Vol.

2, n2 | 1998 : Histoire de la criminalit et de la justice pnale en Amrique latine /

riminal justice !istor" in #atin America
Articles
Gender conflicts in the courts of the early
Venezuelan republic, Caracas, 1811-1840
Arlene J. !az
p. $%&%$
'sum | (lan | )e*te | +i,lio-rap!ie | .otes | itation | Auteur
"#su$#s
/n-lis! 0ran1ais
#es 2emmes de aracas, au d,ut de la rpu,lique, lutt3rent pour leur -alit juridique
au mo"en de 2rquentes actions judiciaires. #a nou4elle constitution rpu,licaine de
1811 adopta les 5 6roits de l7Homme 8 et ta,lit l7-alit et la cito"ennet des
Vn9uliens. ependant, le droit ci4il espa-nol, 2ond sur des distinctions de classe, de
race et de se*e, resta en 4i-ueur sous le nou4eau r-ime. :l en rsultait une opposition
entre deu* ensem,les de droits : ceu* des padres de 2amilia ;!ommes c!e2s de 2amille<
c!erc!ant = prser4er leurs anciennes prro-ati4es et ceu* des ciudadanas ;cito"ennes<
qui escomptaient une certaine rciprocit, au plan matriel, dans leurs relations a4ec les
!ommes. #es 2emmes appartenant au* lites sociales usaient ou4ertement de leurs droits
ci4iques pour d2endre leurs ,iens, tandis que les 2emmes des classes populaires
d2endaient a4ec insistance leurs droits indi4iduels. #a majorit de l7c!antillon tudi
;18$%&18>?< tait issue des classes populaires ;@2 A< et la plupart des actions ;%1 A<
taient en-a-es par les 2emmes elles&mBmes.
Haut de pa-e
%lan
Cender relations in late colonial aracas
Cender con2licts in t!e earl" repu,lic
Domen de2endin- t!eir indi4idual li,erties : t!e !idden transcripts
A claim o2 citi9ens!ip : t!e 5 pu,lic transcript 8
Haut de pa-e
&e'te int#(ral
(60 1,$E Fi-naler ce document
2 A2ter attainin- independence 2rom Fpain, t!e 2ormer aptainc"&Ceneral o2
Vene9uela, t!e Vice&ro"al;...<
$ !erpaG ;19@8, p. 2$?<.
> Arrom ;198%, p. 1>&%2<.
1'esearc! on t!e participation o2 Homen o2 Cran olom,ia2 durin- t!e Hars o2
independence !as concluded t!at independence did not si-ni2icantl" c!an-e Homen7s
position in societ". :t !as also ,een ar-ued t!at ,ot! men and Homen !eld t!e same
traditional attitudes concernin- -ender, and t!at in Cran olom,ia Homen !ad a 4er"
limited notion o2 t!eir oHn ri-!ts$. 'esearc! on Ee*ico !as presented a more comple*
picture o2 t!e 2emale condition, as Homen Hon respect, 4isi,ilit", and an appreciation
2or t!eir capacities t!rou-! t!e independence stru--le. HoHe4er, a2ter t!e Hars, Homen
Hent ,acG to t!eir traditional roles>. )!e paucit" o2 researc! notHit!standin-, t!e
-eneral notion is t!at independence 2rom Fpain did not ,rin- major c!an-es to t!e
2emale condition in #atin America.
2D!ile t!ese o,ser4ations ma" ,e incontro4erti,le 2rom t!e standpoint o2 H!at Has
2ormali9ed in laHs, disseminated in print media, and pu,licl" e4ident, t!e" re2lect t!e
assumption t!at 2or contestation to occur it must ,e or-ani9ed, per!aps collecti4e, ,ut
certainl" mani2est in t!e pu,lic e"e. )!e pro,lem Hit! t!is perspecti4e is t!at it 2osters
t!e impression t!at Homen Here passi4e mem,ers o2 societ" durin- a period o2
re4olutionar" c!an-e ,ecause t!e" did not react in a particular, e*pected Ha". De must
consider, !oHe4er, t!at a su,stantial proportion o2 Homen7s e4er"da" acti4ities in #atin
America ;as in ot!er parts o2 t!e Horld< un2olded in uno,ser4ed places liGe t!e domestic
sp!ere, not in pu,lic, mostl" male&dominated areas. Hence, t!e need to searc! 2or
Homen7s 4oices in sources di22erent 2rom traditional !istorical records.
% Fcott ;199?<.
I Fee Eallon ;199%, p. 9<.
@ )!is !as ,een t!e 2ocus o2 recent researc!. Fee Eallon ;199%< J Kosep! and
.u-ent ;199>< J and Cua;...<
8 Eallon stresses t!at 5 it is possi,le to anal"9e politics at all le4els as nested
arenas o2 contes;...<
$:n t!is particular endea4or, : use Kames . Fcott7s dual concept o2 5 pu,lic 8 and
5 !idden 8 transcripts to unco4er and discern actions t!rou-! H!ic! Vene9uelan Homen
resisted domination 2rom a,o4e%. )!ese actions ran-e, respecti4el", 2rom !i-!l" 4isi,le
ones t!at directl" c!allen-ed t!ose in poHer to less conspicuous acts o2 resistance
e*pressed in e4er"da" ,e!a4ior. :n Vene9uela, t!e contradictions ,etHeen elite
discourse on equalit" and li,ert" and t!e actual conditions o2 li2e o2 t!e 4ast majorit" o2
t!e population ;e*cluded 2rom poHer and 2rom t!e social and economic opportunities o2
t!e neHl" independent nation< ine4ita,l" created tensions H!ic! touc!ed o22 resistance
2rom ,eloHI. D!ile loHer&class resistance o2ten tooG t!e 2orm o2 open stru--les o4er
political poHer L stru--les H!ic! !a4e le2t a 5 pu,lic transcript 8@ L contestation also
un2olded in less conspicuous Ha"s, as H!en t!e loHer classes ,attled a-ainst su,tle
2orms o2 social control so in-rained in societ" t!at t!e" Here percei4ed as normal and
natural in people7s dail" li4es. (atriarc!" Has one 2orm o2 control t!at Has rei2ied in
social norms and mores. Ftru--les to c!allen-e t!e contradictions ,etHeen o22icial
discourse and practice did not necessaril" taGe place in t!e political landscape primaril",
,ut could de4elop Hit!in t!e sp!ere o2 t!e !ouse!old. )!ese stru--les ;c!ie2l" -ender
con2licts< are t!e 2ocus o2 t!is stud"8.
9 )!is essa" is ,ased on tHo samples o2 ci4il, criminal, and ecclesiastical
laHsuits ,etHeen 1@8I an;...<
>:n t!is essa" : anal"9e a mass o2 ci4il, criminal, and ecclesiastical court cases to
construct narrati4es o2 indi4idual e*periences o2 Homen in aracas durin- t!e earl"
repu,lic9. 6urin- t!is period, Homen stru--led 2or equal protection under t!e laH as
Hell as 2or a more e-alitarian relations!ips Hit! men Hit!in t!e !ouse!old. :n ,ot!
spaces, t!e conjuncture o2 t!e post&independence pro4ed decisi4e. )!e ci4il Hars o2
independence and t!e esta,lis!ment o2 t!e neH repu,lic pro4ided Homen o2 ,ot! elite
and loHer&class ,acG-rounds Hit! a neH conte*t, and more importantl", Hit! neH
discursi4e tools to stru--le 2or equalit" at !ome and in t!e courts.
%0emale notions o2 proper -ender relations Here not, o2 course, neH to t!e earl"
repu,lic. )o ,etter understand t!e c!an-es and continuities o2 -ender issues durin- t!e
earl" repu,lic, : Hill 2irst discuss some salient points a,out t!e nature o2 -ender
con2licts in late colonial aracas. .e*t, : e*amine t!e e22ect o2 independence o4er t!e
r!etoric and actions o2 Homen durin- t!e earl" repu,lic. A special section is de4oted to
court cases in4ol4in- -ender con2licts in H!ic! loHer&class Homen participated. 0inall",
t!e contestation o2 upper&class Homen in courts is presented, one t!at openl" com,ined
a r!etoric o2 citi9ens!ip Hit! t!e condition o2 propert" oHners.
Gender relations in late colonial Caracas
I:n t!e late colonial period, t!e loHer classes Here quite conscious o2 t!eir position in
t!e Fpanis! !ierarc!ical social order and Here 2amiliar Hit! upper&class, o22icial notions
o2 proper -ender roles, in particular, Hit! t!e ideal o2 2emale isolation or separation
2rom men. #i4in- in t!e cramped conditions in late ei-!teent!&centur" aracas,
!oHe4er, made t!is ideal di22icult to accomplis!. M2ten, at t!e le4el o2 t!e !ouse!old,
man" people slept in t!e same room, sla4es and 2ree, male and 2emale1?. Feparation o2
t!e races Has equall" impro,a,le.
1? :n !is diar" o2 t!e pastoral 4isit to t!e pro4ince o2 Vene9uela ,etHeen 1@@1
and 1@8>, +is!op Eari;...<
11 Fee 2or e*ample 5 'ita Antonia 6ias escla4a de 6oa Earia Antonia 6ias
so,re su li,ertad 8, AA.H,;...<
12 Fee 6Na9 ;199@, c!apter $<.
1$ Fee Ecaa ;198><.
@(oor Homen and e4en sla4es !ad to HorG 2or t!eir dail" sustenance and t!us did not
depend solel" on t!e support o2 male ,readHinners11. Ftories 2rom late ei-!teent!&
centur" court cases t!at : !a4e anal"9ed in anot!er HorG su--est t!at relations!ips
amon- t!e se*es and races Here quite 2luid and t!at man" poor Homen conducted t!eir
dail" li4es Hit! certain autonom"12. )!is does not mean t!at Homen did not seeG to
2ul2ill ideal roles as Hi4es and mot!ers, nor t!at t!e li4es o2 Homen Hit!out male
-uardians Here eas". :n t!e narrati4es o2 Homen a4aila,le t!rou-! t!e court cases,
!oHe4er, it is clear t!at Homen Here acti4e in t!e !ouse!olds, and t!at i2 t!e"
acGnoHled-ed ,ein- su,missi4e, suc! acGnoHled-ement Has conditional and, t!ere2ore,
temporal. ases o2 complete su,ordination are not unGnoHn, !oHe4er. )o ,e sure, le-al
con2licts are not a complete representation o2 t!e e*perience o2 t!e H!ole communit".
A4aila,le e4idence su--ests t!at in Vene9uela a Homan aspired to and 4alued 2ormal
marria-e and Has Hillin- to e*c!an-e !er 4ir-init" ;t!e one t!in- t!at determined !er
and !er 2amil"7s !onor in societ" accordin- to t!e c!urc! and t!e state< 2or a promise o2
marria-e1$.
1> D!et!er t!ese ideas came 2rom t!e c!urc!, H!o placed more constraints on
t!e prero-ati4es o2 men t;...<
1% OPntitled : 6on Q-nacio Con9Rle9 & su mujer se resiste a cumplir con las
o,li-aciones de su estado;...<
1I OPntitled : 6i4orcio & Kuana 0eliciana 6ias con Kuan 6omin-o EorenoS,
AA, Eatrimoniales, 1@9>, le;...<
80ormal marria-e, !oHe4er, did not alHa"s resol4e t!e pli-!t o2 Homen ,ecause, e4en
in marria-e, some males did not ,e!a4e as responsi,le partners. (oor colonial Homen
!ad a particular 4ision o2 proper -ender relations!ips, one in H!ic! ,ot! Homen and
men !ad equal responsi,ilities in t!e domestic conte*t1>. :n 1@9>, :-na&cia A9carate, a
poor H!ite, claimed in court t!at 5 a Homan is -i4en to a man in marria-e to ,ecome !is
partner OcompaeraS not to su22er 4e*ation, oppression and 4iolence 2rom ill&tempered
men, H!o a,usin- t!eir poHer and p!"sical stren-t!, 2or-et t!eir main o,li-ations as
!us,ands, as !ristians and as citi9ens 81%. :n t!e same 4ein Kuana 0eliciana 6Na9 Hrote
to t!e court : 5 HoH !ard is t!e pli-!t o2 married Homen T Mne rarel" 2inds a !us,and
H!o !as t!e same re-ard toHard !is companion OconsorteS... )!e !us,and ,ecomes a
t"rant, t!e Hi2e a sla4e, t!e !ome !ell, and t!e c!ildren are un2ortunate Hitnesses o2 t!is
!orri,le and lamenta,le metamorp!osis 81I.
1@ OPntitled : 6on Q-nacio Con9Rle9S, 2ols. @2r&@$r.
18 0or instance, 5 6emanda matrimonial de EarNa de los Fantos Earques
contra Kuan de la 'o* 6ias 8, A;...<
19 OPntitled : 6i4orcio & Kuana 0eliciana 6iasS, 2ol. 8r.
2? )!is idea is 2irml" asserted in t!e Siete Partidas, H!ic! 2urt!er esta,lis!ed
t!at t!e adult male;...<
9+ot! in t!e late colonial and in t!e earl" repu,lican periods re2erences to marria-e as
sla4er" and to Hi4es treated as sla4es appeared constantl" in t!e records. Fince men !ad
le-al control o4er t!eir 2amilies, sometimes t!e" !eld t!e mistaGen ,elie2 t!at Homen
Here t!eir pri4ate propert" and Here o,li-ed to ser4e t!em. )!e case o2 :-nacia
A9carate ser4es as a -ood e*ample. Accordin- to !er testimon", !er !us,and came to
t!e marria-e Hit! onl" empt" promises and Hit! t!e intention o2 5 !a4in- a sla4e, OH!o
HouldS ser4e and looG a2ter !im and !is c!ildren, Oand endureS t!e "oGe o2 !is ill&
temper 81@. :n t!ese and ot!er cases, Homen 4ieHed t!eir marria-e as a contract, as a
pact amon- equal partners, as a union o2 compaeros18. :n t!e eloquent Hords o2 Kuana
0eliciana, 5 marria-e t!ou-! a sacrament alHa"s remains a compact 819. And it Has
under t!is ,elie2 t!at t!e" complained a,out t!e a,uses and lacG o2 responsi,ilit" o2 t!e
men in t!e relations!ip. )!ese Homen Here c!allen-in- t!e o22icial !ierarc!" o2 poHer
Hit!in t!e !ouse!old. Accordin- to t!e colonial state, H!ile Homen ;considered
i-norant and HeaG< necessitated a male -uardian to protect t!eir p!"sical ,ein-s and
t!eir material properties2?.
21 5 FeparaciUn que pretende 6a. Ana EarNa #ope9 Qn2ante 8, 2ol. 2$r.
22 5 Autos de di4orcio que si-ue 6a. 0rancisca 'osalNa HernRnde9 contra su
le-Ntimo marido 6on Kuan );...<
1?Eales Here inclined to see -ender relations in t!e li-!t o2 H!at Has esta,lis!ed ," t!e
Fpanis! state. )!e" concei4ed o2 marria-e as a sacrament, an un,reaGa,le ,ond in
H!ic! t!e poHer relations!ip ,etHeen !us,and and Hi2e Has in!erentl" unequal. 0or
t!is reason, t!e" tried to assert in t!e courts t!e importance o2 t!is le-al ,onda-e. As one
!us,and put it : !is 5 le-itimate Hi2e ma" !a4e ,elie4ed t!at t!e marria-e ,ond, 4ested
Hit! t!e respecta,le condition o2 t!e sacrament, Has a to" or a matter o2 little
importance 821. Domen7s 4ieH o2 marria-e ;maGin- t!eir su,mission conditional to t!e
2ul2illment o2 men o2 certain o,li-ations< seemed to !us,ands as an attempt to
appropriate patria potestas. )!us, men Hanted to maGe sure, e4er" time, t!at 5 in t!e
2amil", no one else O-o4ernedS ,ut t!em 822.
11)!e interpla" ,etHeen t!e se*es in late colonial aracas pro4ides a -ood e*ample o2
t!e man" Ha"s in H!ic! -ender relations ,ecame intrinsicall" related to t!e poHer and
or-ani9ation o2 t!e corporatist state. 6espite Homen7s su,ordinate social and le-al
position, t!e" contested male dominance ,ot! in t!e !ouse!old and in t!e courts,
seeGin- a relations!ip in H!ic! ,ot! -enders carried equal responsi,ilities Hit!in t!e
2amil". Een, instead, Here primaril" concerned Hit! Geepin- t!eir position o2 command
o4er t!e !ouse!old.
12)!e limited set o2 ri-!ts -o4ernin- Homen7s participation in t!e courts did not stop
t!em 2rom usin- t!e state7s institutions. Almost !al2 o2 t!e cases ;in a sample draHn
2rom late colonial cases, in 1@8I&189?< Here ,rou-!t ," Homen t!emsel4es ;>9 percent
o2 a total o2 1>? cases<. M2 t!ese, 81 percent Here 2iled ," loHer&class Homen.
HoHe4er, it s!ould ,e noted t!at it Has a2ter 1@9? t!at t!e num,er o2 laHsuits reall"
soared J indeed, >@ percent o2 t!e sample cases ,elon- to 1@9? alone. )!is increase
seemed to !a4e ,een produced ," an increase in t!e participation o2 t!e loHer classes in
t!e courts. :n t!at same "ear, %? percent o2 all t!e laHsuits Here 2iled ," poor
araqueVos. +e2ore 1@9?, laHsuits ," t!e upper classes predominated, most o2 t!em
concerned Hit! issues o2 propert" and social status. A2ter 1@9?, t!e claims ,ecame more
di4ersi2ied, marria-e and personal con2licts ,ecomin- more common.
2$ Fee Ea-allanes ;1982<.
1$Alt!ou-! 2urt!er researc! on t!is p!enomenon is needed, a4aila,le e4idence su--ests
t!at t!is increase in court participation ," t!e loHer classes Has concurrent Hit! a
Hidespread questionin- o2 t!e le-itimac" o2 colonial rule. +" t!e last tHo decades o2 t!e
ei-!teent! centur", t!e num,er o2 re4olts, riots, and insurrections increased. 0i4e o2 a
total o2 ei-!t o2 t!ese mo4ements occurred in t!e pro4ince o2 aracas a2ter t!e 1@8?s,
and 2our o2 t!ose 2i4e Here led ," t!e loHer classes o2 t!e pro4ince, protestin- a-ainst
ta*es, -o4ernment monopolies, and sla4er"2$. )!us, e4en t!ou-! t!e cit" itsel2 Has
quiet, social tensions in t!e restless pro4ince around it periodicall" erupted into
4iolence.
2> Fee (ino :turrieta ;1991, p. 21&I$ J 1@8&18@<.
2% Ibid., 28.
2I Ibid., >?.
1>Accordin- to !istorian /lNas (ino :turrieta, man" o2 t!e re2ormist ideas t!at
en-endered mo,ili9ation in t!e late ei-!teent! and earl" nineteent! centuries came to
Vene9uela t!rou-! 2orei-n and Fpanis! commerce s!ips2>. )!e introduction o2
re4olutionar" propa-anda ,ecame a concern 2or t!e Fpanis! state, as demonstrated in a
series o2 neH le-islation a2ter 1@%? t!at increasin-l" punis!ed t!ose accused o2
participatin- in t!e spread o2 modern ideas and in promotin- popular mo,ili9ation2%.
)rinidad Has one important 2ocus 2or t!e spread o2 modern ideas, suc! as t!ose o2 t!e
0renc! 'e4olution and Pnited Ftates :ndependence. (u,lic parties, oral transmission o2
neHs 2rom a,road, su,4ersi4e propa-anda, and in2ormal sc!ools or-ani9ed in ,ar,er
s!ops !elped stir up nationalist sentiment and an appreciation 2or indi4idual li,erties,
especiall" in t!e apital cit"2I.
2@ !erpaG ;19@8, p. 22?&221<.
28 Ibid., 222. Fee also )roconis de Veracoec!ea ;199?, p. 128, 1$2&1%2<.
1%:n t!e late colonial protest mo4ements ;H!ic! set t!e sta-e 2or t!e stru--le 2or
independence in t!e nineteent! centur"< Homen Here not a,sent. Domen acti4el"
participated in pre&independence re4olts suc! as t!e 1@9% sla4e re,ellion in oro and
t!e Cual&/spaVa conspirac" o2 1@9@2@. )!e" also participated in t!e independence
Hars. (oor Homen called troperas L soldiers7 Hi4es, 2riends or lo4ers L 2olloHed patriot
and re,el troops to t!e countr"side, preparin- 2ood, assistin- Hounded soldiers, and
e4en taGin- up arms H!en needed. Mt!ers sta"ed in t!e cit" to de2end ur,an dHellers28.
1I)!e participation o2 t!e popular classes in t!e ci4il Hars o2 independence and a neH
political conte*t molded ," constitutional ri-!ts Here poHer2ul stimuli 2or Homen.
Pnder t!ese neH conditions, Homen 2elt sel2&assured and aHare o2 t!eir capacit" as
decision maGers and a-ents o2 c!an-e in aracas societ". Actin- in t!is !istorical
conjuncture, Homen in aracas appropriated t!e ideas and re4olutionar" lan-ua-e o2
li,eral repu,licanism as Heapons in t!eir con2licts Hit! men.
Gender conflicts in the early republic
1@Dit! t!e ,irt! o2 t!e neH repu,lic came pro2ound c!an-es in t!e relations!ip ,etHeen
-o4ernment and t!e -o4erned. )!e 1811 onstitution ,rou-!t a 2ormal end to t!e
Fpanis! corporatist state and esta,lis!ed a c!arter inspired ," li,eral ideals o2 t!e
0renc! 'e4olution and t!e onstitution o2 t!e Pnited Ftates. Amon- t!ose principles
Has t!e radical notion t!at Vene9uelans Here equal ,e2ore t!e laH : no one could !old
title or pri4ile-e ot!er t!an t!at o2 citi9en29. )!is meant t!at t!e laH Hould not
reco-ni9e an" special pri4ile-es, includin- t!ose o2 ,irt!, purit" o2 ,lood, no,ilit" titles
or an special status liGe t!ose enjo"ed ," t!e aristocrac" or ," indi-enous communities.
+" t!e same toGen, t!e onstitution re4oGed all ancient laHs t!at 5 imposed a ci4il
de-radation upon a portion o2 t!e 2ree population o2 Vene9uela GnoHn as pardos 8 and
made t!em equal to e4er"one else$?.
29 Art. 1%> and 22I o2 t!e 1811 onstitution. )!e 1811 onstitution onl" lasted
2or one "ear due to t;...<
$? Fee onstitution o2 1811, !apter :W, Arts. 2?1&22I. A pardo is a person o2
mi*ed A2rican and H!it;...<
$1 Accordin- to t!e 1811 onstitution, !apter ::, 2nd Fection, art. 2I a 4oter
Has a 2ree male, 21 ";...<
18D!ile independence leaders adopted t!e principle o2 t!e 5 'i-!ts o2 Ean 8 ;li,ert",
2raternit", equalit", and propert"< into t!e constitution, t!e concept o2 citi9ens!ip Has
ultimatel" limited to male propert" oHners. Hence t!e majorit" o2 t!e non&propertied
sectors, includin- a lar-e num,er o2 pardos, sla4es, :ndians, and Homen, Here denied
political ri-!ts$1. )!ese ideas continued in t!e 18$? onstitution, dra2ted in t!e
a2termat! o2 Vene9uela7s split 2rom t!e Cran olom,ian union.
$2 :n 1821, H!en t!e union ,etHeen Vene9uela and olom,ia L H!ic! He call
toda" Cran olom,ia L Has e;...<
$$ )!is same pattern is discussed 2or Ar-entina ," ,ot! F9uc!man ;1988, p. 1$<
and Cu" ;198%<. Arrom;...<
196espite t!e c!an-e in t!e 2orm o2 -o4ernment, t!e Fpanis! le-al tradition Has
maintained a2ter independence to -i4e continuit" and le-itimac" to Vene9uelan judicial
institutions$2. 6urin- t!e earl" repu,lic, t!e 4arious colonial codes t!at supported class,
race, and -ender distinctions still 2ormed t!e primar" ,asis 2or determinin- people7s
ri-!ts in courts. :n-rained Fpanis! ideas on -ender roles, speci2icall" patriarc!alism,
continued to ser4e t!e state and t!e courts as a means o2 or-ani9in- 2amil" li2e$$. )!e
inte-ration o2 li,eral ideas into t!e juridical s"stem, particularl" t!e ri-!ts t!at applied
to ordinar" citi9ens, Hould !a4e to Hait until t!e dra2tin- o2 t!e i4il ode o2 18@$.
)!us, ,etHeen 1811 and 18@$ t!e state and t!e citi9ens !ad to deal Hit! t!e
contradiction ,etHeen t!e constitutional ri-!t o2 Homen to ,e citi9ens ;ciudadanas< and
t!e in2erior status accorded to t!em ," Fpanis! ci4il laH.
$> !iossone ;198?, p. 12$&><. Fee also +us!nell ;19%>, p. >I&>@, >9<.
2?)!e judicial s"stem Has a,le to 2unction in spite o2 t!e con2usion created ," t!e use
o2 4arious le-al codes in!erited 2rom t!e colonial and earl" repu,lican times. )!e need
to pro4ide co!esi4eness to t!e state and consolidate its le-itimac" -a4e support to a
HorGin- judicial apparatus. )!e 2act t!at le-al institutions maintained Fpanis! juridical
traditions ser4ed to esta,lis! a continuit" in t!e s"stem e4en in periods o2 social and
political crisis. onsiderin- t!e 4ariet" o2 people H!o relied on t!e tri,unals 2or sol4in-
con2licts, t!e ,alance maintained ," t!e judiciar" durin- t!is period is trul"
remarGa,le$>.
$% Fee #.@, t.19, li,.%, Novsima Recopilacin ; Diccionario razonado, s.4.
5 liti-ante 8 and 5 po,re;...<
$I Cuerpo de lees, decretos resoluciones sancionados por los Con!resos de
"enezuela en los aos de;...<
21+ased on Fpanis! laH o2 t!e Novsima Recopilacin, t!e tri,unals o2 aracas !onored
petitions 2rom t!e poor. )!e Recopilacin pro4ided t!at a person Hit!out resources
could ,e e*empted 2rom t!e costs o2 justice i2 !e or s!e presented a 5 erti2Ncate o2
(o4ert" 8. Fome Homen, especiall" t!ose seeGin- di4orce, Here issued suc! certi2icates
on t!e -rounds t!at t!eir !us,ands Here not pro4idin- support$%. :n addition, t!e poor
could attend loHer courts, !eaded ," an alcalde parro#uial ;a local paris! ma-istrate<,
2or a 5 conciliation 8 or a 5 4er,al 8 trial. )!ese ,rie2 trials, Hit! t!e plainti22 orall"
2ilin- a claim in court, aimed to resol4e smaller complaints suc! as de,ts under one
!undred pesos, de2amation o2 c!aracter or marital 2i-!ts. :n t!em, t!e contendin- parties
sou-!t conciliation or a e*pedient solution, t!us minimi9in- t!e need 2or a case to -o to
a !i-!er court$I. Fome o2 t!e 2>? cases o2 t!e earl" repu,lic Here collected amon-
t!ese $uicios de conciliacin and $uicios verbales 2or t!e aracas paris!es.
$@ )!e percenta-e Hould ,e !i-!er i2 : added t!e num,er o2 cases in ot!er
cate-ories in H!ic! Homen H;...<
$8 Fusan FocoloH ;199?< 2ound t!at Homen in4ol4ed in criminal cases in
+uenos Aires in t!e 1@%@&1@9@;...<
22)!e e*tent o2 2emale participation as liti-ants in court ,elies t!e entrenc!ed ,elie2
t!at Homen as a -roup Here passi4e. 6ata 2rom aracas tri,unals point to t!e contrar".
)!e 2act t!at in >$.$ percent o2 t!e cases Homen acted as plainti22s is rat!er astonis!in-
considerin- t!at t!e tri,unals remained a male&dominated Horld$@. /4en t!ou-! 19.2
percent o2 Homen Here 4ictims and a small percenta-e Here a--ressors or accomplices
;2.9 and ?.> percent, respecti4el"<, one Honders H!et!er Homen Here as su,missi4e as
is -enerall" ,elie4ed. )!e attitudes and actions o2 Cara#ueas : studied contrasts
s!arpl" Hit! t!e demeanor o2 Homen in late colonial +uenos Aires$8.
$9 )!e percenta-e o2 Homen H!o initiated t!e le-al procedure in court ;%?.I
percent< is t!e sum o2 t!;...<
2$)o 2urt!er illustrate t!e initiati4es o2 t!ese Homen, : anal"9ed !oH t!e cases Here
distri,uted in terms o2 t!e -ender and role o2 t!e people H!o su,mitted t!e complaint to
court. :t is Hort! notin- t!at t!e laH pro4ided 2or married Homen to -o to court onl" to
accuse !us,ands in criminal or ci4il cases, to de2end t!emsel4es a-ainst a criminal
c!ar-e, or to maGe t!eir oHn Hill$9. )o 2ile anot!er t"pe o2 complaint, a Homan !ad to
o,tain a license 2rom !er !us,and J Homen H!o Here not under patria potestas and
Here tHent"&2i4e "ears o2 a-e or older needed no license. :n spite t!ese limitations, %1
percent o2 all t!e claims Here ,rou-!t to court ," Homen t!emsel4es.
>? Fee 5 #ista de los ciudadanos del antUn aracas, que reXnen las cualidades
para ser electores 8,;...<
2>A class 4aria,le Has incorporated into t!e data,ase to capture t!e social
di22erentiation in t!e nature o2 t!e court cases. )!is 4aria,le Has created taGin- into
account propert", rent, num,er o2 sla4es, and H!et!er or not a person could 4ote. 0or
t!is last item, : dreH upon a list o2 quali2ied 4oters in aracas 2or 18%?>?. )Ho ,road
cate-ories, ric! and poor, Here esta,lis!ed. )!e poor sector ran-es 2rom t!e indi-ent to
t!ose H!o oHned a small rentin- !ouse.
2%D!en t!e cases Here -rouped ," class o2 liti-ant ;)a,le 1<, a clear pattern emer-ed.
:n 2i2teen percent o2 cases in H!ic! ,ot! parties Here Healt!", most Here related to t!e
preser4ation o2 patrimon". /4en di4orce cases !ad material undertones since in all o2
t!em t!e mismana-ement o2 t!e Hi2e7s propert" Has a constant ar-ument. )!e small
percenta-e o2 interclass liti-ation ma" su--est a limited social interaction ,etHeen t!e
tHo classes. Eost o2 t!e cases in t!e cate-or" 5 Ppper lass a-ainst #oHer lass 8 dealt
Hit! pro,lems in4ol4in- ric! Homen Hell ,e"ond t!eir prime "ears H!o !ad a22airs
Hit! poor men, mostl" "oun- immi-rant /uropean men ;primaril" Fpaniards<. Mn t!e
ot!er !and, poor people7s cases a-ainst Healt!" de2endants Here mostl" related to
claims made ," sla4es.
2Iases in H!ic! ,ot! parties Here poor Here t!e most common ;@2 percent o2 all
cases<, pointin- to some de-ree o2 le-al recourse 2or all classes durin- t!e earl"
repu,lican period. )!e cases in4ol4ed con2licts not o2 propert", as in t!e cases o2
Healt!" liti-ants, ,ut o2 an interpersonal nature. As Hill ,e discussed later in t!is
section, con2licts amon- t!e poor, especiall" t!ose in4ol4in- Homen, dealt Hit! t!e
de2ense o2 indi4idual li,erties : t!e ri-!t to paid HorG, t!e ri-!t to t!e control o2 t!eir
,odies, and t!e ri-!t to ,e equall" protected ," laH as men Here.
>1 +etHeen 1@9I and 1829, t!e se* ratios in aracas remained rat!er constant,
Hit! an a4era-e o2 a,ou;...<
>2 Daldron ;19@@, p. 12@&1$@<.
>$ Mn t!e 5 race and class Har 8, see :9ard ;19@9< J arrera 6amas ;19@2< J
Vallenilla #an9 ;1991, p.;...<
>> Yuoted ," 0riedman ;19@I, p. 1?8, 2$8<. Ko!n HaHGs!aH 4isited aracas in
18$8. Anot!er tra4eler, /;...<
2@D!ile t!e le-al 2rameHorG in Vene9uela maintained and rea22irmed t!e poHers o2 t!e
male !eads o2 !ouse!olds ;as it did in t!e late colonial period<, t!ere Here limits to
men7s poHer o4er Homen durin- t!e earl" nineteent! centur" as Hell. Adult Homen !ad
outnum,ered men in t!e capital cit" o2 aracas since t!e late ei-!teent! centur">1.
Domen 2rom t!e popular classes dominated t!e streets as 4endors and pett" HorGers.
)!eir !ouse!olds o2ten !ad no adult males present>2. onsequentl", man" Homen Here
not under t!e patria potestas o2 an" male. 6urin- t!e independence Hars and a2ter, t!e
people o2 aracas e*perienced t!e popular re4olts and ci4il Hars t!at trans2ormed
traditional ur,an societ". )!e stru--le o2 t!e pardo population 2or equalit" and upHard
mo,ilit", and t!e searc! o2 sla4es 2or li,ert" L in s!ort, t!e Hidespread rumors o2 a
5 race and class Har 8 t!at t!reatened t!e H!ite elite L Gept Vene9uelans aHare o2 t!eir
social condition>$. As an /n-lis! tra4eler to aracas in t!e 18$?s o,ser4ed, a 5 -eneral
de-ree o2 2reedom... noH e*ists amon- t!e races 8, addin- t!at 5 ne-roes and mulattoes
O!a4eS t!e pri4ile-e o2 -reetin- an" person, H!ate4er !is ranG or situation in li2e, Hit!
t!e 2amiliar appellation o2 citi9en 8>>. 0or man" ot!er Homen, t!eir a-enc" durin-
t!ese tur,ulent "ears -a4e t!em sel2&assurance and sel2&aHareness o2 t!eir capacit" as
decision&maGers. +" t!e ,e-innin- o2 t!e 'epu,lican era, a2ter Vene9uela separated
2rom Cran olom,ia in 18$?, Homen in aracas Here alread" claimin- t!eir citi9ens!ip
ri-!ts in court.
)A+#/ 1 : )"pe o2 #aHsuit ," Focial lass o2 t!e #iti-ants ;aracas, 18$%&18>?<
a Ealtrato cases mainl" deal Hit! p!"sical punis!ment in2licted on Hi4es and sla4es ,"
t!eir spouses and oHners.
, %stupro is t!e de2loHerin- o2 a 4ir-in Homan or c!aste HidoH ," deceit or seduction.
/scric!e " Eartin ;18>?<, s.4. 5 estupro 8.
Sources & Arc!i4o del 'e-istro (rincipal del 6istrito 0ederal ;aracas<, i4iles,
riminales, 18$%&18>? J Arc!i4o Arqui&diocesano de aracas, Kudiciales,
Eatrimoniales, 18$%&18>?. (ercenta-es Here computed ," t!e aut!or.
)o$en defendin( their indi*idual
liberties + the hidden transcripts
28ourt records in4ol4in- t!e poor 2or t!e earl" nineteent! centur" demonstrate a
m"riad o2 issues t!at Here at staGe, especiall" i2 He compare t!em Hit! t!e situation
amon- t!e upper classes. )!rou-! t!ese claims, t!e loHer classes de2ended t!eir
particular understandin- o2 -ender relations!ips and t!eir 5 ri-!t 8 to de2end t!eir
indi4idual li,erties.
>% 0or e*amples o2 t!ese strate-ies in ot!er countries, see !al!ou, ;198I, p.
12$&1$I< J Fil4a +onil;...<
290or t!e poor, li2e in post&colonial aracas Has riddled Hit! man" di22iculties. )o meet
t!eir emotional and economic needs in t!e o4ercroHded and e*pensi4e cit", t!e poor
de4eloped e*tensi4e netHorGs o2 2riends and relati4es. )!ese solidarit" netHorGs must
,e taGen into account i2 He are to understand t!e li2e strate-ies o2 t!e popular classes>%.
:t Has implicit in t!e laHsuits studied t!at Homen HorGed 2or Ha-es and usuall" !eld
more t!an one jo,. A nei-!,or or !ousemate Hould !elp H!en a 2riend Has in personal
dan-er. )!ese personal alliances Here stron- ,ut could ,e ,roGen ," 4er,al o22enses or
p!"sical a,use.
>I (a,lo 'odri-ue9 discusses t!e importance o2 t!ese s"m,olic e*c!an-es
;1991, p. 29&$?<.
>@ )!e 2act t!at : am presumin- a material linG a22ectin- Homan&man
relations!ips does not mean t!at;...<
$?:n male&2emale relations!ips, Homen e*pected some t"pe o2 material reciprocit" 2rom
!us,ands or lo4ers. )!is could !a4e eit!er s"m,olic or material importance, or ,ot!.
ourtin- couples H!o Here still not li4in- to-et!er could seal t!eir relations!ip Hit! a
s"m,olic -i2t J t!rou-! it t!e man demonstrated !is Hillin-ness and a,ilit" to support
t!e Homan>I. Eost o2 t!e cases in m" earl" nineteent!&centur" sample emp!asi9ed
suc! an association>@. D!at t!ese e*c!an-es o2 material/emotional -oods ma"
ultimatel" re2lect is t!e demand man" Homen made t!at men responsi,l" 2ul2ill a
traditional role as !ouse!old pro4iders.
>8 0or a discussion o2 t!e issue o2 4er,al de2erence and economic o,li-ation,
see Ftern ;199%, p. @?&;...<
>9 5 riminales contra 6ionisio Ve-a por !eridas 8, Arc!i4o del 'e-istro
(rincipal del 6istrito 0eder;...<
$1)!e cases o2 6olores +lanco and o2 :sa,el 0reites o22er -ood e*amples o2 t!e lo4ers7
e*c!an-e o2 material -oods and t!e importance o2 emotional ,onds and 2idelit". Mne
ni-!t 6olores7 ,o"2riend Hent to !er !ouse Hit! a mac!ete to demand an e*planation 2or
H!" s!e !ad -one to #a Cuaira ;t!e adjacent port cit"< Hit!out !is permission. F!e
ansHered t!at !e Has not !er 2at!er or mot!er, t!at !e s!ould not ,ot!er !er 2or !e !ad
not -i4en !er an"t!in- to seal an" ,ond ,etHeen t!em. He ,ecame so in2uriated Hit! !er
ansHer t!at !e tried to Gill !er>8. )r"in- to pre4ent Kos 6ionicio 2rom sta,,in- !er,
e4en 6olores7 2riend Kusta Has injured>9. Kos 6io&nicio claimed some poHer o4er !er,
Hit!out !a4in- 2ul2illed a s"m,olic ritual t!at Has important to !er. 6olores in turn
seemed to understand t!at !er relations!ip Hit! Kos 6ionicio Hould not ,e taGen
seriousl" until !e -a4e !er concrete proo2 o2 !is commitment.
%? 5 riminales se-uidos contra Qsa,el 0re"tes por imputRrsele complicidad en
el !urto de unas ,otell;...<
$2:n a second case, :sa,el 0reites, a 2ree Homan 2rom ura1ao H!o Has a cooG and
street&4endor, Has accused o2 stealin- some ,ottles o2 rap' ;to,acco poHder used as
snu22<. :n court, s!e Has a,le to pro4e t!at t!e ,ottles Here a -i2t 2rom Kos, !er sla4e
,o"2riend. .ot GnoHin- t!at t!e rap' Has stolen, s!e tooG t!e ,ottles to #a Cuaira
H!ere s!e sold t!e product at a reduced price. :n t!e proceedin-s, t!e sla4e con2essed
t!at !e !ad stolen t!e ,ottles one ," one to -i4e to !is ,elo4ed :sa,el eac! time t!e" met
;!e !ad told :sa,el t!at !e !ad !imsel2 prepared t!e to,acco poHder<%?. 0or Kos, t!e
rap' Has a toGen o2 !is commitment to !er. :t s!oHed t!at, to !elp !is Homan in times
o2 need, !is personal sacri2ices GneH no limit.
%1 Arrom 2inds t!at t!e same !olds true 2or poor Homen in Ee*ico it" ;198%,
p. 1@I&18><.
$$/4en t!ou-! loHer&class Homen Here e*pected to !elp in t!e !ouse!old econom",
t!e" aspired to !a4e t!e male contri,ute%1. Domen and men anticipated some t"pe o2
,alance in t!e emotional and economic duties o2 t!eir relations!ips. +ecause o2
Homen7s understandin- o2 t!eir relations!ip Hit! men as an consortium o2 equal
responsi,ilities, t!e" 4indicated t!eir 5 ri-!t 8 to de2end t!emsel4es 2rom a,usi4e
relations!ips. :ndeed, -ender con2licts emer-ed H!en one part" percei4ed t!at t!e
e*pected conduct Has not met.
$>:n t!e 2olloHin- cases, Homen Here t!e pro4iders o2 t!e !ouse!old and pro,lems
arose H!en men a,used Homen economicall", 4er,all" or p!"sicall". Eoreo4er, t!ese
Homen clearl" GneH t!at t!e" could not li4e a secluded li2e i2 t!eir !us,ands Here not
supportin- t!e 2amil".
%2 5 6emanda propuesta por ecilia +arani9 para que se o,li-ue a su marido a
acreditar que la sostien;...<
$%:n 18$I ecilia +arrani9, a t!eater actress, 2iled di4orce papers ,ecause o2 a,use. :n
!er ci4il suit, s!e declared t!at durin- se4en "ears o2 marria-e s!e !ad supported !er
!us,and (edro Villalo,os H!ile !e !ad not 2ul2illed !is duties. .oH !er !us,and Hanted
!er to a,andon !er pro2ession and stop HorGin-. ecilia demanded t!at t!e court 2orced
!er !us,and to sustain !er or else alloHed !er to HorG. :n t!is case, ecilia success2ull"
de2ended in court !er 5 ri-!t 8 to earn a Ha-e%2.
%$ 5 A-ustina Arnal demandando en conciliaciUn a su le-Ntimo marido 6ionisio
Acosta 8, A'(60, i4iles;...<
%> 5 Kuana 'a2aela asares quejRndose de su marido 8, AA, Eatrimoniales,
18$?, le-. 2%>.
$I:n anot!er case, A-ustina Arnal started a num,er o2 laHsuits a-ainst !er !us,and,
alle-in- t!at !e Has cra9", a,usi4e, -i4en to drinGin-, and a 4a-rant. D!ile s!e Has t!e
sole pro4ider 2or t!e 2amil", !er !us,and demanded !er L in court L to remain secluded
at !ome to 2ul2ill !er duties%$. Kuana 'a2aela asares made a similar complaint a-ainst
!er !us,and. F!e requested a di4orce c!ar-in- !er !us,and Has onl" interested in !er
properties and in t!e la,or o2 t!eir c!ildren ;t!e couple !ad t!ree c!ildren ,e2ore t!e"
married<. :n addition, !er !us,and !ad !it !er ,ecause s!e re2used to -i4e !er scant
jeHelr" to !im, 5 con4ertin- !imsel2 into a .ero 8%>.
%% Ftern ;199%, p. @8&8%<.
%I Fee 2or e*ample, 5 6emanda de di4orcio de Kos de la ru9 (arra contra su
mu-er 'osa EarNa (re9 8;...<
$@Een also e*pected Hi2el" 2ait!2ulness, especiall" H!en t!e" Here pro4idin- support.
/4en i2 t!e" Here not le-all" married, men insisted t!at Homen ,e!a4e in t!eir
traditional role as o,edient Hi4es. )!e dominant ideal o2 padre de (amilia ser4ed as a
le-al ,asis 2or c!astisin- and controllin- Homen. As !istorian Fte4e K. Ftern asserts,
men also considered Homen as se*ual propert"%%. Mn t!ese -rounds, men 2requentl"
Hent to court demandin- t!at t!eir spouses render t!e su,missi4e&ness t!e" oHed t!eir
!us,ands%I.
%@ 5 (edro (a,lo Herrera contra su mujer /scolRstica Cutierres por !e,ria 8,
A'(60, i4iles, 18$9, #e;...<
$86ue to t!eir strained 2inancial situations, loHer&class Homen Here o2ten induced to
earn t!eir oHn li4in-. )!rou-! t!is income, t!e" Here a,le to o,tain -reater social and
economic independence t!an t!eir upper&class counterparts. Hence, t!e an*iet" 2elt ,"
loHer&class men a,out t!e e*cessi4e 5 li,erties 8 o2 t!eir Hi4es and lo4ers. :n particular,
men o,jected to t!eir mates7 maintainin- 2riends!ips Hit! ot!er people and to t!eir
seemin- independence J men e*pected t!em to ,e!a4e as secluded, 4irtuous Homen. )o
attain t!is ideal some men petitioned t!e tri,unals to control t!eir Hi4es appl"in- t!e
e*istin- 4a-ranc" laHs. 0or instance, (edro (a,lo Herrera e*pressed !is concern a,out
t!e drunGenness o2 !is Hi2e, /scolRstica. F!e !ad ,een a !ard&HorGin- Homan ,ut !ad
,ecome increasin-l" dependent on alco!ol. Fince !e needed to -o to t!e 2ields, and t!e
)acendados Hould not alloH !er to accompan" !im in a suc! condition, !e asGed t!e
court to imprison !er%@.
%8 5 riminales contra Antonio 'omero por aporreo 8, A'(60, i4iles, 18$@,
#etra ', e*p. 12. Fee also;...<
$9AHare o2 t!eir le-al ri-!t to punis! Homen 2or t!eir ,e!a4ior, some men tooG
5 correction 8 in t!eir oHn !ands. Antonio 'omero7s de2ense 2or !ittin- !is lo4er
pro4ides a -ood e*ample o2 contested perceptions o2 proper -ender ,e!a4ior. He !ad a
lo4e a22air Hit! /ulalia Farmiento. Dit! t!e intention o2 marr"in- !er, !e !ad paid 2or
t!e !ouse H!ere s!e li4ed and !ad supported !er. HoHe4er, !er loose ,e!a4ior and
in2idelities upset !im. Antonio tried to split up Hit! /ulalia man" times, ,ut s!e Gept
asGin- 2or !im and e4en tooG !is clot!es 2or launderin- to 2orce !im to return to t!e
!ouse. +ut one da" !e ,ecame irritated and jealous H!en !e saH a man runnin- out o2
/ulalia7s !ouse. Antonio !it !er to induce !er to 5 re2orm !ersel2 8 and stop suc!
,e!a4ior%8.
%9 Fee Ftern ;199%, p. 8>&8@<.
>?)!e ina,ilit" to 2ul2ill ideal -ender roles ,ecause o2 po4ert" Has anot!er point o2
contention. )!e need 2or Homen7s economic support 2or t!e !ouse!old contradicted t!e
compliance Hit! t!e code o2 proper Homan!ood. Ean" Homen could not remain in t!e
!ouse ,ecause t!e" needed to seeG sustenance ," sellin- in t!e streets or at t!e marGet,
," HorGin- at ot!er people7s !ouses or ," Has!in- clot!es in t!e ri4er. Ean" times
t!ese Homen Here 5 -o4ernin- t!emsel4es 8 L as repeatedl" mentioned in t!e
documents L and rentin- a room in a croHded !ouse. M2ten t!e" de2ended t!emsel4es
p!"sicall" 2rom personal con2licts Hit! nei-!,ors or stran-ers, s!oHin- t!eir
independent and unsu,missi4e c!aracter. )!e 4iolent ,e!a4ior o2 males in t!ese cases
mi-!t ,e related to t!eir ina,ilit" to control Homen and t!ere2ore sa4e 2ace in t!e
communit"%9.
>1/ndorsement o2 proper -ender ,e!a4ior ," t!e popular classes could ,e taGen as a
si-n o2 t!eir acceptance o2 dominant 2amil" 4alues, "et eac! -ender assi-ned a di22erent
meanin- to t!e ot!er7s role. )!e loHer&classes Hould 2olloH -ender role e*pectations
H!et!er married or li4in- in consensual unions on t!e condition t!at t!e ot!er acted
accordin-l". 0rom t!ese notions, Homen deri4ed particular ideas a,out t!eir ri-!ts
H!ic! t!e" de2ended acti4el" in t!e courts o2 aracas.
A clai$ of citizenship + the , public
transcript -
>26emandin- t!at men ,e equall" responsi,le 2or t!eir duties to t!e !ouse!old,
de2endin- t!emsel4es 2rom a,usi4e relations!ips, and 4indicatin- t!eir ri-!t to HorG 2or
a salar", loHer class Homen Here protectin- t!eir indi4idual ri-!ts. (oor Homen ma"
!a4e not made 4er,al re2erence to t!e concepts o2 citi9ens!ip as o2ten as t!e upper&
classes did, ,ut t!eir man" actions in court su--ested t!at t!e" 4alued t!is status just as
!i-!l". )!e court records contain t!e 5 !idden transcript 8 o2 t!eir de2ense o2 t!eir
natural ri-!ts in t!e domestic sp!ere.
>$Dealt!" Homen, instead, openl" appealed to t!eir ri-!ts as citi9ens H!en 2i-!tin-
a-ainst t!eir !us,ands o4er questions o2 propert". Mne case is t!at o2 Earia Antonia
(re9, H!o in 1811 2iled a di4orce suit a-ainst !er !us,and claimin- t!at !e did not
pro4ide 2or !er sustenance H!ile administerin- t!e onl" marital propert" H!ic!
,elon-ed entirel" to !er. Fidin- Hit! !er !us,and, t!e court decided to 2or,id EarNa
Antonia 2rom -oin- out o2 t!e !ouse o2 con2inement, e4en t!ou-! a HeeG ,e2ore t!e
court !ad alloHed !er to -o out Hit! !er ser4ant. EarNa Antonia responded to t!e court
decision in t!ese Hords :
I? 5 6i4orcio que prepara 6oVa EarNa Antonia (re9 a su le-Ntimo
marido 6on 'amUn EaucU 8, AA, Eatri;...<
:n marria-e, !us,ands are not!in- ,ut t!e ones H!o represent t!e 2amil", and Homen,
t!eir compaeras ;partners<, H!o s!ould !elp t!em Hit! marital o,li-ations ,ut are not
condemned to ,e t!e !us,and7s sla4es J nor are Homen o2 an in2erior condition in t!e
e*ercise o2 t!eir ri-!ts J t!e qualit" o2 ,ein- a Homan does not e*clude t!em eit!er 2rom
t!e societal order or 2rom t!e -uarant" to enjo" t!eir li,ert" and securit" o2 t!eir person.
*)e la+ ma,es us all e#uals as citizens, and i2 m" !us,and is ," t!is ri-!t aut!ori9ed to
,e!a4e in a 2ree manner, : am, ," t!e same ri-!t, entitled to resol4e m" needs on m"
oHnI?.
>>EarNa Antonia is onl" one amon- a -roup o2 upper class Homen H!o Here a,le to
ar-ue persuasi4el" 2or t!eir equal ri-!ts as citi9ens. D!at cau-!t m" attention Has !er
idea o2 li,ert", in t!e sense t!at s!e Has not !er !us,and7s sla4e ;a common complaint
amon- Homen<, and t!at s!e !ad t!e ri-!t to seeG !er securit" and to 2ul2ill !er needs.
Also striGin- is !er r!etoric o2 equalit" ,e2ore t!e laH, claimin- t!at s!e enjo"ed t!e
same ri-!ts as men.
>%Fimilarl", Eicaela 'a4elo " AlcRntara Hent to t!e Alcalde Eunicipal in 18$I to asG
t!at !er !us,and aut!ori9e !er to administer t!e propert" in!erited 2rom !er 2at!er. F!e
!ad ,een married 2or man" "ears to Kuan Kos /spinosa and !ad ,orne !im 2i4e c!ildren.
Kuan Kos !ad a,andoned !er 2our "ears earlier Hit!out pro4idin- support 2or !er or t!e
c!ildren. F!e !ad in!erited Healt! 2rom H!ic! s!e could earn a decent li4eli!ood, ,ut
!er !us,and did not aut!ori9e !er to use it, s!e Has 5 li4in- in miser" 8.
I1 5 #a Fra. Eicaela 'a4elo solicitando se le !a,ilite judicialmente para
administrar por si los ,ien;...<
I2 Ibid., 2ol. 1@4.
>I)!e !us,and claimed t!at it Has a,out time t!at s!e assumed 5 !er duties as mot!er
and as a su,missi4e Hi2e 8I1. Eoreo4er, !e maintained t!at s!e !ad no judicial standin-
to pose a demand. As a Hi2e7s 2irst jud-e Has !er !us,and, !e s!ould !a4e ,een asGed
2irst ,e2ore s!e ,rou-!t t!e case to t!e attention o2 t!e aut!orities. Kuan Kos clinc!ed !is
ar-ument to t!e jud-e : 5 )o ,e!a4e in an" ot!er Ha" is to dismiss Homan 2rom t!e
duties and ri-!ts o2 t!e male J it is to de2raud t!e male 2rom t!e pri4ile-es t!at !e !as
2rom nature, 2rom t!is nation7s laHs, and 2rom t!e unc!an-in- order o2 t!e H!ole
uni4erse. 8I2 He denied t!at !e !ad not supported !is Hi2e and 2amil" J rat!er, !e
claimed it Has Eicaela H!o Hould Haste and misspend t!e stipend. 0inall", !e
requested t!at s!e ,e returned to !er mot!er7s !ouse, 2rom H!ic! s!e 5 ran aHa". 8
I$ 5 Kuan Kos /spinosa solicitando que Eicaela 'a4elo se restitu"a con los
!ijos que !a ocultado a l;...<
I> Ibid., 2ol. I4.
I% -ienes para(ernales are t!e -oods t!at a Hi2e ,rin-s to marria-e, independent
o2 !er doHr", and t!a;...<
II 5 Kuan Kos /spinosa 8, 2ol. @r.
>@Eicaela Has surprised to learn t!at !er !us,and Has noH 5 assertin- t!at : am a
runaHa" 2rom !is marital poHer and demandin- ri-!ts 2rom a consortium H!ic! !e !as
completel" 2or-otten, a,andoned, i-norin- !is conju-al responsi,ilities 8I$. F!e
claimed t!at ,e!ind all t!is Has Kuan Kos7s am,ition to dispose o2 !er in!erited
2ortuneI>. F!e alle-ed t!at Kuan Kos Has noH administerin- !er monies t!rou-! !is
ri-!t as a !us,and, not acGnoHled-in- t!at ," laH s!e !ad dominion o4er and
administration o2 t!e bienes para(ernalesI%. F!e !ad not -ranted !im suc! poHers ,"
laH, and 5 t!e onstitution o2 t!e Ftate O-a4e !erS t!e precious condition o2 citi9en,
oHner o2 m" ri-!ts and assisted ," m" oHn properties 8II.
I@ Fee 5 Kuan Kos /spinosa 8, 2ol. 18r.
>8:n cases liGe t!is !us,ands consistentl" accused t!eir Hi4es o2 rel"in- on t!e
5 su,4ersi4e 8 principles o2 t!e onstitution, t!at is, o2 citi9ens!ip and t!e equalit" o2
people ,e2ore laH. Hus,ands claimed t!at suc! li,eral 4ieHs Hould lead to anarc!"
since t!e" directl" a22ected male 2amilial control, H!ic! Has t!e ,asis o2 t!e ci4il
societ". Eoreo4er, suc! principles de2ied male aut!orit" and !onor in societ"I@.
>9:t is !ard to 2ind suc! an articulate de2ense o2 citi9ens!ip ri-!ts amon- loHer&class
Homen. PnliGe t!eir counterparts in t!e upper run-s o2 societ", loHer&class Homen
de2ended t!eir ri-!ts as citi9ens mostl" ," t!eir actions at !ome and in t!e courts. Qet :
2ound one instance in H!ic! a Homan 4er,all" e*pressed !er e*pectations o2 ,ein-
treated Hit! equalit". Fuc! Has t!e case o2 a 2reed Homan called +ar,ara Kedler, H!o
complained a,out t!e cruel a,use !er son su22ered 2rom t!e (ro4incial Co4ernor and !is
master in 18$% :
I8 5 +ar,ara Kedler quejRndose contra el -o,ernador de la (ro4incia por
el cruel casti-o que !a !ec!o;...<
5 D!en : started to contend a-ainst a Healt!", poHer2ul and in2luential man, :, a loH
colored Homan, and !im, a !i-! cate-or" man H!o is t!e oHner o2 m" son, D!at could
: e*pect Z D!at Hould ,e t!e result o2 a contro4ers" amon- people o2 di22erent sp!eres J
and H!at Hould ,e m" success i2 : did not count on t!e justice and e4en&!andedness o2
t!e court Z )!is persuasion encoura-es me, and t!e e#ualit o( ri!)ts all "enezuelans
en$o -i4es more stren-t! to m" HeaG 2orces and empoHers me, to not !ide m" 2ace
2rom Er. Hui9i7s ar-uments...,ecause, alt!ou-! : am a 2reed sla4e, it Hould depress m"
condition o2 respect2ul Homan to ot!er men and especiall" to social manners, ,ut it
s!ould not ,e ,elie4ed ,ecause o2 t!is t!at : am a2raid o2 maGin- use o2 m" ri-!ts... 8I8.
%?.ote t!at t!e act o2 complainin- respect2ull" to court Has not incon-ruent Hit! t!e
ideal o2 an !onora,le Homan. Fuc! a Homan Has not Hillin- to Hit!draH a just demand
in t!e conte*t o2 !er ri-!ts as a citi9en o2 Vene9uela. Mn t!e contrar", s!e claimed t!at
s!e Has encoura-ed to pursue !er claims.
%1PnliGe t!e situation amon- t!e upper classes, -ender con2licts amon- t!e popular
classes Here related to t!e de2ense o2 indi4idual li,erties. (oor Homen questioned not
t!e 4alidit" o2 t!e institution o2 marria-e ,ut t!e capacit" and c!aracter o2 t!eir
!us,ands or lo4ers. )!e" accused men o2 ,ein- alco!olics, la9", or a,usi4e partners
H!o Here not responsi,le to reciprocal ri-!ts and duties em,odied in t!eir 2ormal or
in2ormal marria-e contract. :n t!is sense, : Hould ar-ue t!at poor Homen Here
em,racin- notions o2 citi9ens!ip, li,ert", and equalit" em,edded in t!e 1811
onstitution. #oHer&class Homen Here alread" practicin- li,eral ideas in t!eir dail"
relations!ips Hit! men at t!e le4el o2 t!e !ouse!old, a situation t!at transpired in t!e
court cases. )!e" did not Hant to ,e a,used, to ,e ,anned 2rom HorGin- 2or a salar" or
to ,e depri4ed o2 t!eir li,erties. )!e" Hanted compensation 2or t!eir ser4ices and, ,"
t!e same toGen, t!e" Hanted material contri,utions 2rom t!eir relations!ips. )!e"
Hanted to ,e treated as ciudadanas, Hit! equal protection under t!e laH.
%2:n earl" repu,lican aracas poor Homen pursued t!eir quest 2or equalit" ,e2ore t!e
laH ," t!eir numerous actions in court. Ppper&class Homen spelled out more openl"
t!eir pretended citi9ens!ip, H!ile de2endin- t!eir propert". ontrar" to t!e Hidespread
,elie2 t!at independence did not ,rin- si-ni2icant c!an-es to Homen, m" data s!oH t!at
Homen Here seeGin- indi4iduall" a trans2ormation in t!eir ri-!ts. )!e" met 2ierce
resistance 2rom t!eir !us,ands or lo4ers H!o stucG to t!eir claims as customar" padres
de (amilia.
Haut de pa-e
.iblio(raphie
Arrom, F.E., .omen o( /e0ico Cit,123451672, Ftan2ord, Ftan2ord Pni4ersit" (ress,
198%.
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(ress, 1989, p. 2%2&28I.
+reHer&arNas, A.'., 8as constituciones de "enezuela, Eadrid, Pni4ersidad del )Rc!ira
" entro de /studios onstitucionales, 198%.
+us!neil, 6., *)e Santander Re!ime in :ran Colombia, .eHarG, Pni4ersit" o2
6elaHare (ress, 19%>.
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!al!ou,, F., *rabal)o, lar e bote#uim & o cotidiano dos trabal)adores no Rio de
;aneiro da -elle <po#ue, F[o (aulo, +rasiliense, 198I.
!erpaG, /., )!e participation o2 Homen in t!e independence mo4ement o2 Cran
olom,ia, 1@8?&18$?, in #a4rin, A. ;/d.<, 8atin 9merican .omen & =istorical
Perspectives, Dest&port, CreenHood (ress, 19@8, p. 219&2$>.
!iossone, )., >ormacin $urdica de "enezuela en la colonia en la rep?blica,
aracas, Pni4ersidad entral de Vene9uela, 198?.
ope, 6., *)e 8imits o( Racial Domination & Plebeian Societ in Colonial /e0ico Cit,
1@@45122A, Eadison, Pni4ersit" o2 Disconsin (ress, 199>.
osta, /. Viotti da, Cro+ns o( :lor, *ears o( -lood & t)e Demerara Slave Rebellion o(
16AB, .eH QorG, M*2ord Pni4ersit" (ress, 199>.
6Na9, A.K., 5 Ciudadanas C and D Padres de >amilia C & 8iberal C)an!e, :ender, 8a+,
and t)e 8o+er Classes in Caracas, "enezuela, 126@51666, (!.6. diss., Pni4ersit" o2
Einnesota, 199@.
/scric!e " EartNn, K., Diccionario razonado de le!islacin civil, penal, comercial
(orense, aracas, :mprenta de ValentNn /spinal, 18>?.
0lor", )., 'ace and social control in independent +ra9il, ;ournal o( 8atin 9merican
Studies, 19@@, 9, 2, p. 199&22>.
0riedman, F.K., Cit o( Caracas & 16B4516E@, (!.6. diss., .eH QorG Pni4ersit", 19@I.
Could, K.#., *o 8ead as %#uals & Rural Protest and Political Consciousness in
C)inande!a, Nicara!ua, 131A51323, !apel Hill, Pni4ersit" o2 .ort! arolina (ress,
199?.
Cuardino, (.0., Peasants, Politics, and t)e >ormation o( /e0icoFs National State &
:uerrero, 164451672, Ftan2ord, Ftan2ord Pni4ersit" (ress, 199I.
Cu", 6.K., #oHer&class 2amilies, Homen, and t!e laH in nineteent!&centur" Ar-entina,
;ournal o( >amil =istor, 198%, 1?, $, p. $18&$$1.
Kosep!, C.E., and .u-ent, 6., ;/ds.<, %verda >orms o( State >ormation & Revolution
and t)e Ne!otiation o( Rule in /odern /e0ico, 6ur!am, 6uGe Pni4ersit" (ress, 199>.
:9ard, E., %l miedo a la revolucin & la luc)a por la libertad en "enezuela G1222516B4H,
Eadrid, /ditorial )ecnos, 19@9.
#om,ardi, K.V., People and Places in Colonial "enezuela, +loomin-ton, :ndiana
Pni4ersit" (ress, 19@I.
Ea-allanes E.V., 8uc)as e insurrecciones en la "enezuela colonial, aracas, Academia
.acional de la Historia, 1982.
Eallon, 0./., Peasant and Nation & *)e /a,in! o( Postcolonial /e0ico and Per?,
+erGele", Pni4ersit" o2 ali2ornia (ress, 199%.
Eatos 'odri-ue9, 0.V., #a mujer " el derec!o en el si-lo W:W en Fan Kuan, (uerto 'ico
;182?&18I2, in Con9al,o, (., ;/d.<, >amilia, !'nero mentalidades en 9m'rica 8atina,
'No (iedras, /ditorial de la Pni4ersidad de (uerto 'ico, 199@, p. 22@&2I$.
Ecaa, '., alidad, lase, and Earria-e in olonial Ee*ico : t!e ase o2 (arral, 1@88&
9?, =ispanic 9merican =istorical Revie+, 198>, I>, $, p. >@@&%?1.
.a99ari, E., Disappearance o( t)e Do+r & .omen, >amilies, and Social C)an!es in
SIo Paulo, -razil, 1@4451344, Ftan2ord, Ftan2ord Pni4ersit" (ress, 1991.
(ino :turrieta, /., Contra lu$uria, castidad, Caracas, Al2adil /diciones, 1992.
(ino :turrieta, /., 8a mentalidad venezolana de la emancipacin, 2d ed. aracas,
/diciones /ldorado, 1991.
(ino :turrieta, /., and al9adilla, (./., ;comps.<, 8a mirada del otro & via$eros
e0tran$eros en la "enezuela del si!lo JIJ, aracas, 0undaciUn +i-ott, 199$.
'odrN-ue9, (., Seduccin, amancebamiento abandono en la colonia, Fanta 0e de
+o-otR, 0undaciUn FimUn " #ola Cu,ereG, 1991.
Fcott, K.., Domination and t)e 9rts o( Resistance & =idden *ranscripts, .eH Ha4en,
Qale Pni4ersit" (ress, 199?.
Fcott, K.D., :ender and t)e Politics o( =istor, .eH QorG, olum,ia Pni4ersit" (ress,
1988.
Fil4a +onilla, '., et al., =a amores #ue matan, 'No (iedras, /diciones HuracRn, 199?.
Fociedad /conUmica de Ami-os del (aNs, 9nuario de la Provincia de Caracas de 16BA
K 16BB, aracas, :mprenta de A. 6amirUn, 18$%.
FocoloH, F.E., Domen and rime, in Ko!nson, #., ;/d.<, *)e Problem o( Lrder in
C)an!in! Societies, Al,uquerque, Pni4ersit" o2 .eH Ee*ico (ress, 199?, p. 1&18.
Ftem, F., *)e Secret =istor o( :ender & .omen, /en, and Po+er in 8ate Colonial
/e0ico, !apel Hill, Pni4ersit" o2 .ort! arolina (ress, 199%.
F9uc!man, E.6., Lrder, >amil, and Communit in -uenos 9ires, 1614516@4, Ftan2ord,
Ftan2ord Pni4ersit" (ress, 1988.
)roconis de Veracoec!ea, /., Indias, esclavas, mantuanas primeras damas, Caracas,
Al2adil /diciones, 199?.
Vallenilla #an9, #., Cesarismo democrKtico otros te0tos, aracas, +i,lioteca
A"acuc!o, 1991.
Daldron, \., 9 Social =istor o( a Primate Cit & *)e Case o( Caracas, 127451614,
(!.6. diss., :ndiana Pni4ersit", 19@@.
Daldron, \., )!e sinners and t!e ,is!op in colonial Vene9uela : t!e 74isita7 o2 +is!op
Eariano Earti, 1@@1&1@8>, in #a4rin, A., ;/d.<, Se0ualit and /arria!e in Colonial
8atin 9merica, #incoln, Pni4ersit" o2 .e,rasGa (ress, 1989, p. 1%I&1@@.
Haut de pa-e
/otes
2 A2ter attainin- independence 2rom Fpain, t!e 2ormer aptainc"&Ceneral o2
Vene9uela, t!e Vice&ro"alt" o2 Fanta2 de +o-otR, and t!e Audiencia o2 Yuito 2ormed
t!e 'epu,lic o2 olom,ia, more commonl" re2erred to ," !istorians as 5 Cran
olom,ia 8. )!e -reat +oli4arian dream o2 unit" Has s!ort&li4ed and ended a,ruptl" in
18$? Hit! t!e dissolution o2 t!e political entit" into t!ree independent states : olom,ia,
/cuador, and Vene9uela.
$ !erpaG ;19@8, p. 2$?<.
> Arrom ;198%, p. 1>&%2<.
% Fcott ;199?<.
I Fee Eallon ;199%, p. 9<.
@ )!is !as ,een t!e 2ocus o2 recent researc!. Fee Eallon ;199%< J Kosep! and .u-ent
;199>< J and Cuardino ;199I<.
8 Eallon stresses t!at 5 it is possi,le to anal"9e politics at all le4els as nested arenas o2
contestation, H!ere !e-emonic processes are at HorG. :n 2amilies, communities,
political or-ani9ations, re-ions, and state structures, poHer is alHa"s ,ein- contested,
le-itimated and rede2ined 8 ;199%, p. I<. Koan Dallac! Fcott !as also emp!asi9ed t!e
ties ,etHeen -o4ernment poHer and !ouse!old or-ani9ation. Fee !er in2luential ,ooG
;1988, p. >%&%?<.
9 )!is essa" is ,ased on tHo samples o2 ci4il, criminal, and ecclesiastical laHsuits
,etHeen 1@8I and 1@9?, and 2rom 18$% and 18>?. )!ese cases are part o2 a lar-er
project in H!ic! 2our samples Here made e4er" 2i2t" "ears since t!e 2oundation o2 t!e
'eal Audiencia ;Hi-! ourt o2 Appeals< in 1@8I t!rou-! t!e inception o2 li,eral and
positi4ist re-imes to Vene9uela7s oil ,oom in t!e earl" tHentiet! centur" ;19$%<. : c!ose
laHsuits in H!ic! Homen Here 4ictims, perpetrators, plainti22s, or de2endants in 4arious
matters, e*ceptin- t!ose dealin- Hit! de,t, in!eritance and propert". )!e reason is t!at
in!eritance and propert" cases o2ten re2erred to t!e upper classes, and m" o,jecti4e Has
to e*amine t!e e*perience o2 t!e majorit" o2 t!e population. :n terms o2 t!e participation
o2 t!e liti-ants ," t"pe o2 court ;ecclesiastical or secular<, : 2ound t!at t!is depended on
t!e nature o2 t!eir claims, not on t!e social standin- o2 t!e liti-ants. )!e c!urc!
tri,unals !eard cases related to spiritual matters ;marria-e, di4orce, ,reac! o2 promise,
etc.< and t!e secular courts dealt Hit! temporal issues ;administration o2 propert",
support, patria potestas, etc.<. M2 course, t!ere Here some e*ceptions. Fee 6Na9 ;199@,
c!apter 1<.
1? :n !is diar" o2 t!e pastoral 4isit to t!e pro4ince o2 Vene9uela ,etHeen 1@@1 and
1@8>, +is!op Eariano EartN ad4ised !is paris!ioners to pre4ent mem,ers o2 t!e
opposite se* 2rom s!arin- t!e same ,ed and room, H!ic! Has quite di22icult. Daldron
;1989, p. 1I9&@?<. Fee also 5 Autos que si-ue Q-nes Earia con su amo 6n. Kuan Eatias
'amos so,re su li4ertad 8, Arc!i4o de la Academia .ational de la Historia ;!ereina2ter
AA.H<, i4iles, 1@9?, #etra V, e*p. 2.
11 Fee 2or e*ample 5 'ita Antonia 6ias escla4a de 6oa Earia Antonia 6ias so,re su
li,ertad 8, AA.H, i4iles, 1@89, #etra 6, e*p. %.
12 Fee 6Na9 ;199@, c!apter $<.
1$ Fee Ecaa ;198><.
1> D!et!er t!ese ideas came 2rom t!e c!urc!, H!o placed more constraints on t!e
prero-ati4es o2 men t!an t!e state did, or Here -enerated ," people li4in- under se*ual
or racial oppression, needs to ,e 2urt!er studied. Qet it is interestin- to note t!at some
HorGs !a4e 2ound t!at Homen and sla4es tended to !a4e more e-alitarian 4ieHs on
social relations!ips. /milia Viotti da osta, maGes an e*cellent ar-ument t!at sla4es !ad
a particular notion o2 ri-!ts in H!ic! t!eir relations!ips to t!eir masters entailed a
5 mutual o,li-ation 8 ;199>, p. @2&@$<. Mne instance o2 !oH 2emale leaders!ip
e*panded notions o2 democratic and e-alitarian ideolo-" is t!e .icara-uan case aptl"
studied ," Could ;199?, p. 2$%&2>1<.
1% OPntitled : 6on Q-nacio Con9Rle9 & su mujer se resiste a cumplir con las
o,li-aciones de su estadoS, Arc!i4o Arquidiocesano de aracas O!ereina2ter AAS,
Eatrimoniales, 1@9%, le-. 12>, 2ols. 2@r&2@4. :n t!e colonial period, t!e Hord citi9en
Has used in t!e sense o2 ,ein- a resident o2 a place or a state, a condition t!at carried
some ri-!ts. Fee /scric!e " Eartin ;18>?<, s.4. 5 iudadano 8.
1I OPntitled : 6i4orcio & Kuana 0eliciana 6ias con Kuan 6omin-o EorenoS, AA,
Eatrimoniales, 1@9>, le-. 12?, 2ol. 8r.
1@ OPntitled : 6on Q-nacio Con9Rle9S, 2ols. @2r&@$r.
18 0or instance, 5 6emanda matrimonial de EarNa de los Fantos Earques contra Kuan
de la 'o* 6ias 8, AA, Eatrimoniales, 1@89, le-. 1?I J 5 6emanda matrimonial puesta
por Kuana EarNa EuVo9 ;morena li,re< contra Kose2 Vicente ordero ;pardo< 8, AA,
Eatrimoniales, 1@8@, le-. 1?2 J 8 FeparaciUn que pretende 6a. Ana EarNa #ope9
Qn2ante 8 J 5 Autos se-uidos por 6a. #uisa de Mc!oa so,re que se e*trai-an del poder
de su marido don +ernardo 'iso todos " cualesquiera ,ienes que manten-a en su poder
por ser propios su"os " estarlos disipando 8, AA.H, i4iles, 1@9?, #etra M, e*p. I.
19 OPntitled : 6i4orcio & Kuana 0eliciana 6iasS, 2ol. 8r.
2? )!is idea is 2irml" asserted in t!e Siete Partidas, H!ic! 2urt!er esta,lis!ed t!at t!e
adult male ;t!e padre de (amilia or 2amil" !ead< ruled !is Hi2e and c!ildren Hit! t!e
support o2 poHers -i4en to !im ," laH. 0at!ers !ad patria potestas ;parental poHer<,
H!ic! is t!e ri-!t t!at 2amil" !eads e*ercised o4er t!e person and propert" o2 2amil"
mem,ers. Pnder t!is principle 2at!ers and !us,ands enjo"ed t!e 2ruits o2 t!eir 2amil"
propert" and imposed t!eir Hill ," le-al aut!orit" and p!"sical punis!ment i2 necessar".
Fee /scric!e " EartNn ;18>?<, s.4. 5 padre de (amilia 8 J +o"er ;1989, p. 2%>&2%%< J
Arrom ;198%, p. I8&@$< J (ino :turrieta ;1992, p. 28&$$<.
21 5 FeparaciUn que pretende 6a. Ana EarNa #ope9 Qn2ante 8, 2ol. 2$r.
22 5 Autos de di4orcio que si-ue 6a. 0rancisca 'osalNa HernRnde9 contra su le-Ntimo
marido 6on Kuan )ru*illo 8, AA, Eatrimoniales, 1@9>, le-. 12?, 2ol. 1>4.
2$ Fee Ea-allanes ;1982<.
2> Fee (ino :turrieta ;1991, p. 21&I$ J 1@8&18@<.
2% Ibid., 28.
2I Ibid., >?.
2@ !erpaG ;19@8, p. 22?&221<.
28 Ibid., 222. Fee also )roconis de Veracoec!ea ;199?, p. 128, 1$2&1%2<.
29 Art. 1%> and 22I o2 t!e 1811 onstitution. )!e 1811 onstitution onl" lasted 2or one
"ear due to t!e independence Hars, ,ut it set t!e 2rame 2or 2uture onstitutions. )!is
Has t!e 2irst 'epu,lican onstitution 2or #atin America. Fee +reHer&arias ;198%, p.
1%&%2<.
$? Fee onstitution o2 1811, !apter :W, Arts. 2?1&22I. A pardo is a person o2 mi*ed
A2rican and H!ite ,lood.
$1 Accordin- to t!e 1811 onstitution, !apter ::, 2nd Fection, art. 2I a 4oter Has a
2ree male, 21 "ears o2 a-e and older, H!o !ad a Healt! o2 I?? pesos i2 sin-le and >??
pesos i2 married even i( t)e mone belon!ed to t)e +i(e. )!e +ra9ilian onstitution o2
182> also !ed-ed its lan-ua-e H!ere t!e ri-!ts o2 t!e 2ree mi*ed&races Here concerned.
Fee 0lor" ;19@@, p. 199&22><.
$2 :n 1821, H!en t!e union ,etHeen Vene9uela and olom,ia L H!ic! He call toda"
Cran olom,ia L Has esta,lis!ed, it settled t!e order in H!ic! t!e laHs Here -oin- to ,e
applied. )!e laH o2 1$ Ea" 182% esta,lis!ed t!at t!e !ierarc!" o2 laHs Hould ,e as
2olloHs : ;1< laHs decreed ," t!e le-islati4e poHer J ;2< pra-matics and ot!er laHs and
orders suc! as cdulas, rdenes, decretos, and ordenanzas 2rom t!e Fpanis! -o4ernment
appro4ed ," t!e laH o2 18 Earc! 18?8, and t!at Here o,ser4ed in t!e repu,lic7s
territor" J ;$< t!e laHs o2 t!e Recopilacin de Indias J ;>< t!e laHs o2 t!e Recopilacin
de Castilla J and ;%< t!e Siete Partidas. :t Has also esta,lis!ed t!at all laHs H!ic!
directl" or indirectl" contradicted t!ose o2 t!e onstitution or o2 t!e le-islature Hould
!a4e no e22ect. !iossone ;198?, p. 1$$&1$><.
$$ )!is same pattern is discussed 2or Ar-entina ," ,ot! F9uc!man ;1988, p. 1$< and
Cu" ;198%<. Arrom also raises t!is issue ;198%, p. 9$&9@<.
$> !iossone ;198?, p. 12$&><. Fee also +us!nell ;19%>, p. >I&>@, >9<.
$% Fee #.@, t.19, li,.%, Novsima Recopilacin ; Diccionario razonado, s.4. 5 liti-ante 8
and 5 po,re 8. /scric!e Hrites : 5 A poor person, t!ou-! ma" !a4e su22icient means to
su,sist, does not necessaril" !a4e su22icient means to liti-ate, and s!ould not ,e
compelled to pa" t!e costs and 2ees t!at are necessar" in order to ,e de2ended, i2
O!e/s!eS presents proo2s o2 O!is/!erS po4ert" ,e2ore an" jud-e and presents, 2urt!ermore,
a dependa,le Hitness ,e2ore t!e court H!ic! is !earin- t!e case 8 O5 /l po,re que,
aunque ten-a lo su2iciente para 4i4ir, carece de lo necesario para liti-ar, no !a de ser
compelido a pa-ar las costas " derec!os que de4en-ue en de2enderse, con tal que !a-a
constar su po,re9a mediante in2ormaciUn ante cualquier jue9, presentando ademRs un
testi-o 2idedi-no ante el tri,unal en que se si-ue el pleito 8S.
$I Cuerpo de lees, decretos resoluciones sancionados por los Con!resos de
"enezuela en los aos de 16B4, B1, BA BB ;aracas : ValentNn /spinal, 18$$<, $2&$I
;#e" de 1$ de ma"o de 182%, apt. :, :: and :::<. Fee also Eatos&'odrN-ue9 ;199@, p.
2$I&2$8<.
$@ )!e percenta-e Hould ,e !i-!er i2 : added t!e num,er o2 cases in ot!er cate-ories in
H!ic! Homen Here contendin- a-ainst anot!er Homen.
$8 Fusan FocoloH ;199?< 2ound t!at Homen in4ol4ed in criminal cases in +uenos
Aires in t!e 1@%@&1@9@ period Here mostl" 4ictims or accomplices, a 2indin- t!e aut!or
interprets as a re2lection o2 t!eir -enerall" passi4e role in societ".
$9 )!e percenta-e o2 Homen H!o initiated t!e le-al procedure in court ;%?.I percent< is
t!e sum o2 t!e num,er o2 Homen plainti22s, 4ictims, and mot!er o2 t!e 4ictims. Mn
Homen7s ri-!ts, see /scric!e " EartNn ;18>?<, s.4. 5 mujer casada 8, and 5 mujer
pX,lica 8.
>? Fee 5 #ista de los ciudadanos del antUn aracas, que reXnen las cualidades para
ser electores 8, +i,lioteca .acional, olecciUn de #i,ros 'aros " Eanuscritos,
olecciUn de Hojas Fueltas, 1 de julio de 18%?.
>1 +etHeen 1@9I and 1829, t!e se* ratios in aracas remained rat!er constant, Hit! an
a4era-e o2 a,out 1.I Homen 2or e4er" male. omputed 2rom data in #om,ardi ;19@I, p.
18$&18%< Fociedad /conUmica de Ami-os del (aNs ;18$%, p. $2&$%<.
>2 Daldron ;19@@, p. 12@&1$@<.
>$ Mn t!e 5 race and class Har 8, see :9ard ;19@9< J arrera 6amas ;19@2< J Vallenilla
#an9 ;1991, p. 19&$@<. )!ese aut!ors c!allen-e t!e dominant !istorio-rap!" on
:ndependence, ar-uin- t!at t!is period encompassed one o2 man" ci4il Hars in H!ic!
political independence Has onl" one o2 its moti4es.
>> Yuoted ," 0riedman ;19@I, p. 1?8, 2$8<. Ko!n HaHGs!aH 4isited aracas in 18$8.
Anot!er tra4eler, /dHard +. /astHicG, ent!usiasticall" remarGed !oH Hell t!e doctrine
o2 equalit" Has practiced in Vene9uela in t!e 18??s. Fee /lNas (ino :turrieta and
al9adilla ;199$, p. 1>8<.
>% 0or e*amples o2 t!ese strate-ies in ot!er countries, see !al!ou, ;198I, p. 12$&
1$I< J Fil4a +onilla, et al. ;199?, p. 2@&$2< J and ope ;199><.
>I (a,lo 'odri-ue9 discusses t!e importance o2 t!ese s"m,olic e*c!an-es ;1991, p.
29&$?<.
>@ )!e 2act t!at : am presumin- a material linG a22ectin- Homan&man relations!ips
does not mean t!at t!is Has t!e onl" tie or reason 2or a couple to ,e to-et!er. D!ile :
Has Hritin- m" dissertation, on H!ic! t!is article is ,ased, Fte4e K. Ftern pu,lis!ed an
e*cellent ,ooG in H!ic! !e ar-ues similarl" 2or colonial Ee*ico ;199%, p. @%&@@<.
Euriel .a99ari !as ar-ued t!at t!e doHr" Has t!e 2oremost material incenti4e 2or men
to contract marria-e in colonial F[o (aulo. Dit! t!e decline o2 t!e doHr", people7s
perception o2 marria-e c!an-ed as Hell. Fee .a99ari ;1991, p. 1%9&1I1<.
>8 0or a discussion o2 t!e issue o2 4er,al de2erence and economic o,li-ation, see Ftern
;199%, p. @?&@%<.
>9 5 riminales contra 6ionisio Ve-a por !eridas 8, Arc!i4o del 'e-istro (rincipal del
6istrito 0ederal O!ereina2ter A'(60S, i4iles, 18>?, #etra V, e*p. 1?.
%? 5 riminales se-uidos contra Qsa,el 0re"tes por imputRrsele complicidad en el
!urto de unas ,otellas de rap a E.A. OQeseirumS 8, A'(60, riminales, 18$@, #etra 0,
e*p. 2.
%1 Arrom 2inds t!at t!e same !olds true 2or poor Homen in Ee*ico it" ;198%, p. 1@I&
18><.
%2 5 6emanda propuesta por ecilia +arani9 para que se o,li-ue a su marido a
acreditar que la sostiene con todo lo necesario, o a que no la impida tra,ajar en su
pro2esiUn 8, A'(60, i4iles, 18$I, #etra +, e*p. I.
%$ 5 A-ustina Arnal demandando en conciliaciUn a su le-Ntimo marido 6ionisio
Acosta 8, A'(60, i4iles, 18$%, #etra E, e*p. 1? J 5 FumarNa in2ormaciUn contra
6ionicio Acosta instruida por el Kue9 de (a9 1 de la (arroquia de Fta. 'osalNa por ante
el escri,ano Kuan Kos Eedina 8, A'(60, i4iles, 18$I, #etra A, e*p. % J 5 riminales
contra 6ionicio Acosta por 4a-ancia 8, A'(60, i4iles, 18$I, #etra A, e*p. $1 J
5 A-ustina Arnal se di4orcia de su le-Ntimo marido 6ionicio Acosta 8, AA,
Eatrimoniales, 18$%, le-. 2I>.
%> 5 Kuana 'a2aela asares quejRndose de su marido 8, AA, Eatrimoniales, 18$?,
le-. 2%>.
%% Ftern ;199%, p. @8&8%<.
%I Fee 2or e*ample, 5 6emanda de di4orcio de Kos de la ru9 (arra contra su mu-er
'osa EarNa (re9 8, AA, Eatrimoniales, 18$2, le-. 2%@.
%@ 5 (edro (a,lo Herrera contra su mujer /scolRstica Cutierres por !e,ria 8, A'(60,
i4iles, 18$9, #etra H, e*p. s/n.
%8 5 riminales contra Antonio 'omero por aporreo 8, A'(60, i4iles, 18$@, #etra ',
e*p. 12. Fee also 5 A4eri-uaciUn sumaria por la que resulta que la Fra. Aureliana Fil4era
4ecina de esta arroquia, en uso de su de2ensa natural Oile-i,leS repelendo, !iriU a osme
Mrosco, 4ecino de la de !acao 8, A'(60, riminales, 18$I, #i,ro 'F, #etra F, e*p. $.
%9 Fee Ftern ;199%, p. 8>&8@<.
I? 5 6i4orcio que prepara 6oVa EarNa Antonia (re9 a su le-Ntimo marido 6on 'amUn
EaucU 8, AA, Eatrimoniales, 1811, le-. 18@, 2ols. >Ir&>@r.
I1 5 #a Fra. Eicaela 'a4elo solicitando se le !a,ilite judicialmente para administrar
por si los ,ienes que !eredU de su padre Ei-uel 'a4elo " sin la inter4enciUn de su
marido el Fr. Kuan Kos /spino9a 8, A'(60, i4iles, 18$I, #etra ', e*p. 1>, 2ol. 1>r.
I2 Ibid., 2ol. 1@4.
I$ 5 Kuan Kos /spinosa solicitando que Eicaela 'a4elo se restitu"a con los !ijos que
!a ocultado a la casa de su madre donde aquel la tenNa 8, A'(60, i4iles, 18$I, #etra
/, e*p. 1%, 2ol. I4.
I> Ibid., 2ol. I4.
I% -ienes para(ernales are t!e -oods t!at a Hi2e ,rin-s to marria-e, independent o2 !er
doHr", and t!at are at !er disposal. Psuall" t!ese -oods Here clot!es and jeHels and an"
propert" s!e acquired t!rou-! in!eritance or donation. :t seems t!at !us,ands
customaril" mana-ed t!e bienes para(ernales 2or t!eir Hi4es, alt!ou-! t!e laH
esta,lis!ed t!at !e could not dispose o2 t!ose -oods unless t!e Hi2e a-reed in Hritin-.
Fee /scric!e " EartNn ;18>?<, s.4. 5 bienes estradotales 8, and 5 bienes para(ernales 8 J
Arrom ;198%, p. I@&I8<.
II 5 Kuan Kos /spinosa 8, 2ol. @r.
I@ Fee 5 Kuan Kos /spinosa 8, 2ol. 18r.
I8 5 +ar,ara Kedler quejRndose contra el -o,ernador de la (ro4incia por el cruel
casti-o que !a !ec!o dar a su !ijo Antonio Eadri9, ecla4o del Fr. Kuan (a,lo Hui9i, por
indicios de estar comprendido en una re4oluciUn que tramara 8, A'(60, i4iles, 18$%,
#etra K, e*p. 22, 2ol. 11r.
Haut de pa-e
%our citer cet article
"#f#rence #lectroni0ue
Arlene J. !az , 5 Cender con2licts in t!e courts o2 t!e earl" Vene9uelan repu,lic,
aracas, 1811&18>? 8, Crime, =istoire M Soci't's N Crime, =istor M Societies O/n
li-neS , Vol. 2, n2 | 1998 , mis en li-ne le ?$ a4ril 2??9, onsult le $? juillet 2?11.
P'# : /inde*9I>.!tml J 6M: : 1?.>???/c!s.9I>
Haut de pa-e
Auteur
Arlene J. !az
6epartment o2 Histor", :ndiana Pni4ersit", +allantine Hall
+loomin-ton, :ndiana >@>?%.II2>, PFA, /&mail:ardia9]indiana.edu
Arlene K. 6Na9 is Assistant (ro2essor o2 Histor" at :ndiana Pni4ersit"&+loomin-ton,
:ndiana. F!e !as pu,lis!ed 5 7.ecesidad !i9o parir mulatas7 : li,eralismo, nacionalidad e
ideas so,re las mujeres en la u,a del si-lo W:W 8, in (ilar Con9al,o, ;ed.<, >amilia,
!'nero mentalidades en 9merica 8atina ;'No (iedras : /ditorial de la Pni4ersidad de
(uerto 'ico, 199@< and is t!e co&aut!or o2 5 Mccupational lass and 0emale&Headed
House!olds in Fantia-o Eaior do :-uape, +ra9il, 18$% 8, ;ournal o( >amil =istor
;0all, 1991<. urrentl" s!e is HorGin- on a ,ooG manuscript entitled 5 7iudadanas7 and
7padres de 2amilia7 : Cender, (oHer, and #aH in aracas, Vene9uela, 1@8I&1888 8 and is
conductin- researc! on Homen7s or-ani9ations in earl" tHentiet!&centur" aracas. )!e
aut!or His!es to t!anG #uis A. Con9Rle9, 'icardo 6. Fal4atore, 'o,ert Ecaa, and Cil
Kosep! 2or t!eir comments and su--estions. An earl" 4ersion o2 t!is article Has
presented at t!e Fecond arleton on2erence on t!e Histor" o2 t!e 0amil", arleton
Pni4ersit", MttaHa, anada, Ea" 199>, and a more recent 4ersion at t!e on2erence on
5 )!e ontested )errains o2 #aH, Kustice, and 'epression in #atin American Histor" 8,
Qale Pni4ersit", April 199@.
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