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CHAPTER 1


INTRODUCTION




1.1 GENERAL


One of the most frightening and destructive phenomena of nature is
an earthquake and its terrible after-effects. Every year several million
earthquakes occur on the earth. Many of these are of small intensity and do not
cause any damage. However, earthquakes of large intensity in the vicinity of
populated areas cause considerable damage and loss of life. Much of the
existing buildings in India and worldwide consists of structures designed
without the benefit of current seismic design procedures and, therefore, are
vulnerable to damage during a seismic event.



Reinforced concrete (RC) frames infilled with masonry form the
structural system of many of these vulnerable buildings. Recent earthquakes
across the world revealed major seismic deficiencies in RC buildings, some of
which led to catastrophic collapses causing a death toll measured in thousands.
The RC frames typically have been designed for gravity loads only, and
common design practice considers the infill a non-structural component. By
neglecting the masonry infill during design of the frame, one is assuming that
the final infilled structure will have the same reliability as the frame alone.
Such a belief is vastly misleading. Historically, such structures have been
plagued with poor performance during seismic events (Paulay and Priestley
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1992). Clearly the non-structural masonry infill can drastically alter the
seismic behaviour of infilled frames. The complex interaction between frame
and infill makes lateral strength and seismic behaviour difficult to quantify.



One of the observed common RC structural failures during recent
earthquakes is column shear failure. The types of columns that are susceptible
to shear failure are columns with low shear span/depth ratio. These columns
may have been originally designed as long columns and then partial
supporting walls were later constructed, which created a captive column.
Earthquake damage reports, with few exceptions worldwide, present numerous
cases of captive-column effect. Although the problem shows itself as damage
to the column, the cause usually rest with non-structural elements imposing a
pattern of response to the earthquake motions different from the expected
behaviour of the column by itself without the non-structural elements.



1.2 CAPTIVE-COLUMN EFFECT


The captive-column effect is caused by a non-intended
modification to the original structural configuration of the column that restricts
the ability of the column to deform laterally by partially confining it with
building components (Guevara and Garcia 2005). The column is kept captive
by these components as shown in Figure 1.1 and only a fraction of its height
can deform laterally, corresponding to the free portion; thus the term captive
column. In general, the captive-column effect is often represented as a short-
column effect. Although the terms captive column and short column have been
used interchangeably in the literature, the reasons that cause them are
completely different. In the former case, the column is affected by the
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presence of adjoining non-structural elements. In a short-column effect, the
column is made shorter than neighbouring columns by horizontal structural
elements, such as beams, girders, and staircase landing slabs that frame at
mid-height of the column.




Figure 1.1 The Captive-Column Behaviour



Architectural decisions based on functional or aesthetic aspects are
the most common reasons for the creation of captive columns. The need for
incorporating openings to the walls of a building in order to provide natural
lighting and ventilation leads to partial lateral confinement along the height of
the column by rigid elements, such as internal partitions and facades. The
column ends up having adjoining walls in all its height, except in the upper
part where the opening is located. The length of the column that would be free
to deform laterally is reduced from the vertical floor to ceiling distance to just
barely the height of the opening as shown in Figure 1.1. This type of
configuration is often found in school classrooms, store rooms, rest rooms,
doctors consulting rooms, and so on where there is an apparent need to
provide lighting and ventilation while restricting visibility from one space to
the other. In these cases, the non-structural walls are higher than the height
generally allowed for normal window sills, and in order to comply with
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ventilation and lighting regulations, the high windows extend from column to
column. Figures 1.2 and 1.3 show some typical captive-column conditions in
RC buildings with partial masonry infill.




Figure 1.2 Captive-Column Conditions in a Warehouse



Figure 1.3 Partial-Infill in the Outer Walls of a Factory Unit
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1.3 BEHAVIOUR OF PARTIALLY INFILLED FRAMES


A masonry infilled frame typically comprises of RC frame with
masonry infilling, in which the restraint against lateral load is provided by the
composite action of the infill and the frame. In case of partially infilled
frames, for functional or aesthetic reasons, the infill wall will be constructed
only for a certain height of the frame thereby partially confining the columns
with building components. When the column is restrained by adjoined non-
structural walls, column and walls interact, restricting the lateral deformation
of the column (Figure 1.1). The design level of shear force
D
V in a column
(Paulay and Priestley 1992) will be


c
B T
D
l
M M
V
+
=
(1.1)


where
c
l is the clear storey height, and
T
M and
B
M are moments at
the top and bottom of the column. However, in reality, due to the presence of a
restraining element external to it, the clear height is significantly reduced,
increasing the shear force in inverse proportion. This increased shear force for
which the column is not designed for, can cause a shear failure of the column
resulting in the collapse of the building.



Dogangun (2004) has reported that many columns in RC frames
have failed due to short-column (captive-column) effect created by the
openings provided in the infill wall between columns during the Bingol
earthquake in Turkey on May 1, 2003. Cagatay (2005) has reported that all
columns on the outer side of an industrial building failed due to short-column
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(captive-column) effect induced by the partial infill during the Adana-Ceyhan
earthquake in Turkey on June 27, 1998 (Figure 1.4). Karakostas et al (2005)
have reported the shear failure of columns in RC frames due to openings in the
brick infill walls during the Lefkada, Greece earthquake on August 14, 2003
(Figure 1.5). They identified that the collapse took place in an area where
damage to other RC buildings was limited, and soil conditions were better
than in other town districts. The collapse can thus be attributed to the overall
poor seismic resistance of the building than the intensity of the seismic
motion. Aliaari and Memari (2005) have reported the formation of short-
column (captive-column) effect due to partial tight fit infill walls in an RC
building during the Peru earthquake in June 2001 (Figure 1.6). Moretti and
Tassios (2006) have reported a damaged column in a partially infilled RC
frame at Athens during an earthquake in 1999 with the upper part behaved as a
short column owing to restraints in displacements by adjacent masonry infills.
Figures 1.7 to 1.9 show few of the shear failure in columns due to captive-
column effect during earthquakes in various parts of the world.




Figure 1.4 Captive-Column Failure in an Industrial Building at Adana
(Turkey), 1998 Earthquake (Cagatay 2005)


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Figure 1.5 Captive-Column Failure in an RC Frame at Lefkada (Greece),
2003 Earthquake (Karakostas et al 2005)




Figure 1.6 Captive-Column Effects due to Partial Tight-Fit Infill Walls in
an RC Building at Peru, 2001 Earthquake (Aliaari and Memari 2005)


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Figure 1.7 Captive-Column Failure in a High School Building at Sichuan
(China), 2008 Earthquake




Figure 1.8 X-Shaped Cracks in a Captive Column at Athens (Greece),
1999 Earthquake


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Figure 1.9 Captive-Column Failures in an RC Building at Bhuj (India),
2001 Earthquake



1.4 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM


The severity of the damage caused by earthquakes to buildings due
to the presence of captive-column/partial-infill requires a better understanding
of the failure mechanism of partially infilled frames under lateral loading.
When it is not possible to avoid captive columns, this effect must be addressed
in structural design. The columns of such partially infilled buildings must be
designed for the higher shear force considering the height of the opening to
avoid shear failure (Paulay and Priestley 1992). The Indian standard
IS-13920 (1993) for ductile detailing of RC structures requires special
confining reinforcement (closely-spaced closed ties) to be provided over the
full height of columns that are likely to sustain captive-column effect. The
special confining reinforcement must extend beyond the particular column
into the columns vertically above and below by a certain distance equal to the
development length of the largest longitudinal bar in the column. Since earlier
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versions of the local building code did not contain the provisions for special
confining reinforcement, many existing buildings with captive-column
conditions would not survive an earthquake that reaches a certain level of
intensity. The condition will be more critical in seismic regions, where new
standards are more comprehensive than the old ones.



For buildings in India not meeting the current Indian seismic code
requirements (IS-13920 1993), a structural upgrading or retrofit scheme
should be considered. To date, it has been reported that many of the owners
have not taken remedial actions, which may be attributed to high retrofitting
costs. Traditional retrofitting techniques that use steel and cementitious
materials do not always offer the most appropriate solutions. Most of these
methods have proven to be impractical, labour intensive, add considerable
mass, and cause significant impact on the occupant, all resulting in very high
costs. This may lead to a do nothing choice, in which the owner decides
that the risk of economic loss and occupant injury does not justify the
significant cost of strengthening.



Therefore, some efforts must be made to develop effective and
economic retrofit techniques for upgrading the vulnerable columns in existing
partially infilled RC structures to increase their safety levels and to improve
the expected behaviour during seismic activity in the future. Retrofitting with
fibre-reinforced polymers may provide a more economical and technically
superior alternative to the traditional techniques in many situations.



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The evaluation of the seismic resistance of existing structures and
their deficiencies is essential before an appropriate repair or upgrade system
can be designed. Understanding the behaviour of partially infilled frames and
having a satisfactory method of analysis will help us to have more realistic and
economical solutions. The behaviour of such frames under seismic loading is
very complex and complicated. Since the behaviour is nonlinear and closely
related to the complex interaction between the frame and the partial infill, it is
very difficult to predict it by analytical methods unless the analytical models
are supported and revised by using the experimental data. Due to the complex
behaviour, experimental research is of great importance to determine the
strength, stiffness and dynamic characteristics of partially infilled frames at
each stage of loading.



1.5 FIBRE-REINFORCED POLYMERS


Fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) is a composite material composed
of matrix of polymeric material reinforced by uni-directional or multi-
directional fibres, usually 3 to 5 microns in diameter, placed in a resin matrix,
polymer, and hence stems the name. The resin matrix binds the fibres together,
allows load transfer between fibres and it also protects the fibres from
environment. The FRPs are mechanically different from steel in a sense that it
is anisotropic, linearly elastic and it is usually of higher strength with a lower
modulus of elasticity than steel. The FRPs have desirable physical properties
over steel, like corrosion resistance, high strength-to-weight ratio, high fatigue
resistance, and dimensional stability. The FRP also has the disadvantages of
the susceptibility to moisture and chemicals, the loss of properties at high
temperatures, as in the case of fire, and the damage from ultra-violet light.

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The production of FRP started since the 1940s, where it was used
in variety of industries, such as aerospace, automotive, shipbuilding, chemical
processing, etc., for many years. Their application in civil engineering,
however, has been very limited. Their high strength-to-weight ratio and
excellent resistance to corrosion make them attractive material for structural
applications. Presently, several types of FRP materials have been considered
for repair and retrofit of concrete and masonry structures, among them are the
glass fibre-reinforced polymers GFRP, carbon fibre-reinforced polymers
CFRP, and aramid fibre-reinforced polymers AFRP. Glass has been the
predominant fibre for many civil engineering applications because of the
economical balance of cost and strength properties.



Although the FRP can be used as a structural stand-alone material
like the structural steel shapes or reinforcement bars for new reinforced
concrete structures, yet its most extensive use to-date is to retrofit existing
structures in the form of bonded laminates. The laminates are made by
stacking a number of thin layers of fibres and matrix and consolidate them into
the desired thickness. Fibre orientation in each layer as well as the stacking
sequence of the various layers can be controlled to generate a range of
physical and mechanical properties. Laminates are used either in the form of
dry plates or wet lay-up of a single lamina or multiple laminates. The plates
are to be bonded to the surface using the appropriate adhesive, whereas the
wet lay-up involves wetting (impregnating) the fabric at the time of
installation in-situ with the appropriate polymer, in this case the polymer
serves both as a binding matrix as well as bonding the FRP to the surface of
the structure. Figure 1.10 shows a typical example of FRP laminates available
in the form of a mat.

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Figure 1.10 FRP Laminates in the Form of Mat



The most important characteristics of a strengthening work are the
predominance of labour and shutdown costs, time, site constraints and long-
term durability. In addition to their outstanding mechanical properties, the
advantages of FRP composites versus conventional materials for strengthening
of structural and non-structural elements include lower installation costs,
improved corrosion resistance, onsite flexibility of use, and minimum changes
in the member size after repair. From the architectural point of view, this
constitutes a huge advantage for the FRPs against traditional strengthening
techniques, because the use of conventional methods may violate the
aesthetics of building facades and they may intrude on usable space adjacent
to the strengthened components. More importantly, from the structural point of
view, the dynamic properties of the structure remain unchanged because there
is little addition of weight and stiffness. Any alteration to the aforementioned
properties would typically result in an increase in seismic forces. Additionally,
the ease with which FRP composites can be installed on the structural
elements of RC frames makes this form of strengthening attractive to the
owner, considering both reduced installation cost and down-time.
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1.6 LITERATURE REVIEW


The complex interaction of RC frame and infill has been the subject
of numerous investigations conducted by the researchers throughout the world.
Different approaches had been adopted starting from simple strength of
materials approach, passing through trials to match experimental results using
simple models. Methods based on the theory of elasticity, plastic analysis, and
finally finite element analysis were also used.



In order to assess and to critically evaluate the research work done
on infilled RC frames and to identify a suitable retrofit strategy for captive-
column defects, a detailed review of literature has been undertaken. The
literature survey in this study is divided into two sections. The first section
highlights various experimental and theoretical studies conducted to date in
the area of masonry infilled RC frames with emphasis on the conclusions
reached. The second section shows some of the retrofitting techniques with
FRP composites adopted for strengthening RC structural elements and frames.



1.6.1 Previous Research on Masonry-Infilled RC Frames


Several dozen experimental and analytical investigations of infilled
structures have been conducted over the past 50 years, and important advances
have been made for RC frames infilled with masonry. Much of this work has
focused on the concept of stiffness. An early contribution to understanding the
complex nature of masonry infill frames was introduced by Smith (1966). He
examined the behaviour of infilled frames by the finite-difference method and
adopted a simplified equivalent single strut model to replace the wall. Since
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then the equivalent strut model has been widely used by engineers and
researchers. For design and analysis, Holmes (1961), Stafford Smith and
Carter (1969), and Saneinejad and Hobbs (1995) have proposed the idea of
equivalent diagonal strut and derived systematic methods to calculate the
mechanical properties of such struts. Madan et al. (1997) further extended the
work of Saneinejad and Hobbs (1995) by including a smooth hysteretic model
for the equivalent diagonal strut. The hysteresis model uses degrading control
parameters for stiffness and strength degradation and slip (pinching).



Paulay and Priestley (1992) have suggested treating the infill walls
as diagonal bracing members connected by pins to the frame members. They
have also suggested to calculate the stiffness of the structure and hence its
natural period based on considering the effective strut width to be one quarter
of the wall diagonal.



Cyclic testing of masonry infilled specimens began during the
1970s with research addressing seismic performance for both evaluation and
retrofit. Researchers such as Klingner and Bertero (1978), Kahn and Hanson
(1979), Liauw and Kwan (1985) have conducted experimental investigations
on the lateral stiffness and strengths of concrete frames infilled with reinforced
and unreinforced masonry panels.



Bertero and Brokken (1983) have conducted a series of quasi-static
cyclic and monotonic load tests on one-third scale models of 11 storey-three
bay RC frame infilled in the outer bays. Different panel material and
reinforcement combinations were tested. In this study, the effective
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inter-storey lateral stiffness of infilled frames was 5.3-11.7 times the lateral
stiffness of the bare frame depending on the type of infill. The maximum
lateral resistance of infilled frames was 4.8-5.8 times of that obtained for the
bare frame. The implications of experimentally obtained results were analysed
by investigating how the infills affect the dynamic response of RC moment
resisting frame buildings.



Achintya and Jain (1991) have presented the behaviour of brick
infilled RC frames subjected to lateral load, through an experimental
approach. The strength of mortar is found to have considerable influence on
lateral stiffness and strength of the infilled frames. Frames tested with
reinforced brick panel have shown insignificant improvement in failure
strength. The stiffness of the infilled frame has decreased very rapidly after the
initiation of cracks. Lack of fit between the infill and the frame due to
shrinkage of infilled material is also noted.



Mehrabi et al (1996) have tested 12 half scale, single-storey, single-
bay, RC frames infilled with concrete block masonry that were designed in
accordance with code provisions. The objectives were to evaluate the
influence of the relative strength and stiffness of infill panels with respect to
those of the bounding frame, the lateral load history, the panel aspect ratio, the
magnitude and the distribution of vertical loads, and the adjacent infilled bays
on the performance of these frames. The experimental results indicated that
infill panels can significantly improve the performance of RC frames. They
concluded that the lateral loads developed by the infilled frame specimens
were always higher than that of the bare frame.

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Negro and Verzeletti (1996) have conducted a series of pseudo-
dynamic tests on a full-scale 4-storey RC building designed according to
Eurocodes. The tests were conducted on the bare frame, as well as on the
frame with two different configurations of non-structural masonry infills. The
experimental results indicated that the presence of light non-structural
masonry infills can change the response of the structure to a large extent and
the presence of regular pattern of infills to a large extent prevents energy
dissipation from taking place in the frame.



Amar and Cherifati (1999) have reported vibration measurements
performed on two adjacent, three-storey reinforced concrete frame buildings
with hollow clay brick infill panels. The first building was a bare frame and
the second one was a similar frame infilled with brick panels. The
fundamental period for the infilled frame building was much smaller than that
of the bare frame building. Using shear beam lumped-mass models and the
vibration data, the actual lateral stiffness of both buildings was identified. The
lateral stiffness of the infilled frame building was found to be seven times
greater than that of the bare frame building.



Singh et al (2001) reported the tests conducted on infilled frames
with and without shear connectors and found that the stiffness, strength,
ductility and energy absorption capacity is clearly superior when the interface
connection is used.



Lee and Woo (2002) have investigated the effect of masonry infills
on the seismic performance of low-rise RC frames with non-seismic detailing.
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For this purpose, a 2-bay 3-storey masonry-infilled RC frame was selected and
a 1:5 scale model was constructed with non-seismic detailing. A series of
earthquake simulation tests and a pushover test were performed on this model.
When the results of these tests are compared with those in the case of the bare
frame, it can be recognised that the masonry infills contribute to the large
increase in the stiffness and strength of the global structure whereas they also
accompany the increase of earthquake shear forces. The failure mode of the
masonry-infilled frame was that of shear failure due to the bed-joint sliding of
the masonry infills while that of the bare frame appeared to be the soft-storey
plastic mechanism at the first storey.



Al-Chaar et al (2002) have presented their research on the
behaviour of a type of building popular in high seismic zones with a lateral-
load-resisting system consisting of masonry-infilled RC frames. Older
buildings of this type typically were designed for gravity loads in combination
with insufficient or no lateral loads; therefore they do not meet current seismic
code requirements. Also, the participation of infill panels in the lateral load
resistance of RC frames was not recognized in the original design, often
resulting in an overly conservative design. In an attempt to determine the
seismic vulnerability of this type of structure, an experimental program was
carried out to evaluate the behaviour of five half-scale, single-storey
laboratory models with different numbers of bays. The results indicated that
infilled RC frames exhibit significantly higher ultimate strength, residual
strength, and initial stiffness than bare frames without compromising any
ductility in the loaddeflection response.



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Ghosh and Amde (2002) have verified the design of infilled frames
to resist lateral loads on buildings in terms of their failure modes, failure loads,
and initial stiffnesses using procedures proposed by previous authors. This
verification was made by comparing the results of the analytical procedures of
the previous authors with those of a new finite element model for infilled
frames, which are verified using experimental results. To model the interface
between the frame and the infill and the mortar joints surrounding the blocks
of masonry, a non-associated interface model was formulated using the
available test data on masonry joints. The failure criteria for masonry include
the Von Mises criterion for the plane stress condition for uncracked masonry
(assembly) and a smeared crack model. Additionally, the finite element model
has provided more insights into the failure mechanisms of the infilled frames.



A comparative study on the nonlinear behaviour of reinforced
concrete multi-storey structures was carried out by Lu (2002) on the basis of
measured response of four six-storey, three-bay framed structures, namely a
regular bare frame, a discontinuous-column frame, a partially masonry-infilled
frame, and a wall-frame system. The structures were designed for similar
seismic requirements in accordance with Eurocode, and their 1:5.5 scaled
models were subjected to similar earthquake simulation tests. Experimental
observations and numerical analyses showed that the distribution of the storey
shear over-strength is a rather stable indicator of the general inelastic
behaviour of frames, and hence, can be employed as a characteristic parameter
to quantify the frame irregularity for design purposes. He commented that
abrupt discontinuity of the geometry or arrangement of structurally effective
elements, where unavoidable, may be compensated by strength enhancement
targeting a smoothed over-strength profile to allow for distributed inelastic
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deformation, and this principle applies as well to non-uniformly masonry
infilled frames.



Henderson et al (2003) have reported a five-year, large- and small-
scale, static and dynamic experimental research program, in which more than
700 tests were conducted. The program has demonstrated that unreinforced
masonry infills are more ductile and resist lateral loads more effectively than
anticipated by conventional code procedures. The tests were conducted both in
the laboratory and on existing structures. The experimental data indicated that
the combination of a frame and infill material efficiently resists lateral loads-
the infilling provides significant lateral stiffness while the surrounding frame
adds ductility and confinement to the overall system. The results from
approximately 25 moderate- and full-scale tests on infills have showed that
with simulated seismic loads the frames confined the masonry, and the load-
carrying capacity of the infill was considerably above the load that caused
initial cracking.



Mohamed et al (2003) have reported the seismic performance of
concrete-backed stone masonry walls subject to cyclic load based on
experimental tests. Six, one-third scale, single-storey, single-bay wall samples
were tested. Three of these samples were constructed using old construction
methods and the other three were constructed using a new construction
method. The influence of the type of construction, applied vertical loads,
ductility, energy dissipation, stiffness, and failure mechanisms were
investigated. The experimental results indicated that an increase in the applied
vertical load resulted in a substantial increase in both lateral strength and
stiffness of the tested samples.
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Pujol and Fick (2010) have tested a full-scale three-storey RC
structure with and without infill walls made out of solid clay bricks to study
the effect of infill wall in RC frames under strong ground motion. During the
test without the walls, the structure experienced a punching shear failure at a
slabcolumn connection. After this first test, infill walls were built with solid
bricks. The walls filled completely full bays and ran continuously from the
foundation to the roof. It was observed that the walls increased the stiffness
and the strength of the structure. The drift capacity of the structure with walls
was observed to be 1.5%. Up to this level of deformation, masonry infill walls
in structures similar to the one described here can be expected to help control
inter-storey drift provided that measures are taken to prevent their out-of-plane
failure.



The use of finite element models has been greatly advanced by
Liauw and Kwan (1983) during the 1980s with companion experiments, as a
tool for understanding the behaviour of infilled frames. By introducing
plasticity models for the infill and interface elements between frame and infill,
they have identified new frame failure modes. They reported that crushing or
softening of infill regions of high compressive stress, at the ends of a main
diagonal strut, may significantly reduce lateral support to the column provided
by the infill, resulting in a short-column effect.



May and Nazi (1991) have developed a nonlinear analytical model
for infilled frames under monotonic and cyclic loading. The model has
represented the panel elements as eight noded isoparametric elements, the
frame members as three noded frame elements with shear locking effects
considered. The material of the infill was concrete and was represented by an
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elasto-plastic work hardening model. In tension, fixed crack models with
strain softening were used. The beam and column have bi-linear moment
curvature relationship and Newton-Raphson method had been used for the
solution.



Haddad (1991) have conducted finite element analysis of infilled
frames considering cracking and separation. The effect of frame infill
separation was included in the model. From the analysis results, it was
concluded that as the infill-frame relative stiffness factor increases, bending
moments and deflections at the frame joints were decreased.



Harpal Singh et al (1998) have reported an inelastic finite element
model to simulate the behaviour of RC frames infilled with masonry panels
and subjected to static load and earthquake excitation. Under the loads, the
mortar may crack causing sliding and separation at the interface between the
frame and the infill. Further, the infill may get cracked and/or crushed which
changes its structural behaviour and may render the infill ineffective, leaving
the bare frame to take all the loads which may lead to the failure of the
framing system itself. In this study, a mathematical model to incorporate this
behaviour has been developed.



Dawe et al (2001) have developed a computer model for the
structural analysis of masonry infilled frames. Structural interaction of the
panel and its peripheral frame was considered. Various failure criteria were
incorporated into the model and special elements were developed to account
for masonry failure by cracking and crushing as well as to account for the
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complex interaction of frame and panel. Comparison of analytical findings
with the results of 31 laboratory tests on steel and RC infilled frames showed
favourable correlation and verification of the computer model.



Das and Murty (2004) have reported the nonlinear pushover
analysis performed on five RC framed buildings with brick masonry infills for
the same seismic hazard as per Eurocode, Nepal building code, Indian code,
and the equivalent braced frame method given in the literature. Infills are
considered in the modelling. They have concluded that infills reduce the
overall structural ductility, but increase the total strength. In addition, the
buildings designed by the equivalent braced frame method showed better
overall performance.



Stavridis and Shing (2010) have addressed pertinent issues on the
development and calibration of nonlinear finite element models for assessing
the seismic performance of masonry-infilled RC structures. The modelling
scheme considered by them has combined the smeared and discrete crack
approaches to capture the different failure modes of infilled frames, including
the mixed-mode fracture of mortar joints and the shear failure of RC members.
A systematic approach was presented to calibrate the material parameters, and
the accuracy of the nonlinear finite-element models has been evaluated with
experimental data. The comparison of the numerical and experimental results
indicated that the models can successfully capture the highly nonlinear
behaviour of the physical specimens and accurately predict their strength and
failure mechanisms. Araki et al (2011) have developed finite element models
and reviewed the out-of-plane response of masonry walls retrofitted by
inserting inclined stainless steel bars.
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The studies of several researchers are generally based on the
investigations conducted on fully infilled RC frames. Very few studies have
been reported on RC frames with partial infill or with openings in the infill.
Achyutha et al (1986) have proposed an iterative finite element method of
analysis to simulate the elastic behaviour of infilled frames with and without
opening. The results of the effect of size of opening are reported. Some of the
theoretical results were compared with those of experiments carried out on
half-scale models.



Negro and Colombo (1997) have reported the effects of the non-
structural masonry infills on the global seismic behaviour of frame structures,
based on the results of full-scale pseudo-dynamic tests and the post test
calculations. The tests were performed on a four-storey framed structure
designed according to Eurocode, with different infill configurations. The
results show that an irregular distribution of the panels yields unacceptably
large damage in the frame. They have also stated that the effects of non-
structural masonry infills can modify the seismic behaviour of framed
buildings to a large extent. These effects are generally positive. On the other
hand, potentially negative effects such as soft-storey effects induced by
irregularities in elevation, short-column effects due to openings should also be
considered. Hence neglecting the effects of non-structural infills does not, in
general, result in a safe design even though this is the practice suggested by
most design codes.



Buonopane and White (1999) have performed pseudo-dynamic
testing of a half-scale specimen for seismic evaluation of a two-storey, two-
bay RC frame infilled with masonry. The second-storey infill included
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window openings. The specimen was subjected to four tests of increasing
magnitude based on the Taft ground motion. The final sequence of tests
produced diagonal cracking in the upper storey, but primarily bed joint shear
cracking in the lower storey. Relations between the types of observed cracking
and storey drift-storey shear response were explored. Estimates of storey
stiffness from several simple strut models were found to bind the
experimentally measured values for both the first- and second-storey walls
prior to significant damage. It is concluded that the available methods for
estimating shear strength that neglect infill-frame interaction were found to
largely underestimate the measured shear strength.



Chiou et al (1999) have studied the structural behaviour of a one-
bay, one-storey framed masonry wall subjected to in-plane monotonic loading
by a full-scale test on using the method of discontinuous deformation analysis.
The numerical solutions were compared with the experimental results and a
satisfactory agreement was obtained. The filled masonry wall had affected
dominantly the behaviour of the framed masonry structure. The partially
infilled masonry wall induced a short column effect and leads to a severe
failure of the column. On the other hand, the completely filled masonry wall
increased the stiffness of the structure and the adjacent column failed in the
configuration of nearly uniform cracks.



By means of a new finite element technique, Asteris (2003) has
investigated the influence of the masonry infill panel opening in the reduction
of the infilled frames stiffness. A parametric study has been carried out using
as parameters the position and the percentage of the masonry infill panel
opening for the case of one-storey one-bay infilled frame. The investigation
26
has been extended to the case of multi-storey, fully or partially infilled frames.
In particular, the redistribution of action effects of infilled frames under lateral
loads has been studied. It is shown that the redistribution of shear force is
critically influenced by the presence and continuity of infill panels. The
presence of infills leads, in general, to decreased shear forces on the frame
columns. However, in the case of an infilled frame with a soft ground storey,
the shear forces acting on columns were considerably higher than those
obtained from the analysis of the bare frame.



Dogan (2011) have recently reported that different column heights
cause failure during earthquakes. Based on the results obtained from
numerical solutions and earthquake damage examinations, it was concluded
that short columns (captive columns) must not be constructed. If such columns
are to be used, certain precautions must be taken during design and
construction. He has also added that in existing buildings with walls of partial
height, the simplest solution is to close the openings by building a wall of full
height this will eliminate the short-column (captive-column) effect. If that is
not possible, the columns need to be strengthened using one of the well
established retrofit techniques.



1.6.2 Retrofit Techniques Using FRP Composites


In recent years, external application of FRP wraps are being used in
RC structural elements such as beams, columns, and beam-column joints to
increase their performance. Mirmiran and Shahawy (1997) have provided a
framework for better understanding of the behaviour of fibre-wrapped or FRP-
encased concrete columns. Results from a series of uniaxial compression tests
27
on concrete-filled FRP tubes were compared with the available confinement
models in the literature. They have also reported that external confinement of
concrete by means of high-strength fibre composites can significantly enhance
its strength and ductility as well as result in large energy absorption capacity.



Sheikh (2002) has reported that retrofitting with FRP to strengthen
and repair damaged structures is a relatively new technique. In an extensive
research program conducted at the University of Toronto, application of FRP
in concrete structures was investigated for its effectiveness in enhancing
structural performance both in terms of strength and ductility. The structural
components tested include slabs, beams, columns, and bridge culverts. Results
so far indicated that retrofitting with FRP offers an attractive alternative to the
traditional techniques. He also added that FRP can provide the most
economical and superior solution for a structural rehabilitation program.



Shehata et al (2002) have conducted tests on 54 short column
specimens to investigate the gain in strength and ductility of concrete columns
externally confined by CFRP wrapping. The variables studied were the
column cross section shape and the amount of confinement expressed in the
number of CFRP sheet layers applied to the models. On the basis of the
obtained results, equations were proposed to calculate the confined concrete
strength and the ultimate concrete strain as a function of the confining lateral
stress for each of the cross section geometry used, circular, square, and
rectangular.



28
Ghobarah and Said (2002) have constructed and tested several RC
beam-column joints to develop effective selective rehabilitation schemes using
advanced composite materials. The joints were designed to simulate non-
ductile detailing characteristics of pre-seismic code construction. The control
specimens showed joint shear failure when subjected to cyclic loading at the
beam tip. Different fibre-wrap rehabilitation schemes were applied to the joint
panel with the objective of upgrading the shear strength of the joint.



In the studies conducted by Ye et al (2003), eight specimens,
including two strengthened after being loaded to yield level to imitate
strengthening with some damage and one strengthened under a sustained axial
load to imitate strengthening under service condition, were tested under
constant axial load and lateral cyclic load to investigate the seismic
performance of RC columns strengthened with CFRP sheets. Based on the
experimental results, a confinement factor of CFRP and an equivalent
transversal reinforcement index were suggested.



Harajli and Rteil (2004) have presented the results of an
experimental investigation undertaken to evaluate the seismic performance of
RC columns designed for gravity load and confined externally with CFRP
flexible sheets. Other types of confinement including the use of steel fibre
reinforcement, or conventional transverse reinforcement were also evaluated
for comparison. The specimens consisted of 150 x 300 x 1000 mm-long
columns projecting outside a stiff column stub. The main parameters included
the reinforcement ratio in the columns, the area of CFRP sheets, and the
volume fraction of steel fibres. Confining the concrete with a relatively small
area of CFRP sheets reduced the bond deterioration, considerably increased
29
the energy absorption and dissipation capabilities of the columns, and resulted
in a significant improvement in seismic performance. In addition, they have
also reported that while confinement with ordinary transverse steel enhanced
the seismic behaviour and increased the energy absorption capacities of the
columns, it was not as effective as CFRP or steel fibre reinforcement.



Balsamo et al (2005) have assessed the use of CFRP composites for
the seismic repair of RC structures on a full-scale dual system subjected to
pseudo-dynamic tests. The aim of the CFRP repair was to recover the
structural properties that the frame had before the seismic actions by providing
both columns and joints with more deformation capacity. Comparisons
between original and repaired structures were discussed in terms of global and
local performance. In addition to the validation of the proposed technique, the
experimental results will represent a reference database for the development of
design criteria for the seismic repair of RC frames using composite materials.



Pan et al (2007) have conducted axial compression tests on six
elliptical modified rectangular slender RC columns wrapped with FRP, with a
slenderness ratio ranging between 4.5 and 17.5. The test result showed that the
effect of the slenderness ratio on the load carrying capacity of FRP-wrapped
concrete columns is more significant than that of ordinary RC columns. The
strengthening effect decreases with increase of slenderness ratio.



Sadeghian et al (2009) have presented the results of experimental
studies about axial stress-strain behaviour of retrofitted slender concrete
columns with CFRP composites. In this study, 30 unreinforced concrete
30
cylinders 100 mm diameter with variable height were prepared and retrofitted.
In each group, a plain specimen (unwrapped) and five wrapped specimens
with different fibre orientations were tested under compressive axial force
upto failure. The results have shown that the CFRP composites are most
effective in increasing the strength and ductility in slender columns.



Though the externally bonded FRP has become increasingly
popular for civil infrastructure applications, the use of GFRP composites has
rapidly increased during the last decade because of its economical balance of
cost and strength properties. Wang and Restrepo (2001) have proposed an
analytical method for evaluating the short-term axial load deformation
behaviour of rectangular and square RC compression members with GFRP
jackets and steel hoops. Three square and three rectangular columns were
tested under axial tension/compression upto failure. The results have clearly
showed the efficiency of the jackets in enhancing the ultimate strain and
strength of columns. The jackets were also very effective in preventing
longitudinal bar buckling from occurring. The analytical model was calibrated
using data from the tests and closed-form equations were proposed for
evaluating the short-term load-deformation behaviour of columns confined
with GFRP jackets.



El-Amoury and Ghobarah (2002) have proposed techniques for
upgrading the shear strength of beam-column joints using GFRP sheets. The
sheets were wrapped around the joint to prevent the joint shear failure. Three
beam-column joints were tested; namely a control specimen and two
rehabilitated specimens. The specimens were tested under quasi-static load to
failure. From the test results, they have found that the control specimen
31
showed combined brittle joint shear and bond failure modes while the
rehabilitated specimens showed a more ductile failure.



Li et al (2003) have conducted uni-axial compression tests on three
different strengths of concrete cylinders confined with different number of
layers of CFRP to develop a constitutive model for confined concrete in the
use of retrofitting and strengthening RC structures. The peak strength of this
constitutive model (named L-L model) was derived from the Mohr-Coulomb
failure envelope theory and can be explicitly expressed as a function of the
unconfined concrete strength, the lateral confining stress, and the angle of
internal friction of concrete. A second-order polynomial equation was used to
present the stress-strain curve of the L-L model. Test results of 108 concrete
cylinders confined by CFRP material were recorded to show the accuracy and
effectiveness of the L-L model. For concrete confined by steel reinforcement
and CFRP material, a modified L-L model was proposed. They have also
reported that this model can be applied to other confining materials such as
GFRP.



Galal et al (2005) have evaluated the performance enhancement of
short RC columns with high and low transverse steel content when retrofitted
using FRP composites. Seven RC short columns were designed and tested
under lateral cyclic loading and constant axial load. GFRP composites were
used to strengthen the short columns. It was found that short columns suffered
brittle shear failures. From the investigation, it was demonstrated
experimentally that it is possible to strengthen the shear resistance of short
columns with GFRP composites such that a flexural ductile failure occurs by
developing plastic hinges at both ends of the column.
32
Hodhod et al (2005) have conducted an experimental investigation
into the behaviour of high strength concrete square short columns subjected to
biaxial bending moments and strengthened by GFRP laminates. The
parameters considered in this study were: number of FRP layers and
arrangement of wraps. Test results of the full scale concrete columns were
presented and discussed. The study has shown that GFRP wraps can be used
successfully to enhance the ductility of high strength concrete columns
subjected to biaxial bending by 300%.



Balsamo et al (2005 a) have conducted full-scale pseudo-dynamic
tests on torsionally unbalanced three-storey RC frame structures with an aim
to pursue a better understanding of the potential of seismic rehabilitation
methods. The strategy of retrofitting with GFRP wraps was explained and the
performance of specimens with and without GFRP wraps during the pseudo-
dynamic tests was described. Through the experimental data, the effectiveness
of the retrofitting strategy was assessed.



Prota et al (2006) have assessed the effectiveness of FRP
confinement on rectangular RC columns with high aspect ratio (wall-like).
Their study aimed at providing more experimental evidence about the
behaviour of such members confined with GFRP laminates. Test results on
nine axially loaded columns were presented. The analysis of test results has
highlighted that GFRP confinement could determine significant strength and
ductility increases and the discussion of failure modes pointed out that the
failure of GFRP confined wall-like columns is controlled by the shape of the
cross-section. Theoretical-experimental comparisons were also performed
using some available models for strength prediction of such members.
33
Balasubramanian et al (2007) have conducted experimental
investigations on RC structural elements to assess the efficiency of CFRP and
GFRP wraps used for the retrofitting purposes. Twelve numbers of beam
specimens and thirteen numbers of column specimens were cast and tested to
check the efficiency of CFRP/GFRP wrapping. For the RC columns retrofitted
with single layer of CFRP/GFRP wrap, peak load, maximum strains as well as
ductility index were higher than the control RC column. In addition, the
performance of beams was found to be improved after retrofitting using FRP
wrapping. The performance of the retrofitted RC beams using a single layer of
both CFRP and GFRP were almost similar. Hence from economical
considerations, GFRP wrapping may be preferred.



Kumutha et al (2007) have examined the several aspects related to
the use of GFRP fabrics for strengthening rectangular columns subjected to
axial compression. To cover a wide range of cross-sectional dimension ratios,
three aspect ratios were studied and specimens with different layers of GFRP
wrap were investigated. Totally nine specimens were subjected to axial
compression which includes three control specimens. All the test specimens
were loaded to failure in axial compression and the behaviour of the
specimens in the axial and transverse directions was investigated. They
concluded that better confinement was achieved with GFRP composite sheets
resulting in enhanced load carrying capacity of the column, in addition to the
improvement of ductility.



Colomb et al (2008) have reported that the GFRP material appears
to be a good solution during the elastic analysis. They have tested eight short
concrete columns, under a constant compression load combined with a
34
horizontal quasi-static cyclic load. Seven columns were reinforced by CFRP
or GFRP. They concluded that composite material reinforcement endowed the
short columns with ductile behaviour, although the columns did not contain
the necessary transversal reinforcement ratio.



Ludovico et al (2008) have reported on a series of bidirectional
pseudo-dynamic tests performed on a full-scale torsionally unbalanced three-
storey RC frame structure. The structure was designed only for gravity loads
and was subjected to two rounds of tests both on the as-built and GFRP
retrofitted configuration. The aim of the GFRP retrofit was to enhance the
global performance of the structure in terms of ductility and energy dissipation
by providing columns with more deformation capacity and preventing the
development of brittle failure modes. The driving principles for the design of
GFRP retrofit and the experimental results in terms of global and local
performance were presented and compared in order to validate the proposed
retrofit technique. It was concluded that the GFRP laminates have provided a
considerable increase in the structural global deformation capacity without
significantly affecting its strength. The shear retrofit of the exterior beam-
column joints have prevented brittle mechanisms and thus allowed to fully
exploit the improved energy dissipating capacity of the structure.



1.7 NEED FOR THE PRESENT PROBLEM


It is now widely recognised that masonry infill walls used for
cladding and/or partition in buildings, significantly alter their seismic
response, and their effect in changing the stiffness, the ultimate lateral load
capacity as well as the ductility of the building system should be accounted for
35
in analysis and design. From the extensive review of literature carried out and
presented in the earlier sections, it is seen that exhaustive theoretical and also
experimental studies have been done on lateral behaviour of masonry infilled
multi-storey RC frames. But it is found that the work done to study the effect
of openings in the infill of such frames is limited. The actual behaviour of RC
frames with partial masonry infill under lateral loads simulating earthquake
effects such as captive-column condition is not available.



Due to the complexity of the contact problem, the sophisticated
composite action of the frame and the partial masonry infill, and the
incomplete understanding of the infill role, as well as the numerous
uncertainties involved in modelling the effect of infills; design aids such as
manuals and software as well as related code provisions hardly include any
detailed guidance to take into account the effect of the partial infills. This
enforces the need to pursue research work on RC frames with partial masonry
infill under simulated earthquake loads to identify the seismic effects such as
formation of captive-column condition and column shear failure which had
been observed during several earthquakes and reported.



On the other hand, there is an urgent need to establish effective and
economic retrofitting techniques for seismic up-gradation of captive columns
in existing partially infilled RC structures. The beneficial effect of using
GFRP laminates in retrofitting RC structural elements is clearly established in
the literature. The behaviour of partially infilled RC frames with the adopted
retrofit techniques should also be investigated.



36
1.8 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES


The objective of this research study is to develop a retrofit solution
for strengthening existing RC structures with captive-column defects. In this
study, two different retrofit schemes using FRP laminates and masonry inserts
were proposed. One of the retrofit schemes with GFRP laminates was
proposed to provide a simple and technically superior alternative to the
traditional techniques for improving the shear strength of captive columns and
preventing their failure. Another retrofit scheme was a novel approach
proposed to avoid captive-column failures by simply defending the column
with the addition of non-structural masonry inserts, partly closing the gap that
causes the captive-column effect.



In the experimental study, three partially infilled RC frames were
tested under quasi-static cyclic loads simulating seismic action. In order to
investigate the seismic performance of the proposed retrofit schemes, two
specimens were retrofitted using GFRP laminates and masonry inserts
respectively. Another specimen was the control frame tested to identify the
captive-column behaviour. An analytical validation was performed using
IDARC2D, a software package for the inelastic damage analysis of buildings,
developed by Valles et al (1996) in the National Center for Earthquake
Engineering Research (NCEER) at Buffalo, New York.



1.9 ORGANISATION OF THE DISSERTATION


This dissertation is organised according to the stages followed for
the development of the investigation. Thus, Chapter 1 introduces a general
37
statement of the problem and the objectives of this research. The chapter also
reviews the available literature discussing various studies conducted on
masonry infilled RC frames and on some of the retrofitting techniques for
strengthening RC structural frames and elements using FRP composites.
Chapter 2 describes the details of the test specimens, material properties,
casting and erection of specimens, test setup, and the testing procedure
followed. This chapter also describes the two different retrofit schemes
adopted in this study for strengthening the partially infilled frames. Chapter 3
describes the first phase of the experimental investigation conducted with
quasi-static cyclic loads on a partially infilled RC frame to evaluate the effect
of partial infill and the formation of captive-column conditions.



Chapter 4 gives the details of second phase of the experimental
investigation conducted with quasi-static cyclic loads on a similar frame as
presented in Chapter 3 but retrofitted using GFRP laminates. Chapter 5
presents the third phase of the experimental investigation conducted with
quasi-static cyclic loads on a frame retrofitted using masonry inserts. In
Chapters 3, 4, and 5, various parameters like lateral deflection, strength,
stiffness, ductility, and energy dissipation capacity are considered to study the
behaviour of the frames and the mechanism of failures are identified.
Chapter 6 describes a simple, easy to use analytical approach for validation of
the experimental results carried out on partially infilled frames. The
assumptions and expressions used for the development of analytical models
are presented. The analytical values were confronted with the experimental
values. In Chapter 7, the test results of Chapters 3, 4, and 5 are interpreted and
effectiveness of the adopted retrofit schemes is evaluated. Finally, the
Chapter 7 provides conclusions, recommendations to the designers, and the
scope for further research in the area of partially infilled RC frames.