1.

4 Introduction to cellular concept

The cellular concept was developed in response to the limitations of conventional mobile radio
services. The main limitations of the previous mobile communication systems are as follows:
1. High-power transmitters were used to cover very large area.
2. Inefficient use of allocated radio spectrum.
. If a user leaves the coverage area! they had to reinitiate the call on a different fre"uency channel.

Figure 1.5 #ircle to he$agonal cell shape appro$imation

Figure 1.6 #onventional mobile radio service

In the beginning! there were no handoffs and the cellular system%s si&e depended on how much
power the centrali&ed '( could transmit and receive. )sers who stepped out of range of one system
had to re-establish the call in the ne$t system *+ig. 1.,-. The capacity of these systems was severely
limited because only a small number of radio channels *available bandwidth- were available for mobile
systems. Therefore! they had to find a way to reuse radio channels in order to carry more than one
conversation. .epeatedly reusing the radio fre"uencies over a given geographical area provides
number of simultaneous conversations. The basic idea of the cellular concept is frequency reuse.
1.4.1 Frequency reuse
+re"uency reuse refers to the use of radio channels on the same carrier fre"uency to cover different
areas that are separated from one another by sufficient distances.
(ince the users in different geographical areas *cells- may simultaneously use the same fre"uency!
this techni"ue ma$imi&es the number of mobile phones served in a given geographical area and
spectrum efficiency. +re"uency reuse causes ##I which is a trade-off lin/ "uality versus subscriber
capacity. This concept is shown in +igure 1.0 and is e$plained in greater detail in #hapter 2. #ells with
the same letter *1- use the same set of fre"uencies. 1 cell group or cluster is outlined in bold and
replicated over the coverage area. In +igure 1.0! the cluster si&e *2- is 0 and the fre"uency reuse
factor is 130 since each cell contains 130 of the total number of available channels.
1.4.2 Handoff
2otion of handoff is a crucial component in cellular concept. The mobile users by definition are mobile
i.e. they can move around while using the phone. Hence the networ/ should be able to provide them
continuous access as they move. This will not be a problem if the user is moving within the same cell.
'ut when the user moves from one cell to another! a handoff is re"uired.
Handoff is one of the important concepts in the cellular mobile communications. The mobile user
can move around while using the mobile phone! which is the main advantage of mobile phones. 4ven
when the mobile user is moving! the access to the networ/ should be continuous. This problem does
not arise if the user is moving within the same cell! but when the user is moving from cell to cell!
a handoff is needed.

Figure 1.7 1n illustration of the cellular fre"uency reuse concept

Handoff is the process of transferring an active call from one cell to another as the mobile unit
moves from the first cell to the other cell without disconnecting the call.
5hen a mobile moves into a different cell while the call is in progress! the mobile switching centre
*6(#- automatically transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the new '(. Handoff operation
involves identifying a new '( along with the allocation of voice and control signals.
4$ample of a handoff process is given in steps with reference to mobile phone moving from one '(
to another as shown in +igure 1.7:
1 user is transmitting and receiving signals from a given '( *say '(1-.
1ssume the user moves from the coverage area of one '( into the coverage area of a second '( *'(2-.
'(1 notices that the signal from this user is degrading.
'(2 notices that the signal from this user is improving.
1t some point! the user%s signal is wea/ enough at '(1 and strong enough at '(2 for a handoff to occur.
(pecifically! if messages are e$changed between the user! '(1! and '(2 then the communication to3from the
user is transferred from '(1 to '(2.

Figure 1.8 #all handoff process

+igure 1.8*a- depicts an improper handoff scenario between two '(s *i.e. '(1 and '(2-. 5hen the
mobile user in a car is at point 1 in the coverage area of '(1! then the received signal strength *.((-
is above the threshold level as shown in +igure 1.8*a-. 'ut if the mobile user in the car is moving
towards point ' in the coverage area of '(2! then the .(( received by the mobile due to the '(2 is
dropped below the minimum acceptable threshold level and the call is terminated.+igure
1.8*b- depicts the proper handoff scenario that has ta/en place when the mobile user%s car is moving
from '(1 to '(2. In this case! when the mobile user is at point 1 under the coverage area of '(1!
then the .(( is above the threshold level as shown in +igure 1.8*b-. If the mobile user in the car is
moving towards point ' in the coverage area of '(2! then the .(( received by the mobile due to the
'(2 is well above minimum acceptable threshold level! and therefore! the handoff is successful.
1.4.2.1 Types of handoff
Handoffs are broadly classified into two categories:
Hard handoff
(oft handoff *(H9-
Hard handoff is :brea/-before-ma/e;! meaning that the connection to the old '( is bro/en before a
connection to the new '( is made. Hard handoff occurs when handoff is made between dis<ointed
radio systems! different fre"uency assignments! or different air-interface characteristics or
technologies.

Figure 1.9(a) Improper handoff

Figure 1.9(b) =roper handoff

)sually! the hard handoff can be further divided into two different types: intracellular and
intercellular handoffs.
1 handoff made within the currently serving cell *e.g. by changing the fre"uency- is called an
intracellular handoff. 1 handoff made from one cell to another is referred to as an intercellular
handoff.
(H9 is :ma/e-before>brea/;! meaning that the connection to the old '( is not bro/en until a
connection to the new '( is made. In fact! more than one '( is normally connected simultaneously to
the 6(. There are different types of (H9. 5hen sectors of the same '( are involved in communication
with the 6(! the handoff is called softer handoff. 5hen one sector from each '( is involved! the
handoff is called soft handoff. 5hen multiple sectors of one '( and one or more sectors of another '(
communicate with the 6(! the resulting (H9 is called softer-soft handoff.
1.4.2.2 Handoff strategies
6obility in networ/ is managed by two different handoff strategies! namely hori&ontal handoff and
vertical handoff.
In case of hori&ontal handoff! handoff is between two networ/ access points or '(s that use the
same wireless networ/ access technology. The handoff is purely due to mobility of the 6(. In case of
vertical handoff! handoff is between two networ/ access points or '(s that use the different wireless
networ/ access technology.
In the 1? analogue cellular systems! the .(( measurements are made by the '( and are
supervised by the 6(#. In the 2? systems that use T@61 technology! mobile-assisted handoff
*61H9- is used. In 61H9! every mobile phone measures the .(( from the surrounding '( and
continuously reports the .(( values to the corresponding '(. +urther details of the handoff
mechanism are presented in #hapter 17.
1.4.3 Co-channel interference
+or each cell! a set of fre"uencies is allocated.
#ells that use the same set of fre"uencies are denoted as co-channel cells and the interference
received from co-channel cells is called co-channel interference.
The ##I occurs mainly due to reusing an identical fre"uency channel. This has become a ma<or
problem in the mobile cellular networ/. To reduce the ##I! minimum fre"uency reuse distance must
be used. If all cell si&es are fi$ed! ##I is independent of the transmitted power of each cell. 9ne
method to reduce the ##I is by tilting down the '( antenna beam as shown in +igure 1.1A due to
which the power outside the cell causing ##I reduces. ##I in the cellular system is described in detail
in #hapter .
The following five types of approaches are followed in cellular communications to increase the user
capacity.

Figure 1.10 ##I reduction using beam tilting

Adding new channels: 2ew channels are added between mobile unit B base station.
Frequency borrowing: +re"uencies are ta/en from ad<acent cells by congested cells.
Cell splitting: #ells in areas of high usage can be split into smaller cells.
Cell sectoring: #ells are divided into a number of wedge-shaped sectors! each with their own set of channels.
icrocells: '( antennas move to buildings and lamp posts.
1.4.4 Cell splitting
Cell splitting is the process of dividing the radio coverage of a cell site into two or more new cell
sites. #ell splitting is performed to provide additional capacity *number of channels- within the region
of the original cell site by increasing the number of '(s.
(plitting a cell provides more number of cells!
reduction in the cell si&e! and
corresponding reduction in the antenna height and transmitter power
6ore number of cells gives more number of clusters! resulting in more number of channels and high
user capacity.
The cell radius *!- reduction by a factor of f reduces the coverage area and increases the re"uired
number of '(s by a factor of f
2
.
+igure 1.11 illustrates how cells can be divided if higher capacity is needed in a spot. 5e need to go
locally to smaller cluster si&e *"-. +igure 1.11 consists of three clusters and each cluster is a group of
seven cells. *http:33www.wirelessdictionary.com35ireless-@ictionary-#ell-(plitting- @efinition.html-.
To cover a smaller area! the radio coverage area of large cells sites are split by ad<usting the power
level and3or using reduced antenna height. The radio coverage area of the cell site can be reduced by
changing the .+ boundaries of the cell site. This is similar to placing the cells farther apart and
permitting new cells to be added. To use the cell resources efficiently the smaller cells can be either
activated or deactivated according to the traffic patterns. 6ore details on cell splitting are discussed
in#hapter .
Figure 1.11 #ell splitting before and after in clusters of si&e 0