1 Signals and Instruments

MEASUREMENTS FOR ELECTRONICS
AND
TELECOMMUNICATION AREA

. l. dr. ing. Ioana Marcu
Email: imarcu@radio.pub.ro

Grades Rules:
40% Lab
40% Final exam
20% Lab examination
10% Written test paper
Promovability conditions:
Lab >=5
Final exam > 16 din 40
Lab examination >=5
Written test paper >=5
Msurri n Electronic i Telecomunicaii
GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT METC
1. First specialized course VERY IMPORTANT!!!

2. The information very useful for the following years.

3. Course atendance: not mandatory but strongly encouraged!

4. Exam grade depends on the degree to understand this course
not on its memorization!

5. All the necessary explications are presented throughout this
course.

6. Problems similar to those solved at course are possible
subjects for final exam.

Msurri n Electronic i Telecomunicaii
COURSE CONTENT
1. Signals and instruments for signals generation/measurement
2. Oscilloscope (scope)
3. Voltage and electrical currents measurement
4. Impedances measurement
5. Frequency and time measurement

Course support:
ham.elcom.pub.ro/Metc
Measurements for Electronics and
Telecommunication Area

1. Signals and instruments for
signals measurements
Measurements for Electronics and Telecommunication Area
ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
Measurements imply connection between signal
generators and acquisition equipment.
Generated signals can be classified:
analog signals;
digital signals;
modulated signals;
noisy signals or intentionally distorted.

Examples of acquisition instruments:
scopes
spectrum analyzers, etc.

ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
SIGNALS
DEFINITION + CLASSIFICATION

physical quantity used for:

messages transmission or storage;
systems tests.

mathematically = time dependency;

Signals used for systems tests are described by
time-depended functions.

Classification:

Deterministic signals
Random signals

SIGNALS
DEFINITION + CLASSIFICATION
SIGNALS USED IN ELECTRONICS AREA
cover a large frequency domain:
Audio-frequency signals (AF)
frequency range between a couple of Hz and
approx. 20 kHz;
can be heard by human ear.

Radio-frequency signals (RF)
frequencies over 100kHz;
used for information transmission through radio
methods broadcasted with different antennas;
upper limit: a couple of GHz.
PERIODIC SIGNALS

T = repetition period of the signal

EXAMPLE:
Sine wave

( ) ( )
, x t kT x t k Z + = e

+A

0

A
T
t
PERIODIC SIGNALS
One-way rectified sine wave

REDRESOR
MONO-
ALTERNAN

ONE-WAVE
RECTIFIER
PERIODIC SIGNALS
Full-wave rectified sine wave

REDRESOR
DUBL-
ALTERNAN

FULL-WAVE
RECTIFIER
PERIODIC SIGNALS
Square wave
two levels;
representation in binary form
of digital signals;
two logical values: 0 and 1.

Symmetric square:
amplitude: A
+
= A
;
period: equal periods for both states.

t
PERIODIC SIGNALS
Triangular and saw-tooth signals:

Periodic square impulses:

t t

t
PARAMETERS OF PERIODIC SIGNALS

T [s] signals repetition period;
A
+
[V] positive peak amplitude;
A
[V] negative peak amplitude;

A
vv
[V] peak-peak amplitude:
vv
A A A
+
=
RMS root mean square:

= effective voltage = continuous voltage that produces
the same average power through a 1 resistance with
the corresponding period signal.
= for sine wave:
( )
2
1
t T
ef
t
A x t dt
T
+
=
}
2
ef
A
A =
Average value (mean value):

( )
0
1
t T
t
A x t dt
T
+
=
}

A
0
mean
t
A
+

A

0
Square impulses:
= [s] - duty
= t
c
[s] rise time.

t
c
rise time
t
c

A
0.9A

0.1A
0

t
T

A
T
t
q =
SINE WAVE - PARAMETERS
A amplitude

- pulsation
[rad./sec.]

T - period

+A

0

A
T
t
( ) cos( ) x t A t = e +
2 f e= t
1
f
T
=
initial phase;

Comparing two sine waves with the same
frequency:

=
1

2

= phase difference.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 1 1
2 2 2
cos
cos
x t A t
x t A t
= e +
= e +

RMS (Root Mean Square):

Peak-peak
amplitude:
2
ef
A
A =
2
vv
A A =

T
t
A
VV

A
A
ef
= 0,707 A
CIRCUIT BEHAVIOR FOR SINE WAVE
Linear circuits

LINEAR
CIRCUIT

y(x) = ax + b


Non-linear circuits

NON-LINEAR
CIRCUIT

- limitation -
Non-linear circuits

NON-LINEAR
CIRCUIT
2
( ) 1, 2 0, 6 0,1 y x x x = +
Modulators circuits

to transmit a signal by radio means a low-
frequency signal (modulator signal) will modify
one parameter of a much high-frequency sine
wave (carrier signal) modulation process.

Achieved signal has high frequency and carries
the useful information this signal is called
modulated signal.

MODULATED SIGNALS
Modulation types:

Amplitude modulation (MA);
Frequency modulation (MF);
Phase modulation (MP).

Frequency-modulated signal

Amplitude-modulated signal

Modulator signal
Carrier signal
SINE WAVE GENERATORS
A. Audio-frequency generators

larger frequency domain than audio range;
from 0,1 Hz up to 1MHz (even 10MHz);
rather simple generators with two adjusting
elements (decade and continuous steps):
frequency
amplitude.

Audio-frequency generators
Quality parameters:

Distorsion factor:
- gives a degree for similarities between generated
signal and a pure sine wave.
Precision and resolution for frequency range;

Stability of generated frequency;
Control of generated amplitude;
Output impedance (thousand, hundred ohms).
Radio-frequency generators
B. Radio-frequency generators

100kHz - 100MHz;
maximum limit can be extended;
AM and FM capabilities;
have low-frequency generator for modulator
signal;
a digital frequency measurement equipment
can be used for exact control over carrier
frequency.
FUNCTION GENERATOR
FUNCTION GENERATOR - PARAMETERS
SCOPE DISPLAY
Sine wave with 1V amplitude
Cy = 0.1V/div 10 divisions (out of graticule)

SCOPE DISPLAY
Cy = 0.2V/div 5 divisions (out of graticule)

SCOPE DISPLAY
Cy = 0.5V/div 2 divisions

A=2div
=1V
SCOPE DISPLAY
Signals frequency measurement
Turn Cx [s/div] until one period of the signal appears.

SCOPE DISPLAY

SCOPE DISPLAY

SCOPE DISPLAY

T=5,6 div
.
Cx
f=1/T

1 Signals and Instruments

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MEASUREMENTS FOR ELECTRONICS

[V] negative peak amplitude;

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