CVT dynamics: Theory and experiments

G. Carbone
a,b,
*
, L. Mangialardi
a
, B. Bonsen
b
, C. Tursi
a
, P.A. Veenhuizen
b
a
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Meccanica e Gestionale, Politecnico di Bari, v.le Japigia 182, 70126 Bari, Italy
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Den Dolech 2, 5612 AZ Eindhoven, The Netherlands
Received 21 February 2006; accepted 11 April 2006
Available online 9 June 2006
Abstract
We present a detailed experimental study of the pushing V-belt CVT dynamics and compare the experimental data with
the theoretical predictions of the Carbone, Mangialardi, Mantriota (CMM) model [G. Carbone, L. Mangialardi, G.
Mantriota, The inuence of pulley deformations on the shifting mechanisms of MVB-CVT, ASME Journal of Mechanical
Design 127 (2005) 103113]. A very good agreement between theory and experiments is found. In particular it is shown
that, during creep-mode (slow) shifting, the rate of change of the speed ratio is a linear function of the logarithm of
the ratio between the axial clamping forces acting on the two movable pulleys. The shifting speed is also shown to be pro-
portional to the angular velocity of the primary pulley, and to increase as the clamping force on the secondary pulley is
increased. Indeed, a growth of the clamping force increases the pulley bending and, therefore, in agreement with the CMM
model, increases the shifting speed. The authors also propose a relatively simple dierential equation to describe the creep-
mode evolution of the variator. Few parameters appear in the formula, which may be calculated either experimentally or
theoretically. The results of this study are of utmost importance for the design of advanced CVT control systems and the
improvement of the CVT eciency, cars drivability and fuel economy.
2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
In the last decades, a growing attention has been focused on the environmental question. Governments are
continuously forced to dene standards and to adopt actions in order to reduce the polluting emissions and the
green-house gasses. In order to fulll these requirements, car manufacturers have been obligated to dramati-
cally reduce vehicles gas emissions in relatively short times. Thus, a great deal of research has been devoted
to nd new technical solutions, which may improve the emission performances of nowadays internal combus-
tion (IC) engine vehicles. Among all the proposed solutions, the hybrid technology is very promising for the
short term. But hybrid vehicles often need a complicated drive train to handle the power ows between the elec-
tric motor, the IC engine and vehicles wheels. A very good solution may be that of using a continuously
0094-114X/$ - see front matter 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2006.04.012
*
Corresponding author. Address: Dipartimento di Ingegneria Meccanica e Gestionale, Politecnico di Bari, v.le Japigia 182, 70126 Bari,
Italy. Tel.: +39 80 596 2746; fax: +39 80 596 2777.
E-mail address: carbone@poliba.it (G. Carbone).
Mechanism and Machine Theory 42 (2007) 409428
www.elsevier.com/locate/mechmt
Mechanism
and
Machine Theory
variable transmission (CVT), which is able to provide an innite number of gear ratios between two nite limits.
CVT transmissions are even potentially able to improve the performances of classical IC engine vehicles, by
maintaining the engine operation point closer to its optimal eciency line. Several studies have shown, indeed,
that CVTs may improve the fuel savings and reduce the vehicle polluting emissions. For instance, a mid class
CVT car may achieve fuel savings of about 10% in comparison to the traditional manual stepped transmissions
[25]. However, Refs. [4,5] show that, in order to achieve a signicant reduction of fuel consumption, it is fun-
damental to have a very good control strategy of the transmission, able to adjust the axial clamping forces act-
ing on the movable pulley with great precision. This is necessary in order to regulate the speed ratio and the
shifting speed and allow the engine to operate on its economy line, without aecting the CVT mechanical e-
ciency. In the case of V-belt CVTs, which are the main focus of interest of our investigation, the clamping forces
should not be too high, to avoid very high pressures at the pulleybelt interface. At the same time, they should
not be too small, in order to avoid very high slip factors. However, without an accurate and reliable CVT the-
oretical model, the above aim could hardly be fullled. In a previous paper [1] Carbone, Mangialardi and Man-
triota (CMM) have developed a model that describes both the steady-state and the shifting behavior of the V-
belt CVT. The CMM model has been shown being able to explain why, during creep-mode shifting, the rate of
change of the speed ratio is strictly related to the actual value of the axial clamping forces acting on the movable
pulleys. The theory also shows why increasing the rate of change of the speed ratio leads to a transition from a
creep-mode to a slip-mode behavior, which, in turn, is characterized by a complete independence of the clamp-
ing force ratio from the actual value of the rate of change of the speed ratio [6,7].
In Ref. [1] it has been also pointed out that, during creep-mode shifting, the pulley bending has a crucial
role in determining the actual shifting response of the variator. The theory also predicts a linear relation
between the rate of change of the speed ratio and the logarithm of the clamping force ratio, and shows the
shifting speed being proportional both to the magnitude of the pulley bending and to the angular velocity
of the primary pulley. The main purpose of this paper is to carry out a detailed experimental investigation
of the CVT steady-state and shifting dynamics, in order to compare the theoretical predictions with the exper-
imental outcomes. The experimental analysis shows a very good agreement with the CMM model. This allows
the authors to propose a relatively simple dierential equation to describe the CVT creep-mode shifting. This
equation may constitute the basis of optimized CVT control strategies [8,9].
2. Mechanical model
In this section we briey review the CMM model of CVT dynamics presented in Ref. [1]. The theory treats
the belt as a one-dimensional continuum body having a locally rigid motion, i.e. the belt is considered as an
inextensible strip with zero radial thickness and innite transversal stiness. Although the model may appear
more suitable for the chain belt (see Fig. 1(a)), as it does not take into account the inuence of the bandsbelt
interaction (Fig. 1(b)), the experimental investigations, carried out on the Van Doorne type pushing-belt, have
shown that the main predictions of the CMM theory do not depend on the actual design of the variator. The
pulley deformation is described on the basis of the Sattlers model [10], where trigonometric functions are used
to represent the varying groove angle and the local elastic axial deformations of the pulley sheaves. The fric-
tion forces, at the interface between the pulley and the belt, are described by means of the simple Coulomb
Amontons friction law, i.e. by means of a constant friction coecient l. Fig. 2 shows the kinematical and
geometric quantities involved in the model. These quantities satisfy the following relations:
tan b
s
= tan b cos w (1)
rx
s
= _ r tan w (2)
where r is the local radial coordinate of the one-dimensional belt, b is the pulley half-opening angle, b
s
is the half-
opening angle in the sliding plane, w is the sliding angle, and x
s
is the local sliding angular velocity of the belt,
dened as x
s
= X x, with x being the pulley rotating velocity, and X the local angular velocity of the belt.
The varying groove makes the radial motion of the belt non-uniform along the contact arc, thus aecting
the sliding angle w, the direction of friction forces at the beltpulley interface, as well as the pressure and ten-
410 G. Carbone et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 42 (2007) 409428
sion distributions. It is worth to notice that the belt transversal deformation has a negligible inuence in deter-
mining the actual path of the belt. In fact Fig. 3 (adapted from Refs. [11,12]) shows that for a rigid pulley
Fig. 1. The chain belt CVT (a), and the pushing V-belt CVT (b).
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2. Kinematical and geometric quantities involved: (a) planar view; (b) 3D view.
G. Carbone et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 42 (2007) 409428 411
(continuous line) the radial position of the belt is almost uniform along the contact arc despite the belt trans-
versal deformation, whereas when the pulley bending is taken into account (dashed line) the radial position of
the belt may vary of about 0.51 mm along the wrap angle. This shows that the belt transversal deformation
can be neglected when calculating the actual sliding path of the belt. For this reason, in Ref. [1] only the pulley
bending has been taken into account by using the Sattlers formula [10], which describes the varying groove
angle b and the axial displacement u of the pulley groove by means of simple trigonometric functions (see
Appendix A for additional details)
b = b
0

D
2
sin h h
c

p
2
_ _
(3)
u = 2Rtan(b b
0
) (4)
b
0
is the groove angle of the undeformed pulley, D ~ 1 10
3
1 is the amplitude of the sinusoid, h
c
is the
center of the wedge expansion and R stands for the pitch radius of the belt, i.e. the distance from the pulley
axis that the belt would have if the pulley sheaves were rigid. It is worth to notice that the amplitude of the
sinusoid strictly depends on the actual value of the clamping forces, since increasing the clamping forces lin-
early increases the elastic deformation of the pulley. Thus, D cannot be considered constant during speed ratio
changing. Nonetheless, its value cannot vary too much being always in the range (1 0.5) 10
3
. By using the
Sattlers relations (3) and (4), the local radial position of the belt can be easily calculated as
r tan b = Rtan b
0

u
2
(5)
Though the quantity r is not uniform along the belt [and therefore the slope angle u diers from zero on the
contact arc (see Fig. 2)], it is always possible to consider [u[ 1 on most part of the contact arc, and to as-
sume the radius of curvature q ~ R everywhere but at the edges of the contact arc. With these assumptions,
and neglecting second order terms, the continuity equation can be written as
Fig. 3. Radial displacement of the belt, both on the driven and driving side. Dashed line: the eect of pulley bending. Continuous line: the
eect of belt transversal deformation only. Adapted from Refs. [11,12].
412 G. Carbone et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 42 (2007) 409428
v
r

ov
h
oh
= 0 (6)
where v
r
is the radial sliding velocity of the belt and v
h
is its tangential sliding speed. Moreover, Eq. (2) yields
tan w =
v
h
v
r
(7)
and taking the time-derivative of Eq. (5) leads to
v
r
=
dR
dt
aDxRsin(h h
c
) (8)
where a = (1 + cos
2
b
0
)/sin(2b
0
). Besides the above written equations, we also need to write the equilibrium
equations, where the forces acting on the belt are shown in Fig. 4.
The equilibrium of the belt involves the tension F of the belt, the linear pressure p acting on the belt sides,
the inertia force of the belt element and the friction forces. Neglecting second order terms, two equations can
be written, which describe the equilibrium of the belt along the tangential and radial directions [11]
1
F rx
2
R
2
o(F rx
2
R
2
)
oh
=
l cos b
s
sin w
sin b
0
l cos b
s
cos w
(9)
p =
F rx
2
R
2
2R(sin b
0
l cos b
s
cos w)
(10)
with r being the mass per unit length of the belt. The last equation of the model allows to calculate the center
of the wedge expansion h
c
as
tan h
c
=
_
a
0
p(h) sin hdh
_
a
0
p(h) cos hdh
(11)
where a is the extension of the wrap angle. Once the pressure and tension distribution have been calculated, it
is possible to easily calculate the axial clamping force and torque on the pulley respectively as
Fig. 4. The forces acting on the belt.
G. Carbone et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 42 (2007) 409428 413
S =
_
a
0
(cos b l sin b
s
)pRdh (12)
and
T = (F
1
F
2
)R (13)
where F
1
and F
2
are the tensile belt forces at the edge of the beltpulley contact (see Fig. 5). Observe that in
steady-state, i.e. when
_
R = 0, integrating Eq. (6) gives
v
h
=
_
v
r
dh = D[axRcos(h h
c
) k[ (14)
where both h
c
and k only depend (see Ref. [1]) on the tensile force ratio (F
1
rx
2
R
2
)/(F
2
rx
2
R
2
). Therefore
Eq. (7) yields
tan w =
cos(h h
c
) k
sin(h h
c
)
(15)
which shows the sliding angle distribution not depending on D during steady running. Thus, in steady-state,
the magnitude D of the pulley deformation cannot aect the tension and pressure distributions on the contact
arc, as these quantities only depend on w. Therefore, we have to conclude that in stationary conditions, besides
the ratio (F
1
rx
2
R
2
)/(F
2
rx
2
R
2
), only the shape of the deformed pulley aects the tension and pressure
distributions, and, hence, the clamping forces, whereas the actual magnitude of deformations only inuences
the mechanical eciency of the variator.
However, the main focus of this work is on CVT shifting dynamics, which may be simply taken into
account by means of the following dimensionless parameter
A =
1
D
_
R
DR
x
DR
R
DR
sin(2b
0
)
1 cos
2
b
0
(16)
where DR stand for drive pulley (the driven pulley will be referred to with the subscript DN). In Ref. [1] the
authors have shown that during creep-mode phases A is almost a linear function of the logarithm of the
clamping force ratio S
DR
/S
DN
, and they have been able to propose the following relatively simple equation
to describe the variator shifting behavior
Fig. 5. A schematic view of the V-belt variator, with the tensile forces F
1
and F
2
acting on the branches of the belt.
414 G. Carbone et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 42 (2007) 409428
A = c(s) ln
S
DR
S
DN
_ _
ln
S
DR
S
DN
_ _
eq
_ _
(17)
where (S
DR
/S
DN
)
eq
is the clamping force ratio at equilibrium, i.e. in steady-state conditions.
3. Geometric relations
Eq. (17) can be rephrased in terms of the geometric speed ratio s. Thus, taking the time-derivative of
s = R
DR
/R
DN
gives:
_ s = s
_
R
DR
R
DR
1
_
R
DN
_
R
DR
s
_ _
(18)
In Eq. (18) we need to express the quantity
_
R
DN
=
_
R
DR
as a function of s. Observe that the length of the belt L is
L = p(R
DN
R
DR
) 2(R
DN
R
DR
) arcsin
R
DN
R
DR
d
_ _
2

d
2
(R
DN
R
DR
)
2
_
(19)
where d is the center-to-center distance of the pulleys. Eq. (19) can be rewritten in a dimensionless form, once
the following dimensionless quantities have been dened: q(s) = R
DR
/d and l = L/d
l = pq
1 s
s
2q
1 s
s
arcsin q
1 s
s
_ _
2

1 q
1 s
s
_ _
2

(20)
Eq. (20) shows that q is a function of s only. Now, neglecting the belt longitudinal deformation, and taking the
time-derivative of Eq. (19), we get

_
R
DN
_
R
DR
=
p 2 arcsin[q(1 s)=s[
p 2 arcsin[q(1 s)=s[
= h(s) (21)
which shows that also
_
R
DN
=
_
R
DR
= h(s) only depends on s. Thus, using Eqs. (18) and (21), we can rewrite Eq.
(16) as
A =
1
D
1
x
DR
sin(2b
0
)
1 cos
2
b
0
_ s
s[1 sh(s)[
(22)
and using Eq. (17) we nally have
_ s = x
DR
D
1 cos
2
b
0
sin(2b
0
)
g(s) ln
S
DR
S
DN
_ _
ln
S
DR
S
DN
_ _
eq
_ _
(23)
where g(s) = [1 + sh(s)]sc(s). Eq. (23) shows that the shifting speed _ s is proportional to the primary pulley
angular velocity x
DR
, to the parameter D, and that it depends linearly on ln(S
DR
/S
DN
).
4. Dimensional analysis
In this section we will show, by using dimensional analysis, that the symmetry of the system under no-load
conditions (we neglect the torque losses in the variator and the slip between the belt and the pulleys) leads to a
simpler expression for the quantity g(s). First, consider that the rate of change of the speed ratio _ s can be
expressed as a function of the clamping forces S
DR
and S
DN
, the torques T
DR
and T
DN
, the belt velocity v,
the belt length L, the pulleys center-to-center distance d, and the pitch radii of the belt R
DR
and R
DN
. There-
fore, we can write
_ s = f (R
DR
; R
DN
; S
DR
; S
DN
; T
DR
; T
DN
; v; L; d) (24)
The Buckinghams pi-theorem [1315] allows us to simplify the above written relation Eq. (24) by using, as
fundamental units, the quantities R
DN
, S
DN
and v. Thus Eq. (24) takes the form
G. Carbone et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 42 (2007) 409428 415
_ s =
v
d
G
R
DR
R
DN
;
S
DR
S
DN
;
T
DR
R
DN
S
DN
;
T
DN
R
DN
S
DN
;
L
R
DN
;
d
R
DN
_ _
(25)
Now, observe that s = R
DR
/R
DN
= T
DR
/T
DN
, and that T
DR
/(R
DN
S
DN
) = sT
DN
/(R
DN
S
DN
). Also notice
that, once the geometry of the system has been xed and in particular the quantity l = L/d is taken to be con-
stant, the implicit relation Eq. (20) allows to write d/R
DN
= s/q(s) which, of course, is a function of the geo-
metric speed ratio s only. Therefore, Eq. (25) can be rephrased without any loss of generality as
_ s =
v
d
sU ln s; ln
S
DR
S
DN
;
T
DN
R
DN
S
DN
_ _
(26)
Because of symmetry and considering that s = R
DR
/R
DN
> 0, we have used lns instead of s as the argument of
the unknown function U. Moreover, for convenience, we have also introduced a multiplying factor s at the
right hand side of Eq. (26). Eq. (26) states that the dynamical response of the system depends only on the ac-
tual speed ratio, on the clamping force ratio and on the dimensionless torque coecient T
DN
/(R
DN
S
DN
).
Thus, the dimensional analysis allows us to simplify the design of the experimental activity, since only three
quantities need to be varied in order to map the whole dynamical response of the variator.
4.1. CVT symmetry under no-load conditions
Now, suppose that the CVT is running under no-load conditions, i.e. T
DN
= 0. In this case there is no way
to distinguish between the drive and the driven pulley, i.e. the system is physically symmetric. Eq. (26) becomes
_ s =
v
d
sU ln s; ln
S
DR
S
DN
_ _
= x
DR
sq(s)U ln s; ln
S
DR
S
DN
_ _
(27)
where v = x
DR
R
DR
, and q(s) = R
DR
/d. Now consider the symmetric condition s 1/s = i and S
DR
/
S
DN
S
DN
/S
DR
, where i = x
DR
/x
DN
is the reduction ratio. In this case the symmetry of the system requires
the reduction ratio i to fulll the same relation Eq. (27), i.e.
di
dt
=
v
d
iU ln i; ln
S
DN
S
DR
_ _
(28)
and since di/dt = s
2
ds/dt, substituting this result in Eq. (28) gives
_ s =
v
d
sU ln s; ln
S
DR
S
DN
_ _
(29)
Thus a comparison between Eqs. (27) and (29) shows that the symmetry of the system under no load condi-
tions requires that
U ln s; ln
S
DR
S
DN
_ _
= U ln s; ln
S
DR
S
DN
_ _
(30)
The symmetric condition Eq. (30) allows to nd an approximate relation for U, at least under no-load condi-
tions. First consider that in steady-state conditions, i.e. when _ s = 0, Eqs. (27), (29) yield
U ln s; ln
S
DR
S
DN
_ _
eq
_ _
= 0 (31)
U ln s; ln
S
DR
S
DN
_ _
eq
_ _
= 0 (32)
Eqs. (31) and (32) show that under no-load conditions ln(S
DR
/S
DN
)
eq
is an odd function of lns, i.e.
ln
S
DR
S
DN
_ _
eq
= H(ln s) (33)
416 G. Carbone et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 42 (2007) 409428
with
H(ln s) = H(ln s) (34)
For convenience, let us dene the quantities f = lns, and v = ln(S
DR
/S
DN
). We can expand the function U
about the steady-state point v = v
eq
as
U(f; v) = U
v
(f; H(f))(v v
eq
)
1
2
U
vv
(f; H(f))(v v
eq
)
2
O(f
3
) (35)
where U(f, v
eq
) = 0. Recalling Eq. (33), we can write v
eq
= H(f). The symmetry condition Eq. (30) implies
U
v
(f, v) = U
v
(f, v) and U
vv
(f, v) = U
vv
(f, v), thus in steady-state we have U
v
(f, H(f)) = U
v
(f, H(f))
and U
vv
(f, H(f)) = U
vv
(f, H(f)). On the basis of the these considerations, the MacLaurin series of
U
v
(f, H(f)) about f = 0 (i.e. s = 1) must contain only even terms, whereas the MacLaurin expansion of
U
vv
(f, H(f)) contains odd terms only, i.e.
U
v
(f; H(f)) = a
1
a
2
f
2
O(f
4
) (36)
U
vv
(f; H(f)) = 2b
1
f O(f
3
) (37)
Using Eqs. (36) and (37), Eq. (35) becomes
U(f; v) ~ (a
1
a
2
f
2
)(v v
eq
) b
1
f(v v
eq
)
2
(38)
In Section 6 both theory and experiments show that a rst order approximation in (v v
eq
) is already a very
good choice. Hence, Eq. (38) becomes
U(f; v) ~ (a
1
a
2
f
2
)(v v
eq
) (39)
Now, notice that Eq. (34) gives
v
eq
= H(f) = mf O(f
3
) (40)
As a consequence, Eq. (27), in case of zero torque load, nally becomes
_ s = x
DR
D
1 cos
2
b
0
sin(2b
0
)
sq(s)[a
/
1
a
/
2
(ln s)
2
[ ln
S
DR
S
DN
ln
S
DR
S
DN
_ _
eq
_ _
(41)
with
ln
S
DR
S
DN
_ _
eq
= H(ln s) ~ mf (42)
where a
i
= a
/
i
D(1 cos
2
b
0
)= sin(2b
0
) with i = 1, 2. Comparing Eq. (41) and Eq. (23) gives under no load
conditions
g(s) = sq(s)[a
/
1
a
/
2
(ln s)
2
[ (43)
Eqs. (42) and (43) show that the shifting response of the variator is determined only by the quantities a
/
1
and a
/
2
and m, that can be easily calculated by means of the CMM model.
4.2. Load conditions
Eq. (41) has been obtained in the case of zero torque load. However, we may expect that under load con-
ditions the basic dependence from the speed ratio and the clamping forces will not change signicantly, i.e. Eq.
(41) should still hold true. The CMM model shows indeed that under load conditions the eect of torque load
may be included in the model simply by modifying the quantity ln(S
DR
/S
DN
)
eq
as
ln
S
DR
S
DN
_ _
eq
~ H(ln s) K
T
DN
R
DN
S
DN
_ _
(44)
where the K function can be calculated by the theory.
G. Carbone et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 42 (2007) 409428 417
It is very important to notice that Eq. (41) has been obtained by means of only dimensional analysis and
symmetry considerations. Therefore, we may expect the formula (41) to be of general validity, i.e. to hold true,
with dierent values of a
/
1
and a
/
2
and m, also in the case of dry-hybrid belts and rubber belts, even though, in
some cases, additional terms of the Taylor expansion might be needed.
5. Comparison with other models
In this section the CMM model predictions will be compared with those provided by Tenberge [16], who
considered the case of a chain belt CVT and used a FEM approach to calculate the Greens function, i.e.
the elastic response of the pulley.
The comparison has focused on both the sliding velocity eld and the friction forces at the pulleybelt inter-
face, and on the axial clamping forces. In this case the CVT is a metal chain variator with the following prop-
erties d = 155 mm, L = 649 mm, and r = 1.2 kg/m. As an example, in steady-state conditions (i.e. _ s = 0) with
s = 2.0, x
DR
= 2000 rpm, R
DR
= 70.3 mm, R
DN
= 35.1 mm, F
min
= 2670 N, F
max
= 6228 N, b
0
= 10, and
l = 0.09, we get (S
DR
)
CMM
= 46.8 kN and (S
DN
)
CMM
= 25.5 kN, whereas Tenberges model gives
(S
DR
)
T
= 46.6 kN and (S
DN
)
T
= 27.0 kN. The agreement is very good, with a dierence of less than 6% on
the driven pulley. However, observe that this dierence may be due to some uncertainties in the value of l
and b
0
. The velocity eld and the friction forces at the beltpulley interface have been also calculated, and,
as shown in Fig. 6, the agreement between the two models is still very good.
A further comparison has been carried out for a dierent running condition, with _ s = 0, s = 0.5,
x
DR
= 2000 rpm, R
DR
= 35.1 mm, R
DN
= 70.2 mm, F
min
= 709 N, F
max
= 723 N, b
0
= 10 and l = 0.09.
The calculated clamping forces are (S
DR
)
CMM
= 5.2 kN and (S
DN
)
CMM
= 6.0 kN, whereas the Tenberges
results are (S
DR
)
T
= 5.4 kN and (S
DN
)
T
= 6.0 kN, showing again a very good agreement with the CMM
model. The corresponding velocity eld and the friction forces are also drawn in Fig. 7, which conrms the
agreement between the two theories. Therefore, we may conclude that the simpler continuum one-dimensional
model of the belt, proposed in Ref. [1], gives very good results, despite the discrete number of contact points
between the chain and the pulley (due to the presence of chain pins). Furthermore, the CMM model solves a
very small number of equations and does not need to deal with the very large number of degrees of freedom of
Fig. 6. A comparison between the Tenberges model (adapted from Ref. [16]) and the CMM model for steady-state conditions. (a) Sliding
velocity eld and (b) friction forces. The following data have been used: s = 2.0, x
DR
= 2000 rpm, R
DR
= 70.3 mm, R
DN
= 35.1 mm,
F
min
= 2670 N, F
max
= 6228 N, b
0
= 10, and l = 0.09.
418 G. Carbone et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 42 (2007) 409428
the system. For this reason, it runs very fast on a PC, mostly in steady-state, when the magnitude D of the
pulley bending does not aect the pressure and tension distributions along the contact arc.
6. Experimental validation of the CMM model
In order to validate the CMM model, a detailed experimental investigation has been carried out. Tests have
been undertaken on a pushing-belt CVT by van Doorne Transmissie, mounted on the power-loop test rig
available at the automotive Engineering Science Laboratory Eindhoven University of Technology, as shown
in Fig. 8. Steady-state experiments under no-load and load conditions have been carried out, whereas shifting
experiments have been carried out only at zero torque load, because the control of the test rig does not
yet allow safe shifting experiments under load conditions. In both kinds of experiments, the secondary clamp-
ing force S
DN
and the primary angular velocity x
DR
have been xed. The geometrical quantities of the push-
ing-belt CVT utilized for the experimental activity, are: belt length L = 703 mm, center-to-center distance of
the pulleys d = 168 mm, b
0
= 11. Moreover the friction coecient has been estimated equal to l = 0.09.
6.1. Power-loop test rig layout
In Fig. 9 the layout of the power-loop test rig is shown. It consists of a drive motor and two variators cou-
pled in parallel. The drive motor shaft is the primary side, the other one is the secondary side. Variator A is
mounted between the drive motor and variator B. Subscripts (1, 2, a, b) indicate the integrated manifold for
the hydraulic system. The couplings connecting the beltboxes can be released without changing the position of
the beltboxes. This enables quick (dis)-assembly of the test rig, without the need to realign the complete setup.
The bearings and belt are lubricated by a separate hydraulic circuit, which is fed by the lubrication pump
(L
a
, L
b
). These circuits also feed the pressure pumps (P
a
, P
b
), which are used to control the pressure
(p
2a
, p
2b
) in the secondary pulley cylinders of the variators. The primary pulley cylinders are pressurized by
the ratio pumps (R
a
, R
b
), which control the ow between the primary and secondary pulley cylinders. Bidirec-
tional external gear pumps are used, with a displacement of 1.0 [cc/rev]. PWM controlled brushless 42 [V] DC
servomotors are used to drive the pressure and ratio pumps. The hydraulic feed of the pulley cylinders is real-
ized by an axial connection, which uses a sealed close clearance bushing to prevent excessive leakage. For the
Fig. 7. A comparison between the Tenberges model (adapted from Ref. [16]) and the CMM model for steady-state conditions. (a) Sliding
velocity eld and (b) friction forces. The following data have been used: s = 0.5, x
DR
= 2000 rpm, R
DR
= 35.1 mm, R
DN
= 70.2 mm,
F
min
= 709 N, F
max
= 723 N, b
0
= 10 and l = 0.09.
G. Carbone et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 42 (2007) 409428 419
shaft connected to the motor, the axial connection is not available and therefore a radial oil feed has been
designed. It consists of a chamber, sealed with two rings in a groove on the shaft. For control and measuring
purposes the test rig is equipped with sensors for pressure (p
1a
, p
2a
, p
1b
, p
2b
), rotational speed (x
1
, x
2
), move-
able pulley sheave position (x
1b
, x
2a
) and torque (T
1
, T
2
).
6.2. Steady-state measurements
In steady-state conditions, the clamping force S
DR
, acting on the primary pulley, has been measured as a
function of the geometrical speed ratio s = R
DR
/R
DN
, for a xed value of the driven pulley clamping force
S
DR
. The speed ratio s has been measured by using axial position sensors, which allow the calculation of
the running radius R
DR
of the belt.
Fig. 8. The power-loop test rig at the automotive Engineering Science Laboratory Eindhoven University of Technology.
Fig. 9. Power-loop test rig layout. Pressure circuit in solid lines, lubrication circuit dashed.
420 G. Carbone et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 42 (2007) 409428
6.2.1. No-load tests
Fig. 10 shows the logarithm of the clamping forces ratio, ln(S
DR
/S
DN
)
eq
, as a function of lns, in steady-
state conditions. Circles represent the measurements, the thin line is the t of the experimental data, while
the thick one represents the theoretical prediction of the CMM model. Data have been measured for dierent
primary angular velocities (x
DR
= 1000, 2000, 3000 rpm) and two dierent values of the secondary clamping
force (S
DN
= 20, 30 kN). The agreement with the theoretical calculation is very good. Experiments have
shown that, as predicted by the CMM model, neither the magnitude of the secondary clamping force S
DN
,
nor the angular velocity of the primary pulley x
DR
have a signicant inuence on the ratio (S
DR
/S
DN
)
eq
in
steady-state. This also conrms that the parameter D does not inuence the steady-state CVT behavior, since
otherwise we should have noticed a strict dependence of (S
DR
/S
DN
)
eq
on S
DN
. All the experimental data,
instead, follow a master curve, see continuous thin line in Fig. 10, which is very close to the theoretical thick
line. The CMM model allows also the calculation of the friction coecient inuence on the ln(S
DR
/S
DN
) vs
lns curve in steady-state conditions. Fig. 11 shows indeed that this inuence is very signicant. The theoret-
ically calculated steady-state curves in Fig. 11 have been obtained for dierent values of l (l = 0, 0.06, 0.09,
0.12, 0.15), and the diagram clearly shows that increasing the friction coecient strongly reduces the slope of
the curves: observe that a friction coecient l = 0.15 can already reduce the slope almost to zero. Of course, in
order to avoid the belt self-locking, the friction coecient must not exceed the limiting value l
lim
= tanb
0
,
which, in our case, is l
lim
= tan11 ~ 0.19. Also observe that at zero friction the steady-state clamping forces
ratio (S
DR
/S
DN
)
l=0
can be easily obtained by means of energy considerations only. In fact, under no load con-
ditions and with no-friction at the pulleybelt interface, the principle of virtual works requires that
S
DR
dx
DR
S
DN
dx
DN
= 0 (45)
Fig. 10. The logarithm of the clamping force ratio ln(S
DR
/S
DN
)
eq
as a function of the logarithm of the geometrical speed ratio ln(s).
Circles represent the experimental data, the thick line represents the theoretical prediction, whereas the thin line is the cubic t of the
experimental data. The friction coecient is l = 0.09, and the pulley groove angle is b = 11.
Fig. 11. The logarithm of the clamping force ratio ln(S
DR
/S
DN
)
eq
at steady-state as a function of the logarithm of the geometrical speed
ratio ln(s). Curves have been calculated using the CMM model for dierent values of the friction coecient l = 0, 0.06, 0.09, 0.12, 0.15.
The pulley groove angle is b = 11.
G. Carbone et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 42 (2007) 409428 421
where dx
DR
and dx
DN
are the virtual axial displacements of the primary and secondary pulleys. Observe that
dx
DR
= 2dR
DR
tanb
0
and dx
DN
= 2dR
DN
tanb
0
where dR
DR
and dR
DN
are the virtual displacements of the
running radius of the belt. Thus, Eq. (45) gives
S
DR
S
DN
_ _
l=0
=
dR
DN
dR
DR
(46)
and using Eq. (21) we get

dR
DN
dR
DR
= h(s) =
p 2 arcsin[(R
DN
R
DR
)=d[
p 2 arcsin[(R
DN
R
DR
)=d[
=
a
DR
a
DN
(47)
where a
DR
and a
DN
are the wrapped angles on the driver and driven pulley respectively. Therefore, Eq. (46)
leads to the very simple relation
S
DR
S
DN
_ _
l=0
=
a
1
a
2
(48)
that, of course, satises the symmetry condition given by Eq. (33).
6.2.2. Load tests
Steady-state experiments have been also performed under load conditions. Fig. 12 shows the logarithm of
the clamping forces ratio as a function of the dimensionless torque load T
DN
/(R
DN
S
DN
) for S
DN
= 30 kN,
x = 1000 rpm and dierent values of the speed ratio (s = 0.50, 0.66, 0.80, 1.00, 1.25, 1.50, 2.00) and torque
load (T
DN
= 20, 40, 80, 100 N m).
Fig. 12 shows a very good agreement between theory and experiments for all the tested speed ratios, thus
conrming the validity of the CMM model. It is worth to notice that the experimental curves show slightly
dierent slopes, if compared to the theoretical ones. This dierence may be due to some uncertainties in
the estimation of the friction coecient that has been used in the theoretical calculations.
However, the experiments have shown that changing the secondary clamping force S
DN
and the rotating
velocity x
DR
causes actually a small modication of the ln(S
DR
/S
DN
)
eq
vs T
DN
/(R
DN
S
DN
) curve in steady-
state. This behavior is predicted neither by the CMM model nor by the dimensional analysis, and a possible
explanation may be the following one. First of all, as already mentioned before, it is important to remark that
the theoretical model does not consider the inuence of bandssegments interaction, that could not always be
negligible, especially in case of too low values of the clamping forces S
DR
and S
DN
. The second aspect is that
the inuence of the lubrication conditions at the pulleybelt interface has not been considered as a relevant
parameter in the theoretical investigation (we simply used a constant friction coecient l = 0.09). Actually,
Fig. 12. The logarithm of the clamping force ratio ln(S
DR
/S
DN
)
eq
as a function of the T
DN
/(R
DN
S
DN
) ratio, dierent values of the
geometrical speed ratio (s = 0.50, 0.66, 0.80, 1.00, 1.25, 1.50 and 2.00) and torque load (T
DN
= 20, 40, 80, 100 N m). Circles represent the
experimental data, the thick line represents the theoretical prediction, whereas the thin line is the t of the experimental data. The friction
coecient is l = 0.09, and the pulley groove angle is b = 11. The secondary clamping force is S
DN
= 30 kN and the primary pulley
rotating speed is x = 1000 rpm.
422 G. Carbone et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 42 (2007) 409428
Fig. 13. The rate of change of speed ratio as a function of ln(S
DR
/S
DN
) for x
DR
= 1000 rpm, for dierent values of s and for two values of
the secondary clamping force S
DN
= 20, 30 kN. The friction coecient is l = 0.09, and the pulley groove angle is b = 11. Thick lines are
the theoretical calculations, thin lines connect the experimental data.
G. Carbone et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 42 (2007) 409428 423
lubrication conditions, as for instance the oil lm thickness, may depend signicantly on the pulley clamping
force and on the rotating speed. Thus, changing the clamping forces and/or the angular velocity of the belt
may modify the friction at the beltpulley interface, thus leading to dierent behaviors of the system. The
authors will report on these aspects of the problem in a next publication.
6.3. Shifting measurements
Shifting tests have been carried out only under no load conditions, since the test bench control system did
not allow to perform load shifting tests under safe conditions. The experiments have been carried out by xing
the shifting speed _ s, the secondary clamping force S
DN
and the primary angular velocity x
DR
. The primary
clamping force S
DR
and the speed ratio s were measured as a function of time t.
A very good way to represent the experimental results is to plot the quantity ln(S
DR
/S
DN
) as a function of
the shifting speed _ s for each value of s, S
DN
and x
DR
. In Fig. 13 the theoretical results are compared with the
experimental ones, for S
DN
= 20, 30 kN, x
DR
= 1000 rpm and for dierent values of the speed ratio s = 0.6,
0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8. Observe the very good agreement with the theoretical calculations (thick lines). In
particular, for xed values of s and S
DN
, all the measured data fall on a straight line. This proves the linear
dependence of _ s on ln(S
DR
/S
DN
), which was one of the most signicant results of the CMM model. Observe
also that the slope of the curves depends, at least slightly, on the secondary clamping force. This can be inter-
preted as due to a change of the magnitude of the pulley deformation and in particular of the dimensionless
parameter D. Indeed, it is expected that increasing the clamping force makes the magnitude of the pulley defor-
mation, i.e. D, grow. Thus, dierent values of D have been used for dierent values of the secondary clamping
force S
DN
; in particular, D = 0.0012 has been used for S
DN
= 30 kN, and D = 0.001 for S
DN
= 20 kN. Fur-
thermore, because of the linear elastic response of the system, we also expect a linear relation between D
and S
DN
to hold true, that is
D = [1 0:02(S
DN
20)[ 10
3
(49)
where S
DN
is expressed in kN. If S
DN
= 0, the only quantity that aects the value of D is the clearance between
the pulley and its shaft. Placing S
DN
= 0 in Eq. (49), we get D = 0.6 10
3
.
Fig. 13 shows that D is not, or at least is only slightly aected by the actual value of the speed ratio s.
Observe also that the small dierence between the theory and the experiments, sometimes observed in
Fig. 13, is mainly due to a dierent value of the steady-state clamping force ratio (S
DR
/S
DN
)
eq
, rather than
to a dierent slope of the curves.
However, results obtained at s = 1 require some considerations. In this case, a step-type variation of the
experimental curves is shown as they intersect the origin of the diagram. In order to understand this unex-
pected behavior, rst observe that, when the speed ratio s is equal to 1, the system is again in a situation
of complete symmetry between the _ s < 0 case and the _ s > 0 one. Symmetry requires that
S
DR
S
DN
_ _
_ s
=
S
DN
S
DR
_ _
_ s
(50)
which, in terms of ln(S
DR
/S
DN
), means that the experimental curves must be antisymmetric with respect to the
origin of the axes. Nonetheless, this is shown not to happen. The deviation from symmetry may again be
caused by a not strictly uniform value of the friction coecient along the radial direction, which breaks the
symmetry. But more likely this deviation may be caused by the bandsegments interaction, which has not been
taken into account in the CMM theory. In all the other cases, the dierence between theory and experiments is
negligible.
Fig. 14 shows the eect of the primary angular velocity on the shifting behavior of the system. Two cases
are shown, one for s = 1 and the other one for s = 1.2. In both cases, S
DN
= 20 kN, whereas the angular veloc-
ity is respectively x
DR
= 1000, 2000 rpm. A very good agreement with the results predicted by the CMM
model is again clearly shown. This conrms that a direct proportionality between the shifting speed _ s and
the primary pulley angular velocity x
DR
actually holds true. Similar results have been also obtained in all
the other cases, i.e. for dierent values of s and of the secondary clamping force S
DN
.
424 G. Carbone et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 42 (2007) 409428
Fig. 15 shows the rate of change of the speed ratio _ s as a function of the force ratio S
DR
/S
DN
, instead of
ln(S
DR
/S
DN
). The gure clearly shows that in the linearlinear diagram the curve deviates signicantly from a
straight line, especially for small values of s, thus showing again that the logarithmic relation is much more
appropriate than the Ides formula [6,7]
_ s
Ide
~
1
(S
DR
=S
DN
)
eq
S
DR
S
DN
_ _

S
DR
S
DN
_ _
eq
_ _
(51)
However, it is worth to observe that at higher speed ratios the deviation becomes less signicant. This might be
easily explained considering that the Taylor expansion of ln(S
DR
/S
DN
) ln(S
DR
/S
DN
)
eq
about the steady-
state point (S
DR
/S
DN
)
eq
is
Fig. 15. The rate of change of speed ratio as a function of (S
DR
/S
DN
), for dierent values of the speed ratio s. The primary pulley speed is
x
1
= 1000 rpm and the secondary clamping force is S
DN
= 20 kN. The friction coecient is l = 0.09 and the pulley groove angle is
b = 11. The curve shows a signicant deviation from a straight line, especially when s < 1.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 14. The rate of change of speed ratio as a function of ln(S
DR
/S
DN
). The primary pulley speed is x
1
= 1000, 2000 rpm, the speed ratio
is s = 1.0, 1.2 and the secondary clamping force is S
2
= 20 kN. The friction coecient is l = 0.09 and the pulley groove angle is b = 11.
Thick lines are the theoretical calculations, thin lines connect the experimental data.
G. Carbone et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 42 (2007) 409428 425
ln
S
DR
S
DN
_ _
ln
S
DR
S
DN
_ _
eq
=
1
(S
DR
=S
DN
)
eq
S
DR
S
DN
_ _

S
DR
S
DN
_ _
eq
_ _

1
2
1
(S
DR
=S
DN
)
2
eq
S
DR
S
DN
_ _

S
DR
S
DN
_ _
eq
_ _
2

(52)
Therefore the dierence between the Ides relation Eq. (51) and the CMM Eq. (23) can be rewritten as
_ s
Ide
_ s ~
1
(S
DR
=S
DN
)
2
eq
S
DR
S
DN
_ _

S
DR
S
DN
_ _
eq
_ _
2
(53)
Eq. (53) shows that the dierence between the Ides linear relation and the CMM one rapidly increases as
(S
DR
/S
DN
)
eq
is decreased below 1, that is to say when the speed ratio of the system is s < 1 (see Fig. 10).
Increasing s makes the term (S
DR
/S
DN
)
eq
increase, and when s > 1, being (S
DR
/S
DN
)
eq
> 1, the correction be-
comes less important.
7. Conclusions
In this work a detailed experimental investigation concerning the V-belt CVT dynamics has been carried
out, in order to compare the theoretical predictions of the so-called CMM theoretical model by Carbone
et al. [1] with the experimental results. A very good agreement between theory and experiments has been
found, both in steady-state and during shifting maneuvers. This conrms all the most important predictions
of the model. In particular, it has been shown that during relatively slow shifting maneuvers (creep-mode) the
rate of change of the speed ratio _ s is a linear function of the logarithm of the clamping force ratio S
DR
/S
DN
.
The authors have also shown, by means of dimensional analysis and using the physical symmetry of the CVT
under no-load conditions, that the linear relation between _ s and ln(S
DR
/S
DN
) is a relatively robust property of
V-belt CVTs, not depending on whether the belt is a chain belt or a pushing belt. The linear relation between _ s
and ln(S
DR
/S
DN
) has also been compared with Ides formula, which is, instead, a linear relation between _ s and
S
DR
/S
DN
. The experiments have shown that Ides relation may well approximate the real CVT shifting behav-
ior only for speed ratio values greater than 1, whereas in all other cases the approximation is less good. Exper-
iments have also conrmed that, as predicted by the CMM model, the shifting speed is also proportional to
the angular velocity of the primary pulley, and that it increases as the magnitude of pulley deformation is
increased, i.e. as the clamping forces on the pulleys are increased. The CMM predictions have been also com-
pared with those by Tenberge [16] for the chain belt. Also in this case, the agreement is really very good, show-
ing that the continuum belt approximation, which is the basis of the CMM model, works very well, not
depending on the typology of the considered belt, i.e. both for the pushing and chain belts. On the basis of
these very good results, the authors also propose a relatively simple dierential equation to describe the
creep-mode evolution of the variator. Very few parameters appear in the formula, which may be calculated
either experimentally or theoretically. This equation is of utmost importance to design advanced CVT control
systems, which aim at improving the CVT eciency, cars drivability and fuel economy.
Acknowledgements
G. Carbone would like to thank prof. M. Steinbuch and Dr. P.A. Veenhuizen for the support during three
months visit at the Department of Mechanical Engineering Eindhoven University of Technology, where
most of this research project has been performed. G. Carbone also thanks Ir. J. van Rooij and Ir. G. Com-
missaris by Gear Chain Industrial B.V. (Nuenen NL) for their support during the experimental activity.
Appendix A. Groove angle and axial displacement of the pulley sheaves
In this appendix we provide a brief clarication about Eqs. (3)(5) which constitute the basis of the Sattlers
model [10]. Fig. 16 shows the pulley bending being a consequence of two contributions. The former is related
426 G. Carbone et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 42 (2007) 409428
to the pulley tilting which may be caused by clearance between the moving pulley and the shaft and produce a
modication b
0
b of the half-opening angle of the groove, the latter is related to the elastic displacement u/2
of the pulley sheaves, determined by the pressure distribution at the interface between the belt and the pulleys.
Referring to Fig. 16 (where b
0
is the grooves angle of the undeformed pulley, and R is the distance from the
pulley axis that the belt would have if the pulley sheaves were rigid), and neglecting the transversal deforma-
tions of the belt the following equations hold true
b = 2Rtan b
0
d
b = 2r tan b d u
(A1)
where b is the constant transversal width of the belt. Eq. (A1) yields
r tan b = Rtan b
0

u
2
(A2)
which is the same as Eq. (5). By using FEM calculations, Sattler has shown in Ref. [10] that in case of high
sheave stiness the varying groove angle b and the varying axial groove width u can be described by Eqs. (3)
and (4).
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0
is
the groove angle of the undeformed pulley, and R is the pitch radius of the belt.
G. Carbone et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 42 (2007) 409428 427
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