PART 1, SECTION 11

Organic Crop Production

Pest Management in Organic Systems ........................................ 135
Insects ................................................................................... 135
Weeds .................................................................................... 138
Diseases ................................................................................. 140
M. E. Barbercheck, professor of entomology, Department of Entomology
W. S. Curran, professor of weed science, Department of Plant Science
J. M. Dillon, senior extension associate, Department of Plant Science
TABLES
Table 1.11-1. Organic crop production foundation principles
and practices. ........................................................................ 136
Table 1.11-2. Effect of Matran II (34 percent clove oil) applica-
tion rate on annual weed control three and ten days after
application. ........................................................................... 140
Table 1.11-3. Herbicides listed by OMRI for use in organic
production. .......................................................................... 140
Part 1, Section 11 Organic Crop Production 135
O
rganic farming became one of
the fastest growing segments of
agriculture during the 1990s, and
the demand for a wide range of organic
products continues to grow. Some U.S.
producers are turning to organic farm-
ing systems as a potential way to lower
input costs, decrease reliance on synthetic
chemicals, capture high-value markets
and premium prices, and boost farm
income.
The Agricultural Marketing Service
(AMS) of the U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture (USDA) is the home to the National
Organic Program (NOP), which devel-
oped, implemented, and administers na-
tional production, handling, and labeling
standards for organic agricultural prod-
ucts. The USDA standard defnes organic
production as a production system that is
managed in accordance with the Organic
Foods Production Act and regulations in
this part to respond to site-specifc condi-
tions by integrating cultural, biological,
and mechanical practices that foster
cycling of resources, promote ecological
balance, and preserve biodiversity. The
national organic standards address the
methods, practices, and substances used
in producing and handling crops, live-
stock, and processed agricultural prod-
ucts. All agricultural products labeled or
represented as organic must be in compli-
ance with the regulations as of October
2002. Organic crops can be produced
on land that has had no prohibited sub-
stances applied to it for at least 3 years.
The regulations require that organic
producers and handlers be certifed by a
state or private agency accredited under
the uniform standards developed by the
USDA, unless the farmers and handlers
sell less than $5,000 per year in organic
agricultural products. For further infor-
mation, visit the USDAs Agricultural Mar-
keting Service/National Organic Program
website at www.ams.usda.gov/nop or call
1-202-720-3252. This site includes a list of
accredited certifying agents, consumer
information, state information, and NOP
regulations and policies, information for
producers, handlers, and processors.
Organic farming systems rely on ecolog-
ically based practices, such as cultural and
biological pest management, and virtually
exclude the use of synthetic chemicals
in crop production and prohibit the use
of antibiotics and hormones in livestock
production. Genetically modifed crops
are not allowed. Under organic farming
systems, the fundamental components
and natural processes of ecosystems, such
as soil organism activities, nutrient cycling,
and species distribution and competition,
are used directly and indirectly as farm
management tools. For example, crops
are rotated, planting and harvesting dates
are carefully planned, and habitats that
supply resources for benefcial organ-
isms are provided. Soil fertility and crop
nutrients are managed through tillage
and cultivation practices, crop rotations,
cover crops, and supplemented with ma-
nure, composts, crop waste material, and
allowed substances. Sewage sludge is not
allowed. Lists of allowed substances are
available from accredited certifers; prod-
ucts are reviewed by the Organic Materi-
als Review Institute (OMRI), omri.org,
phone: 541-343-7600.
Several sources of information on
organic production are available. The
Alternative Farming Systems Information
Center (AFSIC) is one of several topic-ori-
ented information centers at the National
Agricultural Library (NAL). The AFSIC
serves as a clearinghouse, specializing in
locating and disseminating information
related to alternative cropping systems
including sustainable, organic, low-input,
biodynamic, and regenerative agricul-
ture. AFSICs staff and resources can be
accessed at www.nal.usda.gov/afsic or by
calling 301-504-6559.
The National Sustainable Agriculture
Information Service is managed by the
National Center for Appropriate Technol-
ogy and provides information and other
technical assistance to farmers, ranchers,
extension agents, educators, and others
involved in sustainable agriculture in the
United States. Their technical publica-
tions address current topics in sustain-
able and organic agriculture and can be
accessed at attra.ncat.org or by calling
1-800-346-9140.
PEST MANAGEMENT IN
ORGANIC SYSTEMS
INSECTS
The term organic describes production
systems that optimize natural processes.
Certifed organic growers use a wide range
of IPM practices that comply with the
standards of the USDAs National Organic
Program (NOP) (www.ams.usda.gov/nop,
phone: 202-720-3252).
In organic systems, the goal is to alter
the production system so that pests do not
fnd plants, are controlled by natural en-
emies (biological control), or their damage
is kept to a minimum (Table 1.11-1). Vigor-
ous, healthy plants are more able to with-
stand damage caused by arthropods and
disease. Therefore, healthy soil and plants
are the foundation of organic production.
Described here are general principles of
insect pest management in organic pro-
duction. More information on biologically
based (biointensive) pest management,
including information on suppliers of bio-
logical control agents, can be found in the
ATTRA publication Biointensive Integrated
Pest Management available at attra.ncat.org
or by calling 1-800-346-9140.
Biological Control
Biological control is the use of living
organisms to maintain pest populations
below damaging levels. Natural enemies
of arthropods fall into three major
categories: predators, parasitoids, and
pathogens. Predators catch and eat their
prey. Some common predatory arthro-
pods include ladybird beetles, lacewings,
syrphid fies, carabid (ground) beetles,
minute pirate bugs, nabid bugs, big-eyed
bugs, and spiders.
Parasitoids (sometimes called parasites)
do not usually eat their hosts directly.
Adult parasitoids lay their eggs in, on,
or near their host insect. When the eggs
hatch, the immature parasitoids use the
host as food. Many parasitoids are very
small wasps and are not easily noticed.
Tachinid fies are another group of para-
sitoids. They look like large housefies
and deposit their white, oval eggs on the
backs of caterpillars and other pests. The
eggs hatch, enter the host, and kill it.
Pathogens are disease-causing organ-
isms. Just as many other organisms get
sick, so do insects. The main groups of in-
sect disease-causing organisms are insect-
parasitic bacteria, fungi, protozoa, viruses,
and nematodes. Biological control us-
ing pathogens is often called microbial
control. One very well-known microbial
control agent that is available commer-
cially is the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis
(Bt). Because not all formulations of Bt
are approved for use in organic systems, it
is important to check with your certifer.
Several insect-pathogenic fungi are used
as microbial control agents, including
Beauveria, Metarhizium, and Paecilomyces.
These are most often used against foliar
insect pests in greenhouses or other
locations where humidity is relatively
high. Nuclear polyhedrosis (NPV) and
granulosis (GV) viruses are available to
control some lepidopteran pests (moths
136 The Agronomy Guide 201314
and butterfies). Insect-parasitic (entomo-
pathogenic or insecticidal) nematodes in
the genera Steinernema and Heterorhabditis
infect soil-dwelling insects and occur
naturally or can be purchased. As with all
biological control agents, it is especially
important to match the correct microbial
control agent with the correct pest in
order for them to be effective.
Biological control can be applied (in-
undation or augmentation of natural
populations) or natural (conservation of
natural enemies). Many biological and
microbial control agents are commer-
cially available for purchase. Information
about rates and timing of release are avail-
able from suppliers of benefcial organ-
isms. The quality of commercially avail-
able biocontrol agents is an important
consideration. Biological and microbial
control agents are living organisms, and,
as such, must not be mishandled during
shipping, storage, or application.
In many cases, purchasing biocontrol
agents should not be necessary. Natural
enemies are common and a grower just
needs to know how to attract and keep
the natural enemies in their system by
providing environmental conditions
conducive to their survival. Farmscap-
ing describes the creation of habitat to
enhance the chances for survival and
reproduction of benefcial organisms.
For example, many adult predators and
parasitoids feed on nectar and pollen,
so it is essential to have these resources
nearby. Having several species of pollen-
and nectar-producing plants in an area
will provide resources more continuously
than only having one species. Organic
mulches and crop residue moderate
fuctuations of temperature and moisture
and can provide hiding places for soil
predators such as carabid and staphylinid
beetles, spiders, and centipedes. Other
habitats provided by farmscaping include
water, alternative prey, perching sites,
overwintering sites, and wind protection.
The success of farmscaping efforts de-
pends on knowledge of pests and benef-
cial organisms.
In feld crop systems, there are sev-
eral well functioning biological control
systems. A major successful biological
control program was the release of
parasitoid wasps to control alfalfa wee-
vil populations. There are six primary
wasp species helping to regulate weevil
populations, with three being most com-
mon. These parasitoid wasps, along with
a fungal pathogen, have successfully
reduced the percentage of felds sprayed
in Pennsylvania from nearly 100 percent
in the 1960s and early 1970s to less than
5 percent in most years. Organic growers
have the option of managing their forages
to encourage maximum effectiveness of
the wasps, thus eliminating the need for
pesticides. Another example of success-
ful introduction of a benefcial organism
is in the population regulation of cereal
leaf beetles in cereal crops (wheat, barley,
oats, rye, triticale, etc.). These wasps have
again signifcantly reduced the number of
felds sprayed to control the pest. Again,
organic producers can manage to opti-
mize the effectiveness of these parasitoids.
A third example of effective biological
control is that of the European corn
borer. Although, this insect is still a major
concern in vegetable and feld corn pro-
duction and signifcant acreage is planted
to new transgenic Bt corn hybrids (not
allowed in organic production), its popu-
lations receive considerable regulation
from benefcial organisms. During the
1930s, 1940s, and 1950s, the USDA im-
ported and release at least 25 benefcial
parasitoids in an attempt to regulate the
species populations. Smaller re-releases
occurred during the 1960s through 1990s.
Several of these parasitoid species have
become established and contribute to the
regulation of corn borer populations. In
the early years after introduction of the
European corn borer into the United
States, open-pollinated varieties were
commonly infested with ten or more
larvae per plant, and yields were com-
pletely eliminated. Today, with benefcial
organisms and improved crop resistance
(traditional, not transgenic methods), it
is uncommon to see more than an aver-
age of three or four larvae per plant. In
fact, the large majority of felds have less
than one larva per plant. Research has
shown that infestations below one larva
per plant seldom cause measurable yield
reductions. All crop producers should
recognize, whether organic or other, that
only 1 to 5 percent of the population of
the majority of insects survive from the
egg to the damaging stage. This tells us
that nature, either through effects of
weather conditions or natural enemies, is
doing a lot to keep pest numbers down.
In feld crops, many times, we can tolerate
infestations of a pest with out signifcant
economic loss.
Given the great help we receive from
nature, we are fortunate in feld crops to
have very few major insect pests that con-
sistently cause economic losses. Excep-
tions are potato leafhopper in alfalfa and
corn rootworm in corn. All other pests
tend to be cyclic and only hit a few felds
each year. Knowing about the life require-
ments of these pests can be a great help
in designing effective organic production
systems. Table 1.11-1. Organic crop production foundation principles and practices.
Biodiversity
Diversication
and integration of
enterprises Sustainability
Natural plant
nutrition
Natural pest
management Integration
Rotation Rotation Rotation Rotation Rotation Rotation
Green manure Animal manure Green manure Green manure Green manure Records
Cover crops Composting Cover crops Animal manure Cover crops
Animal manure Intercropping Biocontrol Composting Composting
Composting Farmscaping Farmscaping Natural fertilizers Intercropping
Intercropping Mulching Animal manure Foliar fertilizers Biocontol
Biocontrol Composting Farmscaping
Farmscaping Mulching Sanitation
Buffers Buffers Tillage
Fire
Natural pesticides
Part 1, Section 11 Organic Crop Production 137
Cultural Control
Many organic cultural practices are also
carried out as best management practices
that are applicable to all types of crop
management systems and are discussed
elsewhere in this guide. Some examples
of cultural controls are crop rotation,
sanitation, cover crops, resistant varieties,
maintenance of biological diversity, ap-
propriate planting dates, and plant spac-
ing. As a general rule in feld corn, early
plantings have fewer losses to insect pests.
Timing of cutting in alfalfa can be an
effective management tool against potato
leafhopper. Because the life cycle of the
pest is about 28 to 30 days, cutting sched-
ules of less than 30 days can reduce dam-
age from leafhoppers. Although leafhop-
pers may reduce the quantity of forage
harvest, increased protein content of the
hay may partly offset this. Crop rotation is
an effective method of eliminating corn
rootworm injury in corn. Corn rotated
annually to another crop will not have
corn rootworm infestations. Continuous
corn production in a feld allows eggs to
be laid in the feld that will hatch the fol-
lowing year and result in larval feeding on
corn roots.
When designing cultural controls for
a production system, crop rotation and
cover crops can lead to specifc insect and
other invertebrate pest problems. Slug
populations can build up in sods and hay
felds and then cause problems in feld
corn and soybean felds in the following
years. The cover crop provides an ideal
environment for slugs since they need
shelter from the sun, which will cause
them to desiccate. Tillage between crops,
when slugs are present, can help reduce
population before planting into the feld.
Other pests of feld corn that can increase
in frequency with cover crops and abun-
dant residue include sod webworm, black
cutworm, true armyworm, stalk borer,
white grub, seed corn maggot, and wire-
worm. Plowing under residues at least 10
to 14 days before planting can reduce the
likelihood that high populations will sur-
vive to damage the crop; however, this may
not be effective if wireworm and white
grub population are present. Methods to
monitor for these pests can be found on
the Penn State Entomology website
(ento.psu.edu/OnLineGuides.html)
under the Field Crop Training Manual. This
manual also provides information on the
association of key pest with specifc types
of environmental conditions.
Host-Plant Resistance
Although listed as a cultural mechanism,
host plant resistance is a major method
in feld crops to manage key pests. Within
the last 5 years, new potato leafhopper
resistant alfalfa cultivars have reached
the market place. These cultivars are the
result of traditional selection methods.
The newest varieties now have about 70 to
80 percent resistance to potato leafhop-
per and have agronomic characteristic
similar to nonresistant cultivars. Selection
of these cultivars can greatly reduce the
effects of this major pest of alfalfa. By
eliminating major issues with this pest,
the only other pest of concern is alfalfa
weevil; and with efforts to conserve its
natural enemies, the frequency of losses
can be greatly minimized.
Selecting a good corn variety can also
minimize the impact of both European
corn borer and corn rootworm. Over the
years, plant breeders have increased both
tolerance and resistance of corn hybrids
to these pests. In their corn variety guides,
however, they do not directly indicate the
type or level of resistance to either pest.
Insight into a hybrids ability to deal with
both pests is its standability index and ear
holding capabilities. Hybrids that con-
sistently rate well in these characteristics
tend to have less yield loss from these
pests (particularly harvest losses). Al-
though not listed in most variety guides,
root system size can be important in toler-
ance of corn rootworm infestations. In
general, a plant with a larger root system
will tolerate more feeding by the pest.
This, coupled with early planting, will
reduce yield impacts by corn rootworm.
The downside to these cultivars, however,
is that if the plant is putting more energy
into the root system than aboveground
parts, its yield capability may be less than
cultivars with smaller root systems.
Soybeans and small grain crops also
have been bred to tolerate certain pests.
However, this information is often not
provided in crop seed guides. Wheat
varieties are available that have resistance
to Hessian fy and greenbugs. Conducting
your own evaluations can provide signif-
cant information on which cultivars to
grow in an organic system.
Physical and Mechanical Control
Methods in this category use some physi-
cal component of the environment, for
example, temperature, humidity, or light,
to suppress pest populations or damage.
Some examples are tillage, faming, and
fooding. Floating row covers over veg-
etable crops exclude pests. Heat or steam
sterilization of soil is commonly used in
greenhouses for control of soil-borne
pests. For feld crops, faming can be
used for alfalfa weevil control when timed
properly, but you must be careful not to
catch materials on fre that might threat-
en humans or wildlife. Tillage of corn can
help minimize slug damage by helping
the plant grow more rapidly (this is not
a guaranteed outcome). The principle
behind this approach is that the sun will
warm up the soil around the plants faster
and allow them to outgrow the pests
feeding. In years when we have signifcant
overcast and cool conditions, slugs can
cause damage despite this practice.
Organic Pesticides
Some types of pesticides are allowed in
organic production. Lists of allowed sub-
stances are available from accredited cer-
tifers; products are reviewed by the Or-
ganic Materials Review Institute (OMRI)
(omri.org, phone: 541-343-7600). Because
there are differences among certifying
agencies, you should check on the status
of specifc compounds to determine if
they are allowed, restricted, or prohibited
in your organic system. Some products
with allowable active ingredients may
contain unacceptable adjuvants, so it
is important to check the label and the
certifying agency before using a material.
Some examples of allowable active ingre-
dients are Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), pyre-
thrum, insecticidal soaps, diatomaceous
earth, azadirachtin, horticultural oils,
and insect-parasitic (entomopathogenic)
nematodes and fungi.
138 The Agronomy Guide 201314
WEEDS
Managing weeds in organic systems uses
many of the same techniques as conven-
tional systems, but relies much more on
nonchemical control strategies. To plan
an effective weed management program
in organic systems, historical pest prob-
lems, soil management, crop rotation,
machinery, markets, weather, time and
labor should be considered. Adjusting
weed control strategies based on these
factors and observing and avoiding poten-
tial problems is a big part of staying ahead
of weed problems. The primary methods
for managing weeds in organic systems
are the use of cultural and mechanical
weed control strategies, which primarily
focus on prevention, crop rotation, crop
competition, and cultivation.
Prevention
The primary focus of prevention in organ-
ic systems is keeping new weeds out and
preventing further spread of weed seed
or perennial plant parts. In particular,
minimizing the addition or introduction
of weed seed to the soil can be critical for
successful weed management. Under-
standing weed biology is an important
component in developing a preventive
approach. Weed species have strengths
and weaknesses and are vulnerable or
resilient at different stages in their life
cycle. Disking or feld cultivating a creep-
ing perennial such as quackgrass or hedge
bindweed in the spring may make the
problem worse by spreading underground
rhizomes or other vegetative structures.
Therefore, proper identifcation and
knowledge of weed lifecycle, reproduc-
tion, and spread are important factors for
developing management strategies.
Some preventive tactics might be clas-
sifed as sanitationremoving or destroy-
ing weeds in felds or near felds prior to
fowering and the release of weed seed.
Weed seeds can live for a number of years,
depending on the species and whether
it is exposed or buried beneath the soil
surface. This may mean removing by hand
if necessary those weeds from the feld
before they produce seed. Weeds can
also be introduced into felds via manure,
compost, hay, straw, animal feed, con-
taminated crop seed, or other materials.
Whenever you plant, apply, or drive some-
thing in a feld, make an effort to learn
whether weed seeds are present and evalu-
ate the benefts versus potential risks.
Cultural Weed Control
Some cultural practicesin particular,
crop rotation and altering the planting
datecan be key components for man-
aging weeds in organic systems. Date
of planting will infuence the type and
number of weeds present. Organic grow-
ers should plan rotations so that weed
species favored in one year or season will
not be favored in another year or crop-
ping sequence. This generally means
mixing summer annual crops with fall
seeded species or even perennials that
allow different weed management strate-
gies. Delaying planting of some spring-
seeded crops is common among organic
producers. Although some yield potential
may be sacrifced with this planting delay,
higher soil temperatures will help the
crop emerge more quickly, and weeds
that emerge earlier in the season can
be killed prior to planting to reduce the
potential weed seedbank. A stale seedbed
is a technique sometimes used in veg-
etable production systems that can also
be used in agronomic crops. A seedbed
is tilled several weeks prior to planting.
The weeds are allowed to emerge and
then they are killed while still small by
shallow cultivation, fame weeding, or
other nonselective methods. Depending
on the length of time before planting,
one or more fushes of weeds may emerge
and be killed between seedbed prepara-
tion and planting. The success of a stale
seedbed depends on the weed spectrum
and the time of planting. Delayed or later-
planted crops are generally more success-
ful. Late-emerging weeds will still be a
potential problem. Any tactic that makes
the crop more competitive against weeds
is considered cultural management and is
critical for successful organic production
systems.
Crop competition is an important
component of cultural weed control and
an effective way to control weed growth.
Soil open to sunlight is available for weed
growth and competition. A vigorous
growing crop is less likely to be adversely
affected by weeds. Tactics that allow the
crop to establish quickly and dominate
will help reduce the impact from weeds.
Use high-quality vigorous seed, adapted
varieties, uniform proper placement of
the crop seed, optimal soil fertility, and
plant populations that lead to vigorous
crop growth and canopy closure.
Mulches and Cover Crops
Mulches are used in some organic produc-
tion systems to help manage weeds. The
mulch provides a physical barrier on the
soil surface and must block nearly all light
reaching the surface so that the weeds that
emerge beneath the mulch do not have
suffcient light to survive. Plastic mulches
are acceptable in some organic programs,
but are generally not practical for lower
valued large-scale feld crops. Mulches of
organic material such as straw or newspa-
per or killed cover crop residue left on the
surface can also effectively block sunlight
and are more commonly used in organic
row crop production systems.
Cover cropping can help in the man-
agement of weeds in several ways. Cover
crops can provide an opportunity for
crop rotation and rapid turnover of weed
seedbanks. In addition, cover crops can
provide some weed control by competing
with weeds for light, moisture, nutrients,
and space. This can be particularly help-
ful for suppressing winter annual weed
growth or certain cool-season perennials.
In addition, cover crops and their residues
can act as mulches or physical barriers by
smothering weeds, suppressing weed seed
germination and growth, and lowering
soil temperatures. In general, the larger
the cover crop and greater the biomass
or dry matter production, the greater
the impact on weeds. Cover crops may
contain allelopathic compounds, which
are released from living or decaying plant
tissue that chemically interfere with weed
growth. However, these qualities can vary
depending on the type and quantity of
cover crop and environmental conditions
during the growing season. Despite these
potential benefts, physical and chemical
effects from cover crops may not be to be
a major factor for weed control. Mechani-
cal control tactics as well as cultural con-
trols should still be used to compliment
cover crops for weed management.
Mechanical Weed Control
Mechanical weed control is generally
considered critical for managing weeds
in organic systems. In organic row crops
such as corn or soybean, mechanical culti-
vation is generally necessary for adequate
weed control. Mechanical weed control
includes the use of preplant tillage such
as plowing, disking, and feld cultivating.
These primary and secondary tillages
can help reduce the rate and spread of
certain perennial weeds and can also kill
emerged weed seedlings and bury weed
Part 1, Section 11 Organic Crop Production 139
seeds below the germination zone. Most
organic corn and soybean producers pre-
pare a conventionally tilled seedbed prior
to planting their spring crop. Cultivation
should generally begin a few days after
planting. To control weed seedlings that
are just beneath the soil surface or barely
emerged, implements such as a rotary
hoe, chain-link harrow, or tine weeder
are dragged over the feld for control of
these very small weed seedlings. These
implements will displace small seedling
weeds and expose them to the drying ef-
fects of the wind and sun. Rotary hoes or
similar implements are the best method
for controlling weeds in the crop row.
Operate a rotary hoe at 10 to 12 miles per
hour with enough drag to stir the soil and
displace the small seedlings .Continue
to use a rotary hoe or similar implement
about every 5 to 7 days, as long as the
weeds are germinating or until the crop is
too big. Do not rotary hoe soybeans when
the soybeans are in the hook stage (the
stem is exposed and the cotyledons have
not yet opened above the ground). Also,
use rotary hoes or similar implements in
the afternoon when turgor pressure is less
and soybeans and corn are more fexible.
In general, up to three rotary hoeings
may be performed within 2 to 3 weeks
after planting.
Crop rows planted 30 inches or more
apart allow for row cultivation. Once soy-
beans have three trifoliate leaves and corn
is beyond the two leaf stage (V2) and 8
to 10 inches tall, use a row cultivator to
control small weed seedlings. Shallow
cultivation at 1 to 2 inches deep will avoid
harming crop roots. Continue to cultivate
at 7- to 10-day intervals until the corn is
too tall and the soybean canopy closes
the rows. Organic corn and soybeans
generally require between one and three
cultivations, depending on weed species,
severity, and rainfall. Cultivation works
best when performed during the heat of
the day in bright sunlight; weeds quickly
desiccate and die under these conditions.
Rainfall shortly after cultivation or wet
cloddy soils at or following cultivation
may allow weeds to recover and survive.
Hand-pulling escaped weeds will help
assure maximum crop yield and prevent
weed seed production, which can affect
future weed problems.
Mowing may also play a critical role
in managing weeds in forage crops or
noncrop areas. Repeated mowing re-
duces weed competitive ability, depletes
carbohydrate reserves in the roots, and
prevents seed production. Some weeds,
mowed when they are young, are readily
consumed by livestock. Mowing can kill
or suppress annual and biennial weeds.
Mowing can also suppress perennials and
help restrict their spread. A single mowing
will not satisfactorily control most weeds.
However, mowing three or four times per
year over several years can greatly reduce
and occasionally eliminate certain weeds
including Canada thistle. Also, mow along
fences and borders to help prevent the
introduction of new weed seeds. Regular
mowing helps prevent weeds from estab-
lishing, spreading, and competing with
desirable forage crops, and also can keep
them from spreading into tilled felds.
Herbicides
Chemical weed control is generally not
allowed in organic crop production
systems. The USDA National Organic
Program rule (NOP) does allow certain
nonsynthetic soap-based herbicides for
use in farmstead maintenance (roadways,
ditches, right of ways, building perim-
eters) and in ornamental crops. In addi-
tion, several products that contain natural
or nonsynthetic ingredients are classifed
as approved by the Organic Materials Re-
view Institute (OMRI). The OMRI listing
does not imply product approval by any
federal or state government agency. It is
the users responsibility to determine the
compliance of a particular product.
Corn gluten meal is sold as an organic
fertilizer that has some preemergence
herbicide activity on certain small-seeded
annual weeds. Because of the volume of
product necessary and the associated cost,
corn gluten meal is generally not practical
for agronomic crop production systems
but may be suitable for smaller areas such
as home gardens and lawns. In addition,
the need for and use of corn gluten for
weed control must be explained in the
Organic System Plan and the product
must not be derived from genetically
engineered sources. To learn more about
corn gluten, visit the corn gluten meal
research page at Iowa State University
(www.gluten.iastate.edu).
Nonsynthetic (natural) postemergence
herbicides contain plant-based ingredi-
ents including eugenol (clove oil), cin-
namon oil, citrus oil, lemongrass oil, and
others, and act as nonselective contact
type herbicides. They will injure or kill
all vegetation they come in contact with,
including desirable vegetation. Weed
species, its size or age, and environmen-
tal conditions at application time are
important for optimum performance. As
a general rule, these products are only
effective on small seedling weeds and
activity increases with air temperature, hu-
midity, and sunlight. Seedling broadleaves
are most susceptible, while grasses are
harder to control. We suggest a minimum
air temperature of 75F, 50 percent rela-
tive humidity, and sunny conditions. Cool
temperatures, low humidity, and cloudy
conditions will reduce performance. The
effectiveness of a clove oil product (Ma-
tran II) on several annual weeds is pro-
vided in Table 1-11.2.
The need for the use of herbicides
derived from plant or animal sources
should be explained in the growers Or-
ganic System Plan and the farmer must
obtain permission from their organic
certifying agencies to use these materials.
Acetic acid or vinegar is an ingredient in
a number of products, and distilled white
vinegar is on the OMRI approved list but
not as an herbicide. The performance
of vinegar is similar or less effective than
that of clove oil (Table 1-11.2). As a gen-
eral rule, a 20 percent concentration (200
grain) is necessary applied at a minimum
of 60 gallons per acre. Individual certify-
ing agencies can help decide the merits
and need for acetic acid as an herbicide.
Several products are labeled as organic
herbicides, and additional products and
ingredients are currently under review.
Remember that an adjuvant (i.e., sur-
factants and wetting agents) is often nec-
essary to enhance herbicide performance.
All synthetic adjuvants are prohibited,
which includes most adjuvant products
in the market. A number of plant-based
adjuvants are available and are often
derivatives of pine resin (Nu-Film P) or
yucca (Natural Wet) or other plant-based
substances. Some products contain acidi-
fying agents as well as other ingredients
touted to enhance pesticide or nutrient
uptake. Check with your organic certi-
fer concerning the allowance of these
additives. Table 1.11-3 contains some
herbicides listed by OMRI or others at the
time of printing. Some of these products
already include surfactant-type adjuvants
in their formulation. Penn State does not
ensure the effectiveness or allowance of
any of these products.
140 The Agronomy Guide 201314
DISEASES
Disease management for organic feld
crop production should focus on several
aspects of plant disease management,
including host resistance, site selection,
exclusion, crop rotation, cultivation, and
plant disease diagnosis. It is unlikely that
all diseases can be avoided by utilizing
any one of these management strategies
alone. However, the damage of many
plant diseases can be greatly reduced by
the integration of these practices. The
sections below provide more information
regarding these management options.
Host Resistance
Many plant diseases can be effectively
managed by selecting varieties that are
naturally resistant to specifc disease-
causing organisms. Host resistance can be
either partial or complete. Varieties with
complete resistance are completely im-
mune to attack by a specifc pathogen or
a race of the pathogen population. In
contrast, varieties with partial resistance
may still develop symptoms of the disease,
but the disease will progress slowly and
have less of an impact when compared to
susceptible plants. The use of host resis-
Table 1.11-2. Effect of Matran II (34 percent clove oil) application rate on annual
weed control three and ten days after application.
Matran II was applied at 7 to 14 gallons per acre in 30 to 60 gallons of water with 80-degree at fan nozzle tips.
Weeds were 2 to 10 inches tall and air temperatures were in the mid-70s. Skies were clear and relative humidity was
about 50 percent.
Giant Foxtail
Common
Lambsquarters Smooth Pigweed
Common
Ragweed
Days After Application
Gallon per Acre 3 10 3 10 3 10 3 10
Percent Control
1
7 71 a 66 a 87 a 76 a 92 a 83 a 88 a 76 a
10 77 b 69 a 91 b 81 b 94 a 86 a 91 a 79 a
14 76 b 68 a 93 b 82 b 94 a 83 a 90 a 77 a
1. Same letters within a column are not signicantly different at the 5 percent level.
tance can be highly effective in reducing
disease pressure. Knowing the pathogen
or race of pathogen you wish to control
is necessary to ensure that host resistance
is targeted to the most important disease
issues. Contact your seed dealer or Penn
State Extension offce for more informa-
tion about resistant varieties.
Site Selection
Soil and environmental conditions can
play a key role in disease development.
Prior to planting a crop, it is important
to understand what soil or environmental
conditions may exist that can exacer-
bate disease development. Issues such
as compacted soils or poor soil drainage
can lead to root diseases in seedlings and
mature plants. Low-lying areas or soil
located next to a forest or river can have
extended periods of dew or fog, which is
a key factor in the development of many
foliar diseases of crops. Optimum fertility
and soil pH will also help ensure plant
health and the ability to defend against
pathogens.
Exclusion
Exclusion is the practice of keeping mate-
rials and objects that may be contaminat-
ed with a pathogen out of the production
system. Some diseases are spread through
seed, so it is important to purchase seed
from a reputable source. Although some
Table 1.11-3. Herbicides listed by Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI) or by manufacturer for use in organic production.
Check with your certifying agency for specic use information.
Product Active ingredients Application Manufacturer
Blackberry & Brush Block 20% citric acid Foliar contact Greenergy, Inc.
www.greenergyinc.com
Corn gluten meal (fertilizer product) Corn gluten meal Preemergent soil-applied For more information, see
www.gluten.iastate.edu
GreenMatch EX 50% lemon grass oil Foliar contact Marrone Organic Innovations
www.Marroneorganicinnovations.com
Herbicidal soap Various salts of fatty acids Foliar contact Several brands; may be synthetic and used for farm
stead maintenance on nonfood crops only
Matran EC 50% clove oil Foliar contact EcoSmart Technologies Inc.
www.ecoipm.com
Matratec AG 50% clove oil Foliar contact ClawEl Specialty Products, Brandt Consolidated Inc.
www.clawel.com
Racer 40% ammonium nonanoate
(3.3 lbs active ingredient/gal)
Foliar contact Falcon Lab
www.falconlabllc.com
Weed Zap 45% clove and 45% cinnamon oil Foliar contact JH Biotech Inc.
www.jhbiotech.com
Worry Free Weed and Grass Killer Concentrate 70% citrus oil Foliar contact Worry Free products by Lilly Miller
www.lillymiller.com
Part 1, Section 11 Organic Crop Production 141
seeds are designated as pathogen-free
seed, it is impossible to be certain that a
seed lot is entirely free of all pathogens.
Other considerations include cleaning
tools and equipment to avoid spreading
diseased tissue and pathogens between
felds, especially if you know of problems
in one feld (e.g., white mold of soybean
or Phytophthora root rot).
Crop Rotation
A large number of the pathogens that
cause disease in feld crops survive in
association with crop residues left on the
soil surface. A diverse crop rotation can
contribute to the reduction of pathogens
through lack of susceptible hosts in the
feld and allow for crop residue harbor-
ing pathogens to decompose. During the
decomposition of the crop residues, the
disease-causing organisms will be forced
to compete with other organisms for
limited resources (i.e., food, water, and
space). The pathogen population will also
decline as it is attacked by naturally occur-
ring pathogens of that organism. Rotation
to a nonhost crop for 2 to 3 years is desir-
able. Proper weed control is also impor-
tant since weeds can act as alternative
hosts to some crop diseases.
Cultivation
Tillage can also be used to hasten the de-
composition of crop residues and encour-
age the decline of a pathogen population.
In this case, the goal is to bury crop resi-
dues or place the residue in contact with
the soil so that it is quickly colonized by
organisms involved with residue decom-
position. These soil microbes will com-
pete with the disease-causing organisms,
reducing their populations. However,
many felds in Pennsylvania are not suit-
able for tillage because of soil erosion
concerns, and producers should carefully
evaluate the potential risk of erosion on
their farm.
Plant Disease Diagnostics
An important step in disease manage-
ment is proper diagnosis of the pathogen
and disease. As soon as certain symptoms
become a problem in the feld, it is im-
portant to determine the causal agent
in a timely matter to help reduce spread
and potential impact. Once identifed,
information about the disease can then
be used to determine the best control
measures and reduce the impact on yield
and quality. Infected plant samples can be
sent to the Plant Disease Clinic, 220 Buck-
hout Lab, University Park, PA 16802 for
proper diagnosis.
Applying Control Methods
Many products are available that help pre-
vent fungal and bacterial diseases from
developing. Products may include sulfur,
lime, copper, or combinations of two or
more. It is important that the product you
use is certifed for use on organic opera-
tions. For a list of products, go to
omri.org/simple-opl-search/results/
fungicide.