allowed to become a prominent factor in the dissolution of
marriage.
After seriously considering the potential problems mentioned in Part I of this two part series on Early Marriage, if you still feel that an early marriage is your best choice, or if as a very young man or
woman, you find yourself already married, there are a few basic, simple, scriptural rules for marriage, which can help you in making your marriage happy and successful.
Marriage, by scriptural definition is: "The blending together of two lives, two personalities of the opposite sex for as long as the two shall live in this world. It is the building of a home that respects the
law of God and protects the morals of mankind."
Marriage is sanctioned by Jehovah God and is to be had in honor among all men as you may observe by reading Genesis 2:18-24. God said: "It is not good that man should be alone; I will make him
a help meet for him." (Verse 18) Adam then said: "This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh: She shall be called woman, because she was taken out of man" (Verse 23) Moses then
added: "Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and shall cleave unto his wife: and they shall be one flesh' (Verse 24). Marriage, in God's divine plan, is monogamy in form, (one
husband for one wife) (I Corinthians, Chapter 7, verse 2). It is procreative in design, (Genesis 1:28; 1 Timothy 5:14); patriarchal in government, (I Timothy 2:13; Ephesians 5:23); religious in spirit
(Deuteronomy 6:4-9); and is intended to be indissoluble in nature (I Corinthians 7:39 and Matthew 19:6).
Three distinct purposes are served in God's divine arrangement of marriage:
1. Companionship - God said: "It is not good that the man should be alone." (Genesis 2:18). If the wife forgets the design of her creation, the marriage will likely be unhappy. She is first,
last, and always a companion to her husband.
2. Procreation - God said: "Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth." (Genesis 1:28).
3. Sexual gratification - God teaches through the inspired apostle Paul: "Nevertheless, to avoid fornication, let every man have his own wife, and let every woman have her own husband.
Let the husband render unto the wife due benevolence; and likewise also the wife unto the husband. The wife hath not power of her own body, but the husband; and likewise also the husband hath
not power of his own body, but the wife. Defraud you not one the other, except it be with consent for a time, that you may give yourselves to fasting and prayer; and come together again, that Satan
tempt you because of your lack of self control." (I Corinthians 7:2-5).
If you will keep these simple rules in mind and remember that marriage is a serious business because God is its author, it is a life lasting contract and it involves the rearing of a future generation,
you can have a happy, successful marriage.

http://www.bible.ca/f-teen-marriage.htm

Teen Marriage
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
Teen marriage was not a big issue in the old times. Life expectancy was shorter then and most of our economy was depended on agriculture and farming. People were less educated and large
number of children was considered a boon as it meant more hands to work and greater prosperity. But times have changed now. Boys and girls both are opting for higher education and a good
financial position before they marry. They have become more conscious about their health, birth control and know more about sex and how to avoid unplanned pregnancy. Trying to achieve
ambitions before taking on the responsibility of marriage results in delay of marriage and child bearing.
Thus, support systems for these very young couples have diminished and even become non-existent and they have become an exception in the society. Teenage marriage has become a challenge
in the modern age. The first reason that comes to our minds about a teenage marriage is an unplanned pregnancy, and rightly so. Most of the adolescents who decide to have an early marriage do
so because they are faced with an unplanned pregnancy and they feel that they need to bear the responsibility of the child, even though they are not settled in their own lives. While abortions and
adoptions are an option, they think that they have done something wrong and it is their duty to bear the consequences too. It is a very wrong approach to marriage, to start with.
Most teens are still not educated or mature enough or have enough financial responsibilities to shoulder a family or parenthood. In such cases, adoption is an opportunity where the teens may place
their child in loving hands and give them a secure life while they can work to become more stable themselves. They may also consider open adoption, so that they can meet their child when they are
ready and see how the child is doing in his or her life. Some of the challenges that teenage couples may have to face include not having the privilege to sign for even the most basic of services such
as renting or car purchasing.
Though, in some countries they may attain the ‘adult’ status by marriage if not by age, in most places it is not so. The other challenges may include that married teenagers may not get admissions to
some public school systems easily and they can miss the educational opportunities. They may not be able to buy insurance for themselves, especially if they do not have parent’s financial support.
Many insurance policies do not allow married teens with separate households to be covered by their parents’ insurance, regardless of their ages.
There may be financial aid programs available for married teens at some places where they do not have to reveal parental sources of income and can attain educational assistance. Then, there are
normal problems associated with ‘growing up’ that can get much more complicated and difficult with family responsibilities to bear and the couple may miss the critical time for learning and
development. Thus, it is better to avoid teenage marriages and wait until the couple attains the status of ‘adult’ before starting a family life.

http://www.iloveindia.com/parenting/parenting-teenagers/teen-marriage.html

My Teenage Marriage

By Shoulika Jones

Summer of 1971. I was 17, a couple of weeks out of 10th grade, enjoying my first cigarette and looking forward to a lazy vacation. I had never faced a serious problem, never taken an important
decision, and never led to believe that I was anything but a typical teen-ager. I loved the Beatles, the Doors and Velvet Underground. Flower Power was groovy and the future … well, I didn't think
about the future.
Meeting Prince Charming
Then I met him. Nothing dramatic. A friend of my older sister's. He was visiting Montreal for the first time and came to visit her in our home.
He invited me for an ice-cream and we went to a park and I told him the story of my crush on the neighbor and he kissed me, oh so tenderly, and deeply, and softly and I fell in love for the first time in
my life.
He was 24, an only son from divorced parents. He had been travelling the world since he was 17. He was handsome, intelligent, full of stories, adventures, fantasies and dreams. He swept me off
my feet and I looked up to him with adoring eyes.
Telling my Parents
One night, I walked into my parent's bedroom, sat on the edge of the bed, and said to my father, sniffling a couple of tears, "You are not the only one who loves me. I am in love and I want to get
married." He said to me "First you finish high school. If he loves you, he'll wait for you." My mother was re-living her own love story with my father, whom she met when she was 15.
The Engagement
We had an intimate engagement party a couple of months later, on my 18th birthday. He was the son my parents never had. I was the first of my girlfriends to get engaged. The wedding was
planned for the summer.
I went to high school with my diamond engagement ring like a trophy around my finger. Sometimes I would skip classes and meet my lover in his bachelor apartment. We would plan our life together:
we would go around the world, settle in some island and live like the natives. I couldn't wait.
Before the Wedding
We rented an apartment (two streets away from my parents' house); bought all the furniture in one day - the store had the most romantic display of 'love nest' and I melted. The day I tried on my
wedding dress, handmade by my mother, I fainted. Love does that to you when you are 18. Everything is tainted by the promise of freedom through love. One thinks, or doesn't, which is the same at
that age, that marriage is the ultimate escape out of adolescence.
The Wedding
My last matriculation exams were on the 24th of June and I got married on the 27th. It was a big and beautiful wedding. From time to time I would sneak into the bathroom with a girlfriend to have a
cigarette. I didn't smoke in front of my parents.
Then we went back to our 'love nest'.
He carried me over the threshhold.
I was totally happy.
Married Life.
I didn't know how to cook. I didn't know how to clean. I didn't know how to iron. I had no idea how to keep a house. It didn't upset him. He would take his shirts to my mother (on her insistence and
my nonchalance) and she would iron them for him, lovingly, as she had done for my father for more than 30 years.
I went on to college, majoring in philosophy and feminist studies. He worked in sales, wrote poetry and played the saxophone. We made love passionately, but talked less about travelling the world.
Becoming Parents
Three years later, we had a baby girl. No more playing house. I was projected into the real world. I was a mother and I had to be responsible. For the first time in my life. Well, I didn't get onto a good
start with motherhood and had a post-partum depression. My 27-year-old husband's idea of being a responsible father was to work day and night. I had no one to talk to, if I had dared to talk.
Nine months later, I snapped out of my depression after being accepted to a first job interview.
Drifting Apart
I was shedding my teen-age skin, and my new one as a young adult woman already had scars. But I still lacked life experience. He started going away on week-end fishing trips. Even though my
mother would warn me to open my eyes to 'his whereabouts', they were open in another direction: Feminism. Social Consciousness. He was doing his thing. I was doing mine.
The Divorce
One year later we divorced. Strangers with familiar faces. We had nothing in common anymore, but an adorable toddler. Did we ever share the same dreams? I had wanted a life of adventure. He
had wanted a home and family. But when we divorced, he moved on to his adventures; I was now a single mother - settled down, but not quite settled in.
If I Knew Then What I Know Now
Today, sixteen years into my second marriage, I know the power and the pull of home and family. It always wins. Even if it fails. Love is the ultimate bond between two people, but love is not a gift to
put on the mantelpiece after the wedding night. Love is created daily in acts of kindness towards your partner.
As a teen-age couple, it is a challenge to finish adolescence together, and to enter into the adult world as two committed human beings -- each responsible for his part of the relationship. The real
question then becomes: Will you grow up together? Or will you grow apart?

http://www.wholefamily.com/aboutteensnow/relationships_peers/crushes_and_dating/teen_marriage3.html

Teen Marriage
In Ancient Rome, people didn't marry because they were in love. Folks married to carry on the family bloodline and for economical or political reasons. Women were under the jurisdiction of their
fathers, so young girls were often married off when they were between the ages of twelve and fourteen. Some young men married at the age of fourteen also.
During the Middle Ages, the practice of youthful marriages continued and women married as early as fourteen. Men generally waited until they were more established in life which was usually when
they were in their twenties or early thirties. In 1371, due to the plague, the average age at marriage for men was 24, and for women it was 16. By 1427, the average male of all classes did not wed til
he was in his mid-30's, usually choosing a bride about half his age. Rich girls seemed to marry at a younger age than poor girls.
It is obvious from a historical perspective that marriages of teenagers (at least teenage girls) were quite common. However, that trend has changed in most countries of the world. Today, young love
is neither encouraged or readily accepted by society.
Why are so many people against young married love? Because it is believed that more than 1/2 who marry in their teens will be divorced within 15 years. That is a pretty sobering statistic.
Additionally, according to the Center for Law and Social Policy, "Compared to girls who marry later, teenage brides have less schooling, less independence,and less experience of life and work."
Teen brides are also at more risk for being abused and living at poverty levels.
There is another side to the story of teen marriage, though. That is the number of success stories that married teens share. For the record, Sheri was 19 when we married. Not all teen marriages end
up as a another divorce statistic.
http://marriage.about.com/cs/teenmarriage/a/teenmarriage.htm

Things Teens Should Consider Before Tying the Knot

Teen Marriage
By Sheri & Bob Stritof, About.com
Ask yourselves why you want to get married. If your reasons include wanting to get away from your parents, pregnancy, or fear of losing one another, don't get married. All of these reasons are red
flags in your relationship and are not valid reasons for getting married. Marriage should be a "want to" and not a "have to".
Being on your own does free you from parental control, but this change in lifestyle brings along a whole new set of responsibilities in your lives. You will have to deal with financial issues, where to
live, jobs, grocery shopping, cooking, cleaning, decision making, in-laws, continuing your education, and if pregnant, child care along with learning how to communicate with your spouse.
If you've checked out the marriage license laws in your locale, have the permission of your parents to marry, and have decided that you don't want to wait any longer before getting married, there's
still a couple things you should do before tying the knot.
 Attend a pre-marital education class or an Engaged Encounter weekend.
 Work out together a realistic budget.
 Volunteer together to work with young kids at a homeless shelter for a few months. Or volunteer your time at a soup kitchen facility.
http://marriage.about.com/cs/teenmarriage/a/teenmarriage_2.htm

Relationships and Marriage - Teenage Marriage:

Length: 356 words (1.3 pages)

Rating: Red (FREE)
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Teenage Marriage: What's the Rush?

Young people today have a tendency to rush in to commitments before fully understanding what they are getting into. One of the most serious of these is marriage. This commitment is taken lightly
by many teenagers.

The factors causing teenage marriage are as varied as the effects. Sometimes marriage is looked at as an escape from difficult situations at home or with parents. Parents may even encourage their
children to get married before they are ready to assist their own financial situations. Other teenagers get involved in serious relationships from a very young age. This could lead to pregnancy or
even the idea that they must move on to the next step before they are really ready.

There are several serious effects and problems associated with rushing into marriage. Anyone considering getting married should be aware of some devastating statistics and possibilities. In Eleanor
H. Ayer's book, Teen Marriage, she noted that: "A girl married at 17 is twice as likely to be divorced as a girl 18 or 19. If a girl waits until she is 25 the chances that her marriage will last are 4 times
better" (Ayer). More than one half of those who marry in their teens will be divorced within five years (Teenage Marriage...).

This large percentage is due in part to the lack of realization of the many sacrifices that must be made in order to have a successful marriage. Another factor that affects this statistic is the
widespread acceptance by society of divorce. If people would enter into the commitment of marriage without thinking of divorce as an option, relationship problems would be looked at more seriously
and solved before marriage. Many married people must also sacrifice their own independence and their education.

There is really no good reason to rush into marriage. If two people are really in love and meant to be together, time will only better their relationship. A happy, successful marriage is worth the wait.

Works Cited

Ayer, Eleanor H. Teen Marriage. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 1990.

Teenage Marriage: Weigh it carefully! Interactive Bible Home page. 8 Feb. 2001
http://www.azete.com/view/9740

Problems Attributed to Child Marriage

Health and Education Issues
By Sheri & Bob Stritof, About.com
Poor health, early death, and lack of educational opportunities lead the list of problems attributed to child marriage.
• Child brides have a double pregnancy death rate of women in their 20s.
• In developing countries, the leading cause of death for young girls between the ages of 15 and 19 is early pregnancy.
• Additionally, from having babies too young, child brides are at an extremely high risk for fistulas (vaginal and anal ruptures).
• The babies of child brides are sicker and weaker and many do not survive childhood.
• Child brides have a higher risk of being infected with sexually transmitted diseases.
• These young girls are at an increased risk of chronic anemia and obesity.
• Child brides have poor access to contraception.
• These young girls have a lack of educational opportunities.
• Being forced into an early marriage creates a lifetime of poverty.
• Statistically, child brides have a higher risk of becoming a victim of domestic violence, sexual abuse, and murder.
http://marriage.about.com/od/arrangedmarriages/a/childbride_2.htm
Teen marriage
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Teen marriage is typically defined as the union of two adolescents joined in marriage from the age range of 13-19 years old. Up until the late 20th century, teen marriage was very common and
instrumental in helping secure a family, continuing a blood lineage and producing offspring for labor[1]. Many factors attribute to teen marriage such as teen pregnancy, religion, security, pregnancy,
family and peer pressure, arranged marriage, economic and political reasons, social advancement, and cultural reasons. Whatever the reason, teen marriage is often arduous due to the
inexperience of life and rationality that help govern a marriage. Studies have shown that teenage married couples are less advantageous, come from broken homes, have little education and work
low status jobs in comparison to those that marry after adolescence[2]. Although a majority of teen marriages suffer from complications and often lead to divorce, there is a small group of teen
marriages that are successful. For example, In India where teenagers are forced to marry by arrangement, more than 90% of marriages will be successful. In the United States , half of teen
marriages will dissolve within fifteen years of the marriage[3]. As we enter a new century, the rate of teen marriage is decreasing due the many opportunities that are available now that previously
were not available before. As of the present (2008), teen marriage is not encouraged and has still not received great acceptance in much of the world[4]. Teen marriage is most prevalent in culturally-
geographic isolated parts of the world and it is decreasing where education is the focus of the population.
Background
The particulars and legalities of Teenage Marriage vary from one area or era to the next. Marriage has often been used as a tool to create allegiances or agreements, rather than a link between two
people in love. Almost every country has a legal minimum age for marriage, which ranges from as low as 12 in some Latin American countries to as high as 22 in China. Commonly the age
requirement is 16 for women and 18 for men. Despite laws concerning the age of marriage, tradition usually takes precedence and marriage continues to occur at very young ages. In many African
and Asian countries as much as two-thirds of teenage woman are or have been married[5]. In many nations, marrying off a young daughter means one less mouth to feed and no fear of illegitimate
children, a dishonor to the family. But these youthful brides typically suffer profound physical and psychological damage, according to a UNICEF report[6]. While historically marriages in western
culture have had a late age of marriage and an emphasis on the nuclear family[7]. In comparison, the percentage of women ages 15-19 who are married in the United States is 3.9% while in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo the percentage is 74%[8]. In the U.S. teenage marriages declined significantly after the mid-20th century, but experienced resurgence in the 1990s, according to
the U.S. Census Bureau. Census data from 2000 show that 4.5% of 15- to 19-year-olds were married, up from 3.4% in 1990. While that was an increase of almost 50%, it was still far below the 9.5%
recorded in 1950[9].
[edit] Religious aspect
Most people think that religion is a factor for these young people to get married, but due to many research, it did not seems to be correct. In the history, religion give message that people should get
married in a young age, but today more people getting educated and they concern many things before the couple get marriage. Religion maybe a conflict in the marriage depending on what people
think the positive way or negative way, but it also show a factor for young people getting marriage in our early history.
In the article, “Religious Heritage and Teenage Marriage,” it shows how religious gave message to the first generation. Authors show that many religious such as Pentecostal, Jehovah’s Witness,
other Institutionalized Sect members, and a Fundamentalist give message that lead parents and teens to view early marriage as the only acceptable means of culminating romantic relationships, and
it also become the tradition to the first generation[10]. Religion tends to give people to consider less and get married in a young age, which give religion as a factor for teen marriage.
Today, religious turn themselves to against the teen marriage because people get more educated and know that the message give to first generation is wrong. According to a research, “Studies:
Abstinence Message, Religion Shape Teen Behavior,” it shows today that religiosity may influence young people’s attitudes and values, and keep them away from things that they should not do
before they are adults, like sex and marriage. The research also shows that religion give positive impact on teen marriage and shows the pregnancy rate drop since 1991[11]. People today who took
religions serious may help them reduce the chance to get married in young ages. They may think about how they make money to feed the child. How they make a right choices to improve marriage
relationship. People will consider many things before he or she getting married. Religions today only give the messages that show no sex and marriage before certain ages.
Religion is a factor for young people to get married, but it is less impact than others factor such as cultural, family, and education. The more important thing is that today religion gives more and more
positive impact to reduce teen marriage.
[edit] Reasons
Living a teenager’s live can also feel lonely. Adolescents who encounter struggles in their lives tend to seek methods of relief. To be in love brings ultimate bliss to adolescents. Teenage love tends
to lead to cheating and heartbreaks. They soon start to feel that marriage is the answer to all their problems. To avoid suffering the result is marriage. Staying in love usually becomes their number
one priority and goes out of their way to help the relationship. The need for affection and love is satisfying. Love sweeps everyone off their feet in particular teenagers, who long to be in love and be
loved.
While adolescents are in love, they wan to live together but to their authority is not proper. Many parents will not agree on the idea of living together without being married. The causes of teen
marriage go beyond love. Adolescents find marriage to be the solution to a pregnancy and this is the reason that a majority of teenagers are likely to get married. Coming from strong religious
background the right thing to do is get married. Therefore the marriage can provide a safe environment for the unborn child to live in. The adolescent year is a phase the body requires special needs.
With out proper knowledge and education mistakes can be made. Each year almost one million teenage girls--more than one out of every 10 females aged 15 to 19--become pregnant in the U.S
Teen Pregnancy." As a result, marriage comes into the picture. Teen marriage is highly linked to teen pregnancy. Marriage might be the proper solution for a situation like this. In cases where we
have a man who is standing by the teen-age mother, wanting to do the right thing, ready for a family, willing to support it and where the girl's parents, if they are around, also favor marriage
[edit] Cultural and legal aspect
The trend of teen marriage is rising with every state increasing their laws to certain ages; more and more teenagers are not getting married. Our culture is obsessed with happy endings and believes
that getting married can fix anything. Just look at "reality" shows like The Bachelor and Joe Millionaire and movies like Maid in Manhattan and Just Married. Their message is that getting married
turn’s life into a fairy tale which is dangerous because fairy tales have nothing to do with reality. The fact is that most teen relationships, even the strongest ones usually end. In fact, people have all
different kinds of ways of making a lifetime commitment to each other. In many states' teen marriage laws are making it harder for teens to marry. There are recent studies that indicate that teen
marriage is simply not a good idea. Marriage license laws in the United States are reflecting that belief. In the United States, all but one state requires that a couple be 18 in order to marry without
parental permission. Nebraska sets the age of majority at 19, although a few states will waive this requirement if there is a pregnancy, teenage couples may still have to have court approval. (Ojeda).
A few states allow pregnant teens or teens who have already had a child to get married without parental consent but these couples must have permission from a court. Even with parental approval,
many states require court approval when a person is 16 years old or less. In the Siriono culture of South America, a girl may marry before she reaches puberty. The Murnigin girl of Australia is likely
to become a wife when her breasts first begin to develop and a boy might marry for the first time when his beard begins to appear. A Lepcha girl in Tibet is sometimes married at eight years of age,
while boys are often married when they are 12 years old. Boys marry at 15 years of age or less in 10 percent of 58 societies. Another 42 percent marry between 16 and 19 years of age. Thirty-eight
percent are married in their twenties, and 10 percent marry when they are 30 years of age. (Ayer) But why are people pushing their children to marry at a young age across the cultures? Scientists
and psychologists made a discovery in 1963 that in traditional societies, boys and girls have usually begun to do serious work well before they reach puberty. Girls are often doing womanly work at a
certain age: cooking, weaving, gardening, taking care of their siblings when they are the earliest age of six to the age of nine even earlier at three or four. Boys on the other hand, learn how to farm,
herd, and hunt before they reach manhood. Mothers and Fathers attempt their children to choose their potential loved ones, but about 70% of their decisions are their parents. Parents who fail to
marry a child at the proper age are thought to be neglecting their responsibilities, with their reputations suffered. Across cultures, females tend to be married earlier than males. Boys are married
later than girls in 85 percent of 45 cultures. In the remaining 15 percent, both sexes marry at a roughly the same age. The differential in age of marriage for males and females is from one to five
years in 78 percent of 37 societies and between six and ten years in another 16 percent.
[edit] State Listing of Teen Marriage License Laws: [12]
Alabama
• Under 18 applicants need certified copy of birth certificate, both parents must be present with identification, or if you have a legal guardian they must be present with a court order and
identification. If one or both parents are deceased, proper evidence of such must be provided.
Alaska
• Under 18 applicants need certified copy of birth certificate, both parents must be present with identification, or if you have a legal guardian they must be present with a court order and
identification.
Arizona
• If applicant is under the age of 18, either a notarized parental consent form is needed, or the parents must accompany the applicant, present the proper identification, and sign the
parental consent form in front of the clerk issuing the license.
• If applicant is age 16 – 17 identification and one of the following documents showing proof of age is needed:
○ certified copy of birth certificate
○ current driver's license
○ state or military I.D. card
○ or current passport
• If applicant is age 15 or under, a court order is also necessary.
Arkansas
• Under 18 requires consent of both sets of parents.
California
• If either the bride or groom is under 18, at least one of the minor's parents, or legal guardian, must appear with the couple. Certified copies of birth certificates are required. The couple
must also schedule an appointment with a counselor and then appear before a superior court judge.
Colorado
• If applicant is 16 or 17, consent of both parents (or parent having legal custody), or guardian, or judicial approval is necessary.
• If applicant is under 16, a Judicial Court Order along with parental consent is necessary.
Connecticut
• If applicant is under the age of 18 written consent of the parent or guardian is required and under the age of 16 the Judge of probate must endorse with written consent on the license.
[edit] Results and Consequences
[edit] Consequences:
When a divorce occurs in a family, many adolescents feel they are at fault. The teenager try to mend this feeling of guilt and loneliness by jumping into early age matrimony themselves, searching for
the father, mother figure in their partner. Trying to feel the comfort and security they once had in their home and now lack off because of their parent’s divorce. Many teenagers are force into
adulthood in their teenage years. Forcing them to leave their childhood behind and taking the responsibility of their lives, making them grow up faster than they should. Children of divorced parents
often vow not to repeat the same mistakes their parents did. They want to avoid putting themselves and their own children through the pain and stress that come from divorce. But, according to
University of Utah researcher Nicholas H. Wolfinger, these children’s aspirations face unfavorable odds. According to the book of Eleanor H. Ayer other situations that leads teenagers to an early
marriage is often when the young couple has been practicing unprotected sex and the consequence is a pregnancy[13]. Other factors that also lead to marriage are love, lust, fear of losing their
partner, abuse, extreme parental control, sexual harassment and step-family difficulties. But, in Ancient Rome, people did not marry because they were in love. They married to carry on the family
bloodline and for economical or political reasons. In 1371, the average age to marriage for men was 24, and for women it was between 13 and 16.
[edit] Results:
Although, this fast and sometime unnecessary action can lead the young couple to an unhappy marriage, and eventually leading them into a divorce. The fact is that one out of every three teen
marriage will end up in a divorce by the age of 25. Additionally according to the Bob and Sheri Stitof, "marriages and divorce rates have increased by 68 percent since 1995. Also, one out of every
four teenagers, have parents that are divorced."[14] As in any serious decision making, the young couples should keep in mind that there are many choices and different points of view to consider fore
the decision they are about to make. Nevertheless, there are teenage couple that make a marriage last a life time. They must be mature enough to understand and be able to work through the
difficulties they will encounter in their marriage. Couples that work through issues end up with stronger marriages and a level of happiness beyond anything they could imagined. Teenagers should
take into consideration that the only wrong decision they will make, is the one that they make in a hurry and without all the facts clearly laid out.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teen_marriage
What are the pros and cons of early/teenage marriage?
Best Answer - Chosen by Asker
i bet this must be for your essay! ahahaha...

PROS:
-well when we are in our late teens, we are actually at our peaks to have a healthier child.
-secondly, you could be there for a longer period of your children's lives
-alright if you are not planning to have kids so quickly!
-culturally in may asian cultures (long ago), girls wed young once they have reached puberty. marrying early showed that the girl is "wanted" and the longer she stayed single the less chances she
has getting married

however much you come up with pros, cons then to stand out simply because its a TABOO to most societies and cultures ESPECIALLY if it occured out of wedlock. But most cons stem from
financial perspectives

-if you are not abt to inherit some huge fortune, is isnt advisable to start your own family (since children are getting more expensive)
-if you are DEAD SURE the one you are marrying is the one for life. dont always think divorce is an option. failing many time (be it marriage or anything else) can hurt your esteem
-marriage is not just you and your lover but also a marriage of your families so PLAN AHEAD
-marriage could actually hinder a lot of plans that you could have four yourself. If you think that you are ready to forgo some then it's your call..

cheers~hope it helped some way....

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the pros- if you had children young then you would be a young grandparent.
The cons- you are giving away your adolesecence, your life, everything that you need to develop into a healthy human being. you will miss having fun and learning who you really are.
never give up your young years you will never develope properly and your emotional stability will be in question be a kid as long as you can.
pros : you dont have to worry about your kid being a single bitter person

cons: your kid wont be happy if they dont make the right choice their only teens
I don't see any pros.

The cons are that unless you are real smart and real determined, your education and career advancement is over. Washing dishes or working in fast food, will be your highest life expectation.
The Major Con- Making a decision before you know enough about life to really know what you want.

If you notice, every couple of years they come out with a video gaming system that is 10 times better than the last one. Or they may redesign a particular car. And every time you anticipate buying
the new model, you think to yourself that this is the best that there will ever be and if you don't get it now you will miss out on it forever. And then a couple of years later, they come out with
something better than that.
I was 19 and my wife was 18 we were married in march of 1971 and are still together.
The pros
1 you have years to grow old together
2 you have your family when you are young and you are not a ancient old fart when they leave home.
3 at 45 my youngest left home woo hoo now hopefully we will have the next 30 or so years to do what we want. kick back and relax so to speak.
4 by having a family at a young age we were able to keep up and really enjoy them

Cons
You do not have a real career plan
your finances are weak at best

Big deal if you base you marriage or family on material wealth I promise you will not have much of a family life any way. because most all your fights will be over money. In doing so you will have a
miserable marriage no matter if you are young or old when married

See what I mean read the answers above most are money based . that is the false hood of the american dream cash makes life better.
No education wife must work a dish washer is the best you can do CRAP !!!
The day I left home at 17 I borrowed $60 from my Mom and a friend .with that I bought a used lawnmower and a weed eater.I walked down the street with 11 dollars in my pocket my clothes on my
back with no place to call home or place to crash. I started knocking doors looking for work by the end of the first day I had $91 dollars in my pocket enough in 1969 for a cheap motel room for 3
days and eats. by the end of the first week I had $420 in my pocket and a paid motel for another full week.By the time I got married I was averaging 4000 A month .
Today I still mow grass have a crew of 60 laborers and have a personal income of over 500,000 a year. AND my wife has never had to hold down a second job . A young couple can make it.
IT depends how much effort they put into thier marriage.
pros:none come to mind or worth mentioning

cons:
divorce and the wedding are going to be expensive
possible emotional trauma
somewhat frowned upon
chances are slim that you will be happy for a long time
if you are going to have a child then there are problems because you both need to work to support the child and you also need education for a good job, possible weakness on mother because you
are not fully developed in the reproductive system
more cons
most teen relationships are abusive
as i said high chance of divorce
Because American families would not support the youngsters, they are left to fend for themselves. There is no social system in place to help a marriage among people under 20.

The good thing about it is that if they are faithful, they will not catch STDs or aids.
I can't think of any pros but cons are:
- marriage is difficult enough for adults and it would be far more difficult for teenagers
- the teenage years are difficult without adding the complexity of marriage
- teenagers feel they are mature and that they will never change, but ALL adults will tell you they were not mature when they were teenagers and they did change ... a lot, but one only realizes this
after growing older
- the one advantage of being a teenager is that one has more freedom than a child but less responsibilities than an adult, getting married would eliminate this advantage
Many years ago, it was expected that people would marry soon after graduation from high school, if they even waited that long. I suppose the thinking was along these lines:
--You grow to love each more and more with passing time.
--You build a life together by starting young, and working on your dreams a little each year, and having your children young. (Sort of building the nest egg, you might say.)
--Marriage was meant to make young people "grow up" and settle down, become responsible adults, and put away the fun and silliness of high school.
--Marriage vows meant something very serious. When you married, it was truly a commitment. Although there was divorce, there wasn't nearly as much as there is now.

Now, with all that being said, there are a lot of reasons that those ideas didn't work.

--Kids are still kids, no matter what was expected.

--Kids were having kids, and not knowing what to do with them
--Not having proper education meant not having good jobs and not enough money to have a good "nest egg."
--Just because you were expected to be committed for the rest of your life, didn't mean that you didn't desire something different, and didn't mean the stressors weren't there.
--Maturity comes with age, not with responsibility.

I think these things are even more true with our society now. With the stresses that are common in our society, with the economy the way it is, and the family unit being unstable, and with other
stresses that the past generations didn't know about, teenage marriages don't stand nearly the chance of success that they did a generation ago.

They were a bad idea back then, when everyone supported and expected them, but they are even worse now, when young people have so many more options for them.
Neither party involved has had a chance to experience the real world and find their place in it first. One needs to sow a few oats to be happy and discover themself. Then, and only then, will they
begin to have some understanding about what a true commitment can be and should be.