Environmental Implications of the Tourism Industry

Terry Davies and Sarah Cahill

Abstract
This report analyzes the environmental impacts of the tourism industry, which is the third
largest retail industry in the United States, behind only automotive dealers and food stores. In
1998, travel and tourism contributed $91 billion to the U.S. economy, supporting 16.2 million
jobs directly and indirectly. While extensive research has documented the significant economic
impact of such service industries as tourism, little has been written about their effect on
environmental quality.
This study uses a framework developed from the industrial ecology literature to assess
the impacts of the tourism industry on the environment. Three categories of impact are
discussed: direct impacts, including impacts from the travel to a destination, the tourist activities
in and of themselves at that destination, such as hiking or boating, and from the creation,
operation, and maintenance of facilities that cater to the tourist; upstream impacts, resulting
from travel service providers ability to influence suppliers; and downstream impacts, where
service providers can influence the behavior or consumption patterns of customers.
We have identified impacts from tourist-related transportation, including aircraft,
automobiles, and recreational land and marine vehicles; tourist-related development, tourist
activities, and direct impacts of the lodging and cruise industries. Although the direct impacts of
the lodging and cruise industries and impacts of tourist-related transportation were not very
significant, we found on the other hand that tourist activities can have significant impacts,
depending on the type and location of activity. Tourist-related development can also have
significant cumulative impacts on water quality and the aesthetics of host communities.
Opportunity for upstream and downstream leverage within the tourism industry is
considerable. Hotels can exert upstream influence on their suppliers to provide environmentally
sound products, such as recyclable toiletries. Similarly, the cruise industry can use its leverage to
convince suppliers to improve the environmental quality of shipboard products. Opportunity for
downstream influence exists as well. Travel agents can influence where and how a tourist travels,
and tour operators can educate tourists about ways to minimize their impact on the environment.
The fragmented nature of the tourism industry is not conducive to regulation that
encompasses all aspects of the industry. Therefore, educational efforts aimed at supporting
existing regulations and encouraging environmentally responsible behavior where no regulations
exist seem most promising as a management scheme. These educational efforts should be framed
in accordance with the targeted audience (i.e., tourists and industry sectors). Tourists may be
more receptive to educational initiatives that focus on the environmental benefits of altering their
behavior, while industry sectors are more likely to be responsive to educational efforts that
emphasize cost savings and an improved public image.
Key Words: tourism, environmental impact, upstream and downstream leverage, service
sector, sector environmental profile
Terry Davies and Sarah Cahill Discussion Paper 00-14
III

TABLE OF CONTENTS
S. Summary.............................................................................................................. ........
................................................. v
S.1 Definition of Tourism....................................................................... ...............................
.....................v
S.2 Direct Environmental Impacts ........................................................ .......................................
.............v
S.2.1 Resource Use ....................................................................... ......................................
..............v
S.2.2 Pollution and Waste Outputs................................................ ..............................................
..... vi
S.2.3 Habitat/Ecosystem Alteration and Fragmentation............... .................................................. vii
S.2.4 Impacts on Wildlife................................................................ ......................................
............ vii
S.2.5 Aesthetic and Cultural Impacts ............................................ ...............................................
... vii

S.2.6 Impact on Gateway Communities Outside National Parks and Other Host Communities... vii
S.2.7 Positive Impacts.................................................................... .....................................
............. vii
S.3 Upstream and Downstream Impacts ............................................. ...............................................
.. viii
S.4 Impact of Technology on Travel Services ..................................... ...............................................
.. viii
S.4.1 Regulation of Industry Activities........................................... .............................................
.... viii
S.5 Policy Implications .......................................................................... ..............................
..................... ix
1. Introduction
.......................................................................................................... .....................
....................................1
2. Env
ironme
ntal Impacts
of To
urism ................................................................... .......................................................
..2
2.1 Definition of Tourism ....................................................................... ...............................
.....................2
2.1.1 Transportation ....................................................................... ....................................
................3
2.2 Development and Land Use ........................................................... ........................................
............8
2.2.1 Impacts on National Park Gateway Communities and Other Host Communities................11
2.3 Direct Impacts of the Lodging Industry .......................................... ...........................................
.......12
2.3.1 Energy Use............................................................................ ...................................
...............12
2.3.2 Water Use.............................................................................. ..................................
................12
2.3.4 Solid Waste Generation........................................................ ...........................................
.......12
2.4 Direct Impacts of the Cruise Industry............................................. .........................................
.........13
2.4.1 Solid Waste ........................................................................... ...................................
...............13
2.4.2 Air Pollution ........................................................................... .................................
.................13
2.4.3 Oil and Chemical Effluent ..................................................... ...........................................
.......14
2.4.4 Introduced Species ............................................................... ........................................
..........14
2.4.5 Regulatory Framework of the Cruise Industry ..................... ..................................................14
2.4.6 Positive Impacts of the Cruise Industry................................ ..................................................
15
2.5 Tourist Activities .............................................................................. ...........................
.......................15
2.5.1 Hiking, Snorkeling and Diving............................................... .............................................
.....15
2.5.2 Recreational Boating............................................................. ........................................
..........16
2.6 Tourist Activities Within National Parks ......................................... ..........................................
........18
2.6.1 Visitor and Traffic Congestion .............................................. .............................................
.....18
3. Upstre
am And
Downs
tream Influe
nce ................................................................ .......................................................19
3.1 Structure of Selected Components of the Industry........................ ..................................................1
9
3.1.1 The Lodging Industry ............................................................ .........................................

.........21
3.1.2 The Cruise Industry............................................................... .......................................
...........21
3.1.3 Travel Agents ........................................................................ ....................................
..............21
3.1.4 Tour Operators ...................................................................... .....................................
.............22
3.1.5 Other Organizations Functioning as Travel Agents/Tour Operators ....................................22
3.2 Upstream and Downstream Influence........................................... ..............................................
....22
3.2.1 Supplier Relations ................................................................ ......................................
............23
3.2.2 Channeling of Activity .......................................................... ........................................
..........25
3.2.3 Education.............................................................................. .................................
.................27
3.2.4 Problems with Ecotourism ................................................... .............................................
.....29
3.2.5 Impact of Technology on Travel Services........................... ..................................................30
4. Steps to Les
sen Ad
verse Impacts ....................................................................... ...........................................
............31
4.1 Voluntary Efforts by Industry Sectors and Government Initiatives ..................................................31
4.1.1. Examples of Development that Minimizes Environmental Impact........................................32
4.1.2 Nonprofit Groups.................................................................. ......................................
............33
Reference
s.................................................................................................................. ............
...........................................34
Terry Davies and Sarah Cahill Discussion Paper 00-14
IV

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Tab
le 1. Air Po
llutan
t Emis
sions of Tou
rism-R
elated
Air Transpo
rtatio
n in 1
997 ............................................................. 4
Tab
le 2. 1997 Air Pollutant Emiss
ions o
f Ligh
t-Duty
Gas a
nd Hea
vy Duty Dies
el Veh
icles ........................................... 6
Tab
le 3. Air Po
llutan
t Emis
sions of Rec
reatio
nal La
nd Veh
icles in 199
7............ .............................................................. 6
Tab
le 4. Air Po

llutan
t Emis
sions of Rec
reatio
nal Ma
rine Vehicle
s in 1
997 ........ .............................................................. 8
Fig
ure 1. Relationships amo
ng selected sector
s of the tou
rism industr
y............ ............................................................ 20
Fig
ure 2. Perce
nt of touris
ts see
king travel agent advice
based
on tr
avel p
roduct type
................................................ 27

Environmental Impacts of Tourism - Global

Level
Loss of Biological Diversity
Biological diversity is the term given to the variety of life on Earth and the natural patterns it
forms.
The effects of loss of biodiversity:

It threatens our food supplies, opportunities for recreation and tourism, and sources of
wood, medicines and energy.
It interferes with essential ecological functions such as species balance, soil formation,
and greenhouse gas absorption.
It reduces the productivity of ecosystems, thereby shrinking nature's basket of goods and
services, from which we constantly draw.
It destabilizes ecosystems and weakens their ability to deal with natural disasters such as
floods, droughts, and hurricanes, and with human-caused stresses, such as pollution and
climate change.

Tourism, especially nature tourism, is closely linked to biodiversity and the attractions created by
a rich and varied environment. It can also cause loss of biodiversity when land and resources are
strained by excessive use, and when impacts on vegetation, wildlife, mountain, marine and
coastal environments and water resources exceed the carrying capacity. This loss of biodiversity
in fact means loss of tourism potential.

Introduction of exotic species

Tourists and suppliers - often unwittingly - can bring in species (insects, wild and cultivated
plants and diseases) that are not native to the local environment and that can cause enormous
disruption and even destruction of ecosystems.
Depletion of the Ozone Layer
The ozone layer, which is situated in the upper atmosphere (or stratosphere) at an altitude of 1250 kilometers, protects life on earth by absorbing the harmful wavelengths of the sun's ultraviolet
(UV) radiation, which in high doses is dangerous to humans and animals. For instance, one of
the reasons scientists have put forward for the global decrease of amphibian populations is
increased exposure to UV radiation.
Ozone depleting substances (ODSs) such as CFCs (chlorofluorocarbon) and halons have
contributed to the destruction of this layer. The tourism industry may be part of the problem;
direct impacts start with the construction of new developments and continue during daily
management and operations. Refrigerators, air conditioners and propellants in aerosol spray cans,
amongst others, contain ODSs and are widely used in the hotel and tourism industry. Emissions
from jet aircraft are also a significant source of ODSs. According to Tourism Concern, scientists
predict that by 2015 half of the annual destruction of the ozone layer will be caused by air travel.
UNEP's OzonAction Programme works with governments and industries, including the tourism
industry, to phase out ODSs and find safer alternatives. UNEP has developed extensive
information and guidance on how many types of businesses can eliminate ODSs and contribute
to preservation of the ozone layer. For further reading see the publication How the Hotel and
Tourism Industry can Protect the Ozone Layer.

Climate Change
Climate scientists now generally agree that the Earth's surface temperatures have risen steadily in
recent years because of an increase in the so-called greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which
trap heat from the sun. One of the most significant of these gases is carbon dioxide (CO2), which
is generated when fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and natural gas are burned (e.g. in industry,
electricity generation, and automobiles) and when there are changes in land use, such as
deforestation. In the long run, the accumulation of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere can cause global climate change - a process that may already be occurring.
Global tourism is closely linked to climate change. Tourism involves the movement of people
from their homes to other destinations and accounts for about 50% of traffic movements; rapidly
expanding air traffic contributes about 2.5% of the production of CO2. Tourism is thus a
significant contributor to the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
(Source: Mountain Forum)
Air travel itself is a major contributor to the greenhouse effect. Passenger jets are the fastest
growing source of greenhouse gas emissions. The number of international travelers is expected

to increase from 594 million in 1996 to 1.6 billion by 2020, adding greatly to the problem unless
steps are taken to reduce emissions. (Source: WWF)
For more information on the relationship between energy and the environment, see
UNEP's Energy Programme, which provides information and publications on energy efficiency
and alternative energy sources to reduce the environmental impacts of energy use and of
transportation.
How Global Environmental Impacts affects Tourism
Natural disasters
Catastrophes like floods, earthquakes, wildfires, volcanoes, avalanches, drought and diseases can
have a serious effect on inbound and domestic tourism and thus on local tourism industries. The
outbreak of the foot and mouth disease epidemic in England earlier this year (2001), for instance,
has severely affected Great Britain's inbound tourism market. A BHA/Barclays Hospitality
Business Trends Survey found that 75% of hotels in England, 81% in Scotland and 85% in
Wales continued to be affected by the foot and mouth outbreak, and over 60% forecast a decline
in business in the June-September 2001 period.
Climate Change
Tourism not only contributes to climate change, but is affected by it as well. Climate change is
likely to increase the severity and frequency of storms and severe weather events, which can
have disastrous effects on tourism in the affected regions. Some of the other impacts that the
world risks as a result of global warming are drought, diseases and heat waves.
Malaria, the world's largest killer, has resurfaced in Spain, and it is estimated that changes in
climate will result in parts of the country becoming a suitable habitat for malaria-carrying
species of mosquito by the 2020s.
Source: WWF [PDF]
These negative impacts can keep tourists away from the holiday destinations. Global warming
may cause:

Less snowfall at ski resorts, meaning a shorter skiing seasons in the Alpine region. In
already hot areas like Asia and the Mediterranean, tourists will stay away because of
immense heat, and out of fear of diseases and water shortages.

Harm to vulnerable ecosystems such as rainforests and coral reefs because of rising
temperatures and less rainfall. A major risk to coral reefs is bleaching, which occurs
when coral is stressed by temperature increases, high or low levels of salinity, lower
water quality, and an increase in suspended sediments. These conditions cause the
zooxanthallae (the single-celled algae which forms the colors within the coral) to leave
the coral. Without the algae, the coral appears white, or "bleached" - and rapidly dies.

The Great Barrier Reef, which supports a US$ 640 million tourism industry, has been
experiencing coral bleaching events for the last 20 years. (Source: EXN)

Rising sea levels, the result of melting glaciers and polar ice. Higher sea levels will
threaten coastal and marine areas with widespread floods in low-lying countries and
island states, increasing the loss of coastal land. Beaches and islands that are major
tourism attractions may be the first areas to be affected.

Increased events of extreme weather, such as tornadoes, hurricanes and typhoons. These
are already becoming more prevalent in tourist areas in the Caribbean and South East
Asia. Hurricane Mitch in 1998, for instance, heavily affected tourism in the Caribbean.
Wind damage, storm waves, heavy rains and flooding caused major losses in the local
tourism sector.

According to the Spanish Forestry Service ICONA, between 1985 and 1994 almost 250,000
hectares of forest burned. In recent years the number of forest fires has increased following
periods of extreme dryness. Now, large areas of forest and parkland may be closed off to
visitors.
Source: WWF [PDF]
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