Unit One: Non-Fiction

Primary and Secondary Methods of Development

1. Narration: the writer makes a point using the strategies and techniques common in
story-telling
2. Description: the writer uses vivid language to recreate a picture of his own or someone
elses experience in order to make a point often used in persuasive essays
3. Example: gives one in-depth example or a number of shorter examples that explain the
point
4. Cause and effect: the writer makes a point by showing how one situation or event
causes another, why did it happen? What were the results of the occurrence? Cause
words: because, since Effect words: therefore, consequently, consider all causes and all
possible effects
5. Compare and Contrast: shows two or more things that are alike or unlike each other
6. Analogy: the writer makes a point by using one thing to explain another
7. Classification and Division: the writer makes a point by fitting the parts of a subject
into categories or by separating the parts into categories
8. Definition: the writer explains or clarifies the meaning of a subject by using different,
often simpler, ideas or words
9. Process analysis: the writer shows how something happens or how something is done in
order to make a point
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning- specific premise to general conclusion
o ex.- arguments moving from a specific experience to a conclusion
o supported by previous observations
o arguments do not have to give conclusive grounds for the truth

Deductive Reasoning- general premise to a specific conclusion
o supported by facts
o syllogisms: major premise minor premise conclusion
o only those who accept the major premise view the deductive argument as true









Types of Bias
Stereotypes:
o Evoking common negative or positive stereotypes about a group in order to
make one side of the argument appear more valid than another
Manipulation of Statistics
o Selectively disclosing only those statistics that support a specific side, and/or
ignoring statistics that support an opposing view
o Drawing one very narrow conclusion from statistics that may suggest a variety of
possible conclusions
One Sided Point of View
o The speaker/author fails to fully address both sides of an argument, focusing on
arguments and ideas that support his/her position
o Little/no attention is paid to describing/addressing any other sides
Loaded Words
o Using words loaded with strong positive or negative connotations in an attempt to
make one side look more favorable than another
o Words are usually chosen to produce a specific, desired emotional reaction in the
reader or listener
One Side First
o The author provides his or her claims first and then draws conclusions from that
argument
o There is little factual support
Background
o The author favours his or her background knowledge over any actual evidence
Informal Fallacies
Overgeneralization
o a misleadingly broad or general claim based on insufficient evidence
Oversimplification
o an issue may have many complex causes, but it falsely attributed to one weak
cause
Post hoc
o assuming that because B comes after A, A caused B
Ad hominem
o a claim or an argument that is rejected based on some irrelevant claim about the
author

Unit Two: Poetry
Poetic Devices
Allegory
o a work that is representative/symbolic of something else
Alliteration
o the deliberate repetition of sounds or syllables, especially in initial consonants, for
stylistic effect
Allusion
o a brief reference, explicit or implicit, to a place, person or event
Anaphora
o the repetition of a word or phrase at regular intervals
Assonance
o the deliberate repetition of similar vowel sounds for stylistic effect
Consonance
o the agreement of ending consonant sounds when the vowel sounds differ
Euphemism
o a mild expression used instead of a harsh, unpleasant one
Hyperbole
o a literary device in which exaggeration is used deliberately for effect or emphasis
Imagery
o descriptions and figures of speech used by writers to recreate a sensation
Metaphor
o figure of speech that constructs a direct comparison between two things or ideas
Metonymy
o something related to the thing is substituted for the thing itself.
Onomatopoeia
o the use of a word having a sound that suggests its meaning
Oxymoron
o a combination of words with contradictory meanings, used deliberately for effect
Paradox
o a statement that either seems to or actually does contradict itself
Personification
o giving human characteristics to inanimate objects
Simile
o the comparison of two things using like or as
Symbol
o a single character, action, setting or object that stands out for or represents an
abstract idea
Unit Three: Short Stories
Going to the Moon
Topic
racism
poverty
immigration
hope
Theme
poverty can lead to a sense of alienation and not belonging
racism is responsible for feelings of isolation
Important Points
Miss Johnson
o represents the American dream
o contrasts with the narrator
o represents everything the boy feels he can never be, but she accepts him and
makes him feel special by giving him jobs to do
o is a symbol of what the new world was supposed to represent to immigrants-
acceptance and opportunity
The Moon
o acts as a metaphor for an idealized world, such as the US; the land of hope and
glory
o just as the Apollo never reaches the moon, nor do those whose ultimate
destination is an ideal world
The Emerald City
o an allusion for Detroit
o it is effective because the Emerald City is seen as an ideal place where all dreams
come true, as is the US for the narrator
o in the end, it ends in disappointment for both Dorothy in Wizard of Oz, as the
Wizard ends up being a human, and the narrator realizes that Detroit isnt so great
after all
Old World vs. New World
o Windsor is described as a purgatory between the hell of the old world and the
heaven of the US
o fancy dining room contains portraits of JFK and Pope John XXIII show how torn
the family is between the new and the old
A Girls Story
Topic
the predictability of romance novels
the story writing process
Theme
authors are tied to the conventions of writing and what the readers want
Satire and A Girls Story
Readers and Others
o At the beginning of the story, the narrator says, Youve wondered what it would
be like to be a character in a story, to sort of slip out of your ordinary self and into
some other character. Well, Im offering you the opportunity.
o The opportunity, however, is repeatedly denied the reader.
o By interjecting his own thoughts, the narrator/author never allows us to become
the character
o makes fun of readers by predicting how they will react to each situation he writes
o makes fun of publishers by saying that no matter how bad a story is, someone will
eventually publish it
Characters
o comments on the stereotypical romance story characters:
beautiful, blonde heroine
tall, masculine, handsome love interest
Important Points
P.O.V.
o second person when talking to the reader, third person when referring to Linda
and Michael
Tone
o satirical and playful
The Fishing Rant
o metaphor- how the author feels about early authors; they write with no purpose or
no reason, just like how Michael is sitting on the riverbank with no purpose
Linda
o given long, blonde hair because blonde hair is seen as virtuous, whereas women
in stories with black hair are typically evil
o people expect the characters to be good-looking, so the author makes it so
The Happy Man
Topics
happiness
trust
anxiety, depression
Themes
human beings do not trust happiness, especially happiness that is sustained over time.
we are more familiar with anxiety and depression, and are used to emotions that change
as we experience events and interact with people
our unhappiness is what binds us together.
Existentialism and The Happy Man
embodies the existentialist belief that our freedom to choose is what makes us human
the protagonist of the story is robbed of his freedom to be unhappy, he becomes more and
more desperate
being able to choose to be happy or not becomes more important for him than happiness
Important Points
Imagery and Metaphors
o His heart was overflowing with love ...
o It played a tune full of delight, pleasure, serenity, and peace, and hummed in its
incredible melodies the whispering sound of the world ...
o He felt drunk with ecstasy ...
o His wave expanded into a boundless ocean of happiness (ocean)
o no problem could assail that fortress of happiness which was encircling his
heart.
Emotions and Exaggeration
o protagonist gets angry often
o has fierce arguments with his neighbour and co-worker
o exaggeration helps to highlight the protagonists new-found happiness
Happiness
o protagonist views mental state of happiness as an infliction
o goes to all kinds of specialists, but ironically he is in what is an enviable state
o protagonist tries to convince doctors that his happiness is an affliction that needs
to be cured
o protagonist decides that his happiness is insanity, and he makes a commitment to
see a psychiatrist
Your Mouth is Lovely
Topics
identity
religion
knowledge
the role of mothers
Themes
The loss of the narrators voice is a reflection of the loss of identity
Mothers and mother figures play a key role in shaping ones identity
One must be careful to fully analyze the actions of another before passing judgement.
Important Points
Mud
o if you do not put this, Hawkswell will eat you
o mother drowned in mud
o narrator must step through mud to get to Tsilas house
o when the narrator loses her voice, she feels like her throat is full of mud
o fathers eyes are the color of mud
Tsila
o comes off initially as the evil stepmother, revealed later as more nurturing
o constantly reminds narrator that she is not the narrators mother, but takes pride in
the narrators intelligence and learning









The Night Face Up
Topics
dreams vs. reality
chaos
death
subconscious
Themes
people subconsciously fear death and chaos.
dreams are often a reflection of reality.
without chaos, there cannot be order.
escaping into dreams is a way of coping with hardships and emotional/physical
damage.
our subconscious can offer insights into our fears
Parallels in The Night Face Up
after the accident, he is carried face up to the hospital, in his dream he is lying on his
back on a stone slab, face up
just before his operation, the surgeon makes a sign to someone stationed behind; in the
forest, he is caught when a rope snared him from behind.












Unit Four- Grammar
Independent and Dependent Clauses
Independent Clauses
o express a complete thought and can stand on its own
o eg. I am writing an exam.
Comma Splice
o the use of a comma between two independent clauses
o eg. I am writing an exam, my hand hurts.
Dependent Clauses
o does not express a complete thought, but has a subject
o eg. When I wrote my exam
Apostrophes
Contractions
o used to splice two words together
o apostrophe replaces missing letters
o eg. cant, youre, theyre
Possession
o used to show possession of a person, place or thing
o if the word is singular: s
o if the word is plural: ss
o joint ownership- put the s on the last persons name (eg. Jessie and Katies
house)
Abbreviations
o can be used to show plural of letters or numbers
o eg. CDs, Grade 12s
Pronouns
Pronoun Agreement
o plural pronoun with a singular noun (eg. the dogs tugged on its leash) is wrong





Modifiers
Misplaced Modifiers
o modifiers that are positioned too far from what they are modifying
o eg. I found a gold mans watch is wrong, I found a mans gold watch is right
Dangling Modifiers
o a phrase whose subject and verb are implied rather than explicitly stated
o eg. While smoking a pipe, my cat curled up next to me is wrong- the cat
smoking the pipe?
o While I was smoking a pipe, my cat curled up next to me. is right
Squinting Modifier
o modifies the word before and after it, so the reader does not understand
o eg. "One morning I shot an elephant in pajamas. is wrong- who was wearing the
pajamas?
o When I was wearing my pajamas one morning, I shot an elephant is right
Count Nouns
Count Nouns
o it is a noun we can count
o eg. one book, five teachers, two phones
Non-Count Nouns
o nouns that have no plural form
o eg. some fruit, a slice of bread, a lot of homework










Unit Five: Oedipus Rex
Rules of Greek Tragedy
Three Unities
o A tragedy must maintain the three unities of time, action and place; one day (24
hours), one action (= closely related events), and one location.
o Oedipus the King takes place within a twenty-four hour period, it details a series
of closely related events, and takes place in one location (Thebes)
A Hero
o Usually in a high social position; elements of the heros character are recognized
by the audience as personal elements in
o Heros fate tends to affect society as a whole
o A tragic error in character (hamartia) that causes the hero to act, make a
judgement (or not) at the right time; usually an inflated sense of pride and/or
power that allows the hero to overestimate his ability to act freely and disregard
the power of fate
o A disaster brought about by his hamartia that leads to his fall from a high
position;
o Consequences of the hamartia are greater than he deserves because the hero is not
evil
o Usually good and a therefore able to win the sympathy of the audience when the
effect of his hamartia is evident
Change in Fortune
o A change in fortune often involving a reversal of fortunes, or a discovery of some
critical insight that moves the hero from ignorance to knowledge
o Often accompanied by regret
o Hero must be aware of his error and the misery/misfortune it causes
o Hero must take responsibility for his deeds and consciously experience remorse
Punishment
o The hero accepts his punishment (often in the form of death) as a consequence for
his actions
Catharsis
o cleansing from guilt, a spiritual purge that happens in the audience when it feels
the pleasure of pity and terror from what happens on stage
Embellished Speech
o Embellished speech of rhythm and melody means the play is written as poetry



Topics and Themes
Topics
o fate vs. free will
o blindness/ignorance
o pride and hubris
o religion
Themes
o One is still guilty of sin even if one is unaware that one is committing a sin.
o Too much pride will result in negative outcomes.
o One cannot overcome ones destiny
o When one chooses to be ignorant to warnings and the truth, one will end up in
despair
The Ten Commandments of Apollo
The god Apollo had Ten Commandments:
1. Know thyself
2. Nothing too much these were aspects of ones wisdom: know your limits, but also
know your extent (how far you can possibly go)
3. Curb thy spirit
4. Go as far as the limit
5. Hate hubris (transgression)
6. Keep a reverent tongue
7. Fear authority
8. Bow before the divine
9. Boast not of strength
10. Keep women under rule