170 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON RELIABILXN, VOL. 43, NO.

1,1994 MARCH
Shunt Capacitor Effect on Electrical Distribution System Reliability
Abdelhay A. Sallam, Member IEEE
Mohamed Desouky
Hussien Desouky
University of Suez Canal, Port Said
University of Suez Canal, Port Said
University of Tanta, Tanta
Key WO& - Reliability improvement, Shunt capacitor,
Distribution system, State-space method
Reader Ai ds -
General purpose: Demonstrate a reliability-prediction model
Special math needed for explanation: Probability theory
Sj&al math needed to useresuh Same
Results useful to: Reliability & power analysts
Summary & Conclusions - To improve the security &
reliability of a distribution system, as much power as feasible must
go through a given transmission Line. This can be achieved by using
shunt capacitors as compensators. Theseshunt capacitive compen-
sators improve the load Carrying capability of the h e by controll-
ing the reactive power flow. Consequently, the capacitor existence
can not be ignored in evaluating system reliability. The paper a p
plies the state-space method to calculate the reliability indices for
compensated & uncompensated systems with different success
criteria. The importance of using shunt capacitors to improve the
level of distribution system reliability is illustrated in addition to
t h e i r ~ ~ a s r e a e t i v e p o we r c o n t r o l l e r s . Ou r p ,
based on a Markov process, is applied to a numerical example,
and indicates that system reliability is improved when using shunt
capacitors.
1. INTRODUCTION
The main function of a power systemis to feed the loads
with electrical energy as economically & reliably as feasible.
The power systemsatisfies t h i s function, subjected to opera-
tional constraints such as busbar voltage violation, power fac-
tor change, and frequency variation. The power systemcan be
divided into 3 subsystems: generation, transmission, and
distribution. The distribution systemis responsible for transfer
of electrical energy from nodes (substations) to load points. The
analysis of distribution systems is very complex because of its
dependance on the other two subsystems. So, the distribution
systemis analyzed as a separate entity [l].
Distribution systemreliability is defined as the ability to
provide adequate electrical energy to the loads, with an accep-
table continuity & quality [2,3]. Systemreliability can besub-
divided into two basic aspects [4,5]:
Systemadequacy which relates to the presence of sufficient
facilities withiq the systemto satisfy the customer load re-
quirements for static systemconditions.
Systemsecurity which involves the ability of the systemto
respond suitably to disturbances arising within the system,
eg, generator or transformer failure. The redundancy of lines
is one of the methods to keep the security of the distribution
systemat a specific level when line interruptions occur.+
The distribution network is usually compensated by either
series or shunt capacitors as an effective &-economic& tool.
Series capacitors increase the maximumpower limit while shunt
capacitors have several effects:
reduce lagging component of circuit current,
increase voltage level at the load and power factor of source
improve voltage regulation if the capacitoi units are proper-
reduce direct & reactive power loss in the system,
decrease kVA loading on source generators and circuits to
relieve an over-loaded condition or release capacity for ad-
ditional load growth.
Additional kW loading may be placed on the generators, viz,
reduce demand kVA where power is purchased,
reduce investment in systemfacilities per kW of load sup-
Therefore, the transmission & distribution systemat some
nodes or load points can be connected with shunt capacitors to
control the reactive power, aiming to:
reduce systemlosses,
restore the stability margin,
improve supply quality [6].
These capacitors can be used to increase the systemsecurity
level by increasing the loadability of uninterrupted lines. Shunt
capacitors, therefore, play the same role as redundant lines, viz,
both of themincrease system security.
This paper evaluates the reliability of the distribution
systemwith shunt compensation, using the state-space method
[7], indicating the effective role of the shunt capacitors. This
method uses & calculates state probabilities, state frequencies,
and state durations. A numerical example demonstrates a con-
siderable improvement in the reliability indices of the distribu-
tion network when using shunt capacitors.
generators,
ly switched,
plied. 4
Notation
ps, p~
t s, tF
pi , ti
A, p [failure, repair] rate
&, cleq equivalent [failure, repair] rate
f systemfrequency
Ti tienumberi.
probability of [success, failure]
duration of [success, failure]
[probability, duration time] of state i
0018-9529/94/$4.00 01994 IEEE
SALLAM ET AL: SHUNT CAPACITOR EFFECT ON ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM RELIABILITY 171
Other, standard notation is given in "Information for Readers
& Authors" at the rear of each issue.
2. PROBLEM FORMULATION
Reliability indices are calculated for a distribution system
with and without shunt capacitors, viz, compensated and un-
compensated systems. Figure 1 shows theties representing
the s-independent paths which connect thesupply with one of
many electric distribution load points. These ties have, in
general, different loading conditions, and each tie contains a
shunt capacitor. The size of these capacitors is determined
originally in the systemsubjected to minimizing thereactive
power flow or increasing theline capability. When an inter-
ruption occurs at any tie, theshunt capacitors for the uninter-
rupted ties are switched on. So, the interrupted kVA can be com-
pensated partially or completely. These capacitors increase the
loadability of the uninterrupted ties, as shown in figure 2.
Figure 1. Distribution System with Shunt Capacitors
[compensated system]
I
-I- I -
i
m b. won .auno upJCit
Lmd b .iur adding axpcitars
hl &b
Figure 2. Effect of Shunt Capacitor on Tie Loadability
Figure 2 illustrates the effects of shunt capacitors on
theloadability. oa represents theload kVA at power factor
f. Angle f is decreased to to improve the power factor
at constant load kVA, ob = oa. This improvement can
be obtained by inserting shunt capacitors feeding the system
with reactive power cb kVAR. This increases transmitted
active power by ef kW while load carrying capability is
increased by ac kVA. If the power factor is improved to
unity (f=O), the maximumincrease in both active power
(eg kw) and load rating (ad kVA) is obtained. This maximum
increase of tie loadability requires adding shunt capacitors
providing the systemwith the total required reactive power
dg kVAR.
For an integrated power system, the loadability increase
can becomputed by load-flow techniques. Accordingly, the
systemreliability is assessed by calculating:
probability of success,
probability of failure,
durations of success & failure.
3. SOLUTION TECHNIQUE
The problemis modeled as a Markov process. System
reliability is evaluated by describing the states and transitions
between them. A systemstate represents a particular condition.
.tat. 3
3.1 Example 1
A systemwith 2 ties and 2 components is described
by the state-space diagramin figure 3. The systemcan be
in 1 of 4 states:
0: working with 2 ties in-service
3: failed with 2 ties out-service
1,2: 1 tie in-service.
This is a homogeneous Markov process. The transition inten-
sity matrix [A] is:
172
[AI =
From
state
0
1
2
3
To state
0 1 2 3
-(A,+A2) A1 A2 0
P1 +2+Pl> 0 A2
P2 0 -(A,+&) A1
0 P2 P1 --(PI+&)
Multiplying [A] by the vector of state probabilities:
lpl =[Po +P1 +P2+P31
gives:
-(A,+A2)Po +PlP1 +P2P2 +0 =0
Alp0 - (A2+1(1)Pl +0 +PSP3 =0
A2P2+ - (A,+ P2)p2 +PlP3 =0
0 +bpi + hp2 - ( PI +P~) P~ =0
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON RELIABILITY, VOL. 43, NO. 1, 1994 MARCH
fi =A2Pl(~I +&)/D
h =AlA2(Pl+P2)/D
If the systemcontained 4 ties, it would bedescribed by 16 states.
The states can be defined as success or failure according to the
To simplify the calculations, the state-space diagram is
reduced to an equivalentlcombined success state S and an
equivalentlcombined failure state F; s ee figure 4.
(1) failure criterion.
(2)
9 b
Figure 4. State-Space Diagram with 2 Equivalent/Combined
(3) States
The transition intensity matrix is [8]:
S F
[AI =
These 4 equations are independent; one can beomittdand is
replaced by:
Po +P1 +P2 +P3 =1
(4) 3.2 General Solution Steps
The solution is:
PO =( P~P~) / D
t3 =1/(Pl+P2)
The frequencies are:
1. Define the criteria for systemsuccess
2. Define all systemstates for each criterion
3. Based on theabove criteria, derive the anticipated system
states; analyze the success criteria; and calculate the loadabili-
ty increase of each tie when inserting the compensators. Classify
the states as success or failure. The state-space is partitioned
into success S and failure F domains as in figure 5.
(5)
Figure 5. Partition of the State-Space into Success, S, and
Failure, F, Domains
4. Solve the state-space model for steady-state state prob-
abilities pi ( i E F) and pj 0' E S).
5. Reduce the dimension of the state-transition matrix by
combining al l the states in the subset S, and the states in the
(8)
SALLAM ET AL: SHUNT CAPACITOR EFFECT ON ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM RELIABILITY
subset F. The probability of systemfailure p~ is the probability
of state F:
TABLE 1
Reliability Data [9]
PF = P i
i EF
6. Systemfailure frequency, f F , is the frequency of F:
(9)
A r
Component (failurelyear) (hourslfailure)
i EF j S
7. The mean duration of systemfailure, tp*
The main steps of the problem solution for B specific
criterion are illustrated by the flow chart in figure 6.
Gi ven distribution system dat a
1
1
1
1
Choose the load point, i
Deduce the possible ties for the
chosen distribution point
Calculate the loadability of each tie,
for uncompensated and compensated systems
Apply state-space method and follbw the
general procedure to get the reliability
indices ps, p ~ , ts t~
I
Figure 6. Flow chart of General Solution
4. TEST SYSTEM'
~
173
The technique is applied to the reliability indices for the
electrical distribution network in figure 1. The number of ties
n =4. The steps of the solution according to figure 6 are:
1. The reliability data for the systemare in table 1.
'The number of signifcant figures is not intended to imply any ac-
curacy in the estimates, but to illustrate the arithmetic.
13.8 kV circuit breakers
cable terminations at 13.8 kV
disconnected switches
transformers
switchgear bus:
(connected to 2 CBs)
(connected to 4 CBs)
3-phase cablekm
fUSeS
manual switches
distribution transformer
one kVAR capacitor
supply
0.0036
0.0018
0.0061
0.0030
0.0068
0.0136
0.1283
0.0023
o.Ooo1
0.005
0.004
0.00162
2.1
25.0
3.6
130.0
26.8
26.8
1.09
1. 1
2.0
12.0
1.85
3.6
2. The reliability indices for the ties feeding the load point
in figure 1 are in table 2.
TABLE 2
Reliability Indices for Ties Feeding the Load
Tie No. System A c1 r
~
r Compensated 0.5153 0.1819 5.496
Uncompensated 0.4554 0.1636 6.112
Uncompensated 0.4872 0.1585 6.311
3 Compensated 0.5624 0.2164 4.622
Uncompensated 0.4295 0.1801 5.551
4 Compensated 0.6111 0.2072 4.8126
2 Compensated 0.5785 0.1829 5.467
Uncompensated 0.4523 0.1726 5.793
3. Let the full load at the load point be 500 kVA delivered
through its ties with loading conditions:
Tie no. kVA p.f. (lag) kW
1 50 0.80 40
2 100 0.85 85
3 150 0.88 132
4 200 0.90 180
The power diagram is illustrated in figure 2, the increase in
loadability of ties TI, T2, T3, T4 against the compensator size
can beevaluated as in table 3.
4. The following 3 criteria for success are to beexamined.
The power (X of full load) delivered to the load point must be:
a. 100, b. 70, c. 50.
5. The state-space method is implemented as follows:
174
EEE TRANSACTIONS ON RELIABILITY, VOL. 43, NO. 1, 1994 MARCH
TABLE 3
Loadability Increase of Ties vs Compensator Size
Loadability
increase
Compeytor size AkVAIUkVA
Tie No. p.f. (AkVAR) (AkW) (AkVA)
4
10
1 0.8 15
23
37
6
12
2 0.85 18
22
62
6
20
3 0.88 28
40
82
14
28
4 0.90 42
60
98
2 2.5
4 5.0
6 7.5
8 10.0
10 12.5
2 2.35
5 5.88
7 8.24
8 9.41
15 17.65
4 4.55
8 9.1
12 13.6
16 18.2
18 20.5
4 4.44
8 8.89
12 13.33
16 17.78
20 22.22
a
20
30
46
74
6
12
18
22
62
4
13.3
18.6
26.6
54.6
7 .O
14.0
21.0
30.0
49.0
i. Thecontinuity of load (%cont), represents the fractional
increase in the power delivered to the load point due to shunt
capacitor insertion. It is calculated by (12).
So we can decide that t hi s state is a failure for success-
criteriodl and a success for the other two success-criteria.4
Similarly, the other states can be evaluated and tabulated;
see tables 4 & 5 for uncompensated and compensated systems,
respectively.
TABLE 4
Success & Failure States vs Success Criteria
[for the uncompensated system]
~~~~~~~~~~~
Success criterion
stage State %Continuity
no. probability (%cont.) 100% 70% 50%
1 Po 100 S S S
2 P1 90.84 F S S
pz 80.55 F S S
P3 69.79 F F S
P4 58.81 F F S
3 Pl2 71.40 F S S
P3 1 49.65 F F F
P14 60.94 F F S
P23 50.34 F F S
P24 39.40 F F F
P34 28.60 F F F
4 PlU 41.18 F F F
P234 9.153 F F F
P341 19.45 F F F
P412 30.2 1 F F F
5 P1234 0.0 F F F
S =success state; F =failure state
TABLE 5
Success & Failure States vs Success Criteria
[for the compensated system]
96cont =1 -
i =l , i #j
Notation
i tie number
j interrupted tie number
kWi tie load z '
AkW,
AkWi,- maximumAkWi at unity power factor.
increase in kWi due to shunt capacitor insertion
Example
Let j =2, Akwi =0.9 AkWi,-. Then -
AkW1 =0.9 AkWi,- =0.9.10 =9.0 kW
AkW3 =0.9 AkW3,- =0.9.18 =16.2 kW
AkW4 =0.9 AkW4,- =0.9.20 =18.0 kW.
The fraction of continuity for these conditions is:
%cont =(437 - 85.0 +43.2)/437 =90.43% of full load
Success criterion
Stage State %Continuity
no. probability (%cont.) 100% 70% 50%
1 Po
2 P1
P2
P3
P4
3 Pl2
P31
PI4
P23
P24
P34
4 P123
P234
P341
P412
5 Pl234
100
100
90.43
79.10
67.67
79.23
67.34
56.45
56.52
45.13
33.75
45.31
11.21
22.54
33.91
0.0
S
S
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
S
S
S
S
F
S
S
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
ii. Using tables 4 & 5, the failure & success states can be
defined in the state diagram:
175
SALLAM ET AL: SHUNT CAPACITOR EFFECT ON ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM RELIABILITY
figure 7, for the success criterion {b (70%)}, without & with
compensation, figures 8 & 9, respectively. From which, the
success states for the uncompensated systemare:
Pot P1, P2l Pl2;
and for the compensated systemare:
PO, P1, P2t P39 P123 P31.
The other states are failure states.
Figure 7. States of the Load Supplied from Independent Ties,
Tl, T2, Tsl T4
' L - , -
st.0. I
Figure 8. Partition of States into Success & Failure Domains
[Uncompensated; Success criterion =70%]
Figure 9. Partition of States into Success & Failure Domains
[Compensated; Success criterion =70%]
Figure 10. Reduced State-Diagram with 2 Success & Failure
' States
[ X, * 2x2 +2x3 +6b; peq 2 ~ 2 +2 ~ 3 +6~41
The state transition matrix is:
From To state
state S F
The equations become:
Omit (15) and replace it by the solution of (13) & (14). The
result for case b (compensated; success criterion =70%) is:
PF =0.7142, ps =0.2857
t~ =0.5838, ts =0.2835
Similarly, the reliability indices for all cases (uncompensated
& compensated) can be calculated. The results are in table 6.
Table 6 indicates the improvement of reliability indices due
to capacitor insertion (capacitor effectiveness). For example,
at 50% success criterion the success probability is increased by
0.011, and the failure probability is decreased by the same
iii. The [A] derived from figure 7 consists of 16x16
elements; thus 16 equations are solved to get the probabilities
of all individual states. To reduce the dimension of [A], some
states can be combined. Figure 10 is the reduced state-space
graph- amount.
-
176 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON RELIABILITY, VOL. 43, NO. 1, 1994 MARCH
REFERENCES
[l] R. Billinton, R.N. Allan, Reliability A t o f h g e Electric Power
System, 1988; Kluwer Academic Publishers.
[2] R. Billinton, Reliabdity assessment of electric power systems, First
Symp. Electric Power Systems in Dcvcloping cowrrrics, 1987 Mar, pp
1-7; Riad, Kingdomof Saudi Arabia.
[3] R. Billinton, R.N. Allan, Reliability Evaluation of Engineering System,
1984; Longman.
[4] J. Oteng-Adjei, R. Billinton, Evaluation of interrupted energy assess-
ment rates in compositesystems, ZEEEPower Sjstem, PWRS-5, 1990
[ 5] L. Salvaderi, R. Billinton, A comparison between two fuedamentally
different approaches to compositesystemreliabfity evaluation, IEEE
Power Appamn*r/sLsrems, vol 12, 1985 Dec, pp 3486-3492.
[6] T.J.E. Miller, Reactive Power Connol i n Electnc Systems, 1982; John
Wiley & Sons.
[7] J . Endrenyi, Reliability Motieiing in Electric Power Systems, 1978; John
Wdey & Sons.
[8] M.L. schooman, probabilislic Reliability: An Engineering Apjmxch, 1968;
[9] C.R. Heising, Examples of reliability and availability analysis of com-
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mercial Power Systems Technical Gnf, 1976 May, pp 90-104; IEEE IAS
Calif.
NOV, p~ 1317-1323.
McGraw-Hill.
AUTHORS
Prof. Abdelhay Sallam; Dept. of Electrical Engineering; Univ. of Suez Canal;
Port-Said, EGYPT.
Awelhrg. spllrm(M82) was born in ElmchallaElkubra, Egypt in 1946.
He received the BS (1%7), MS (1972). and PhD (1976) fromCairo Universi-
ty, Egypt. He has been employed with the Ministry of Industry. and the El-
ms ~ Dying and Finishing Co., Dept. of Electrical Substations, Elmehalla
Elkubra, Egypt. In 1979 hepincdthc Dep. of Electrical Engkwhg, Univhty
of Suw Canal as aLecturer. From1981-1983 hewas avisiting member of
staff in the Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., University of New Castle
UponTyne,UK. Si1983heisworkingintheDept.ofElccbical~,
University of Suez Canal where. his now aProfessor. Heisamaabaof I EEE.
Dr. Mohamed Dcooulry; Dept. of Electrical Engineering; Univ. of Suez Canal;
Port-Said, EGYPT.
Mohpwd DeswLy was born in Ismailia, Egypt in 1946. He received
the BS (1969) Assuit University, Egypt; MS (1975) Cairo University, Egypt;
and PhD (1982) College of Enghcaing, Zittau, Gcrmany. In 1970, hejoined
the Dcpt. of Elactrical Engineering, University of Maasoura, Egypt as a
Demonstrator, then as an Asst Lecturer (1975) and as aLedum (1982). Since
1984 hejoined the Dept. of Electrical Engineering, University of Suez Canal
whereheis now an Asst Professor.
Dr. HusStin Desoulry; Dept. of E b d a l Engineaing; Univ. of Tan@ EGYPT.
Hussehr DesouLy was born in ElmchallaElkubra, Egypt in 1948. He
received the BS (1972) AlexandriaUniversity, Egypt; MS (1979) Mansoura
University, Egypt; and PhD (1990) University of Suez Canal, Egypt. He was
employed with the Electrical Authority. Gharbia. Egypt during 1973-1990. He
was with ESACO in Saudi Arabia in 1981-1985 as an Electrical Engineer. In
1991 Aug. he joined thc Dept. of Electrical Engineering, University of Tanta
wherehe is aLecturer.
Manuscript TR91-199 received 1991 November 12; revised 1992 July 21.
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