Chapter1 PDF

Defining LANs
Definition of a LAN
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) defines a LAN as follows:
A datacom system allowing a number of independent devices to

communicate directly with each other, within a moderately sized
geographic area over a physical communications channel of moderate
data rates.
In its simplest form a Local Area Network (LAN) is a set of Personal Computers (PCs) and
printers connected together in a defined, limited geographic area. The connected PCs are
referred to as stations.
Technically, two connected
PCs next to each other can
be considered a LANthis
would be a two-station LAN,
the smallest possible
configuration.
PC 1
PC 2
Transmission Medium
FIGURE 1.1:
A TWO - STATION LAN
Definition of a LAN, continued
Chapter 1 - Local Area Network (LAN) Overview

1996, BICSI LAN Design Manual - CD-ROM, Issue 1
Typical characteristics of a LAN environment:
The stations on the network are peersany station can initiate data exchange with
any other station.
Full connectivity among all stations.
Fully administered by the owner.
Runs over a shared transmission mediumoften, cabling.
The network is confined to a small areaa single building or a cluster of buildings.
The data rate is highseveral Mbps (million bits per second).

LANs vs. WANs

The words limited geographic area are used in
the definition of a LAN to highlight the fact that the
L in LAN stands for Local. When computers are
connected across town or across cities, countries
or continents, the L becomes a W, indicating a
Wide Area Network, or WAN.
A WAN is created every time computers
are connected over long distances using
telecommunications linkse.g.,
telephone lines, satellites, microwave.
FIGURE 1.2:
A W IDE AREA N ETWORK

Purpose of a LAN
A LAN permits users to share resourceshardware, software or user-created files. Sharing
of resources makes it possible to maximize the investments made in each resource.
Ideally, distant resources should appear to be local to the user.
Objectives of an effective LAN

When implemented, LANs are expected to achieve certain basic objectives:
To improve employee productivity.
To improve information management.
To improve interaction between staff.
To reduce/control costs.
To provide for standardized hardware and software usage.
An effective LAN is one that meets objectives while fulfilling certain fundamental
requirements:
Simplicity.
Reliability.
Transparency.
Manageability.

Objectives of an effective LAN,

continued
Simplicity
The technology should be easy to use.
Telephones are an example of such a technology. People are able to use

a telephone with minimal training. It therefore becomes a useful tool
rather than something to be avoided.
Working with the LAN must be as simple as working with a stand-alone PC. Otherwise,
users may refuse to accept the LAN.
Employee productivity is unlikely to increase if the LAN is difficult to use. Similarly,
interaction between staff is unlikely to improve if users are unable to gain access to the
system.
Reliability
If the LAN does not work reliably, people may not use it. Reliability is often seen as the
single factor having the greatest impact on whether or not a LAN is accepted.
A system is seen as being reliable if:
Devices are functional when needed.
Access to distant shared devices and files is as fast as when these devices/files
are on the users local PC.
The voice network illustrates this concept of reliability. It works when

expected, as expected.
5


continued
Transparency
An understanding of the technology used to implement the LAN should not be a
prerequisite to using it. The technical aspect of making a LAN work should not be seen
by the users. The art of good technology is that it isnt seen.
Few people understand how a telephone works, but they have little
difficulty using it.
Users should be able to work on a LAN in the same manner as they would with a
non-LAN-attached PC.


continued
Manageability
The LAN must be easy to manage and administer. This includes all aspects of the LAN
environment:
The hardware.
The software.
The people.
The planning and installation of the LAN determines how manageable it will be in the
future.
Factors to be considered at the earliest stages of LAN implementation include examining:
Possible points-of-failure.
Future growth requirements.
The expense of downtime.

Characteristics of a LAN
There are four characteristics used to describe the architecture of a given LAN. These
characteristics allow for comparisons among the many varied LAN environments.
Transmission medium.
The type of cable/wireless system used to connect the network devices.
Topology.
The physical appearance and/or manner of operation over the transmission
medium when used to connect network devices.
Access control method.

In a LAN environment, many devices share a common transmission medium but
generally, only a few are able to use it at any given instant. Access control
determines the way in which network devices are granted or denied access to the
transmission medium.
Transmission technique.
The manner in which the transmission medium is used for communications.

Evolution of LANs
The concept of networking
A typical definition of a data network today would read as follows:
A data network is an interconnected system of computers,

peripherals and software over which data, files and messages are sent
and received.
A LAN is only one type of computer network. Before LANs came into being, there were other
types of networks.
The original messaging networkthe telephone systemdid not even involve computers.
Computer networks came into prominence after the appearance of computers in the
corporate world in the 1950s. (Invented in the 1940s, modern-day computers were first put
to use by U.S. and British national defense organizations and university laboratories.)

The concept of networking,

continued
Key years in the history of computer networking are the following:
10
1950s
Geographically dispersed university research mainframes are connected

for defense-related work in the United States.
1964
The first commercial mainframe network used for airline passenger

information and reservations in the United States.
1968
Nationwide air-traffic control in the United States.
1970s
The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) connects

computers from multiple vendors scattered across the United States.
1980
Xerox, Digital Equipment Corp. and Intel announce the Ethernet standard
for office networking.

Development of computer networks

The mainframe environment
Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, there was only one type of computer available for
purchasethe mainframe. Available since those early years of computing, the most
notable feature of the mainframe is its centralized processing. All computing operations
take place in the central unit. A single mainframe can support hundreds of terminals
(consisting of a keyboard and a display screen), all simultaneously issuing and receiving
various instructions through constant communications with the mainframe.
Mainframes have always been costly machines. In the early years, most companies could
only afford a single mainframebut their offices may have been scattered across the
country. In order for a users terminal to communicate with the mainframe, a way was
needed to connect the two over various distancesthus, computer networking was born.
11

Development of computer
networks, continued
FIGURE 1.3:
THE TYPICAL
Accounting department
MAINFRAME
ENVIRONMENT
Department of Human resources
Research and Development
Mainframe com puter
12

Controller
networks, continued
The minicomputer environment

The 1970s saw the introduction of minicomputers (minis)essentially scaled-down
versions of mainframes. Minis are generally less powerful than mainframes, supporting
fewer terminals in simultaneous use.
The lower cost of minis:
Permitted smaller companies to afford their own computer.
Allowed large companies to buy several low-cost minis as computing services

became necessary for a given department or region.
From a networking perspective, minis are no different from mainframesterminals are

connected to a central unit. It
Minicomputer
is more likely to see the mini
Accounting department
located in the same building
as the terminals it supports,
whereas a mainframe is more
likely to support a large
Minicomputer
Departm ent of Human resources
number of remote
terminalscommunicating
with the mainframe over
telephone lines.
Research and Development
Minicomputer
FIGURE 1.4:
THE TYPICAL
MINICOMPUTER
ENVIRONMENT
13

networks, continued
The Personal Computer (PC) environment

In the 1980s PCs were introduced. Due to their much lower cost and useful software, their
popularity grew quickly.
Unlike mainframes and minis, PCs need no terminals to connect to a central unit. The
entire systemterminal, keyboard and processoris contained in a single box. The user
has more freedom when it comes to choosing, purchasing and installing software on this
PCno other individual or group needs to be involved in the process.
PCs bring a great deal of freedom to individuals accustomed to dealing with programmers
and systems analysts to obtain computer services (with all of the associated delays,
misunderstandings and arguments). They can also create an administrative nightmare for
the organization if not properly designed and managed.
14
FIGURE 1.5: THE TYPICAL PC ENVIRONMENT

Due to their lower cost, PCs were often
purchased in large numbers by every
Monitor
department, group or individual in an
organization with an expense
budget. Some companies
Computer
attempted to control the
containing processing
process through
unit and disk drive(s)
centralized purchasing, but
they could not prevent
users from purchasing and using
Keyboard
the software packages of their
choice.
networks, continued
Terminal emulation
Companies which owned mainframes and minicomputers saw PC users demand access to
these machines in order to retrieve and work with corporate data. This created the need to
connect the PCs to the mini or mainframe. Hardware and software products had to be
purchased for each PC to make it appear as an ordinary terminal to the mini or mainframe.
This process is called Terminal Emulation. The PC emulates or pretends to be an ordinary
terminal.
The LAN environment

Stand-alone PCs cause a variety of problems:
15
Each PC holds its own data, created by its owner, with no guarantee of accuracy;
two people could create the same report and show different figures, making both
reports unreliable for decision making.
Security is a probleman intruder could walk up to any PC to gain access to its

files.
Users do not appreciate the need to make backup copies of their files until disaster
strikescausing losses in terms of time and money.
Users work with different software packages, or different versions of the same
software package, making their files difficult or impossible to share.
Expensive peripheralsplotters, laser printers or large hard disksare difficult to

justify for each PC in the company; users are required to go to a PC where these
peripherals are installed and often have to wait to use themlowering productivity.
networks, continued
As a solution to these problems, LANs began to appear in the mid-1980s. They offer
balance between the need for management control and the desire for personal freedom in
choosing business tools.
In many respects, LANs strongly resemble the mini and mainframe environment:
LANs allow for the centralization of dataall reports draw their data from a single
location, guaranteeing consistency.
LANs enforce security by requiring passwords and access privileges in order to

work with files.
LANs permit effective, global backupsbackups can take place automatically

without the need to have anyone stay after hours.
LANs make it possible for a company to quickly transfer all users to a new version
of a software package by installing the upgrade on the PC which stores the shared
program.
In comparison to the mini and mainframe environments, LANs were and continue to be
less expensive. The level of competition in the PC industry helps to keep prices low.
16

Enterprise-wide computing
The goal of the computer industry is to provide an environment where all members of an
organization have access to the data and resources they need to perform a given task.
Business-wide LAN systems, including corporate minicomputers and mainframes accessed
through the LAN, provide transparent data access to the user in a secure environment.
Todays computing technologies can be used with a three-stage process to achieve this goal.
Stage 1: Personal productivity

At this stage, individuals in the organization each have a PC equipped with personal
productivity tools such as spreadsheet or word processing software. The goal of the
organization is to encourage employees to become PC-literate by providing the tools,
training and support.
Stage 2: Workgroup LANs

At the second stage, the PCs in a department are connected together to form a LAN.
Peripheral device, program and file sharing concepts are explained and encouraged. The
goal of the organization is to encourage employees to become LAN-literate by providing
the tools, training and support.
17

Enterprise-wide computing,
continued
Stage 3: The integrated organization

The final stage is to connect all departmental LANs together, whether they are in the same
building or far apart, to create a company-wide communications channel. Data sharing and
communications take place between all employees and departments, across countries and
time zones. Such an environment requires a great deal of expertise on the part of the
users and especially the administrators of the LANs.
Future trends
The trend towards many small computers instead of a single large one is expected to
continue. The incremental growth and flexibility offered by this approach fits well with the
rapidly changing nature of todays organizations.
As buyers move to a computing environment dominated by LANs, they are demanding that
vendors provide products which conform to accepted standards. Standards relevant to the
LAN environment are discussed in a later chapter.
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Benefits of a LAN
Shared resources
Hardware
The demand to be able to share expensive hardware led to the introduction of LANs in the
mid-1980s. Specifically, the introduction of the first PCs equipped with a hard disk
prompted the need for the sharing of resources. These PCs, costing thousands of dollars,
came equipped with a 5 Megabyte hard diskwhich was deemed to be too much storage
space for only one userso a method for sharing this hard disk had to be found. The
intention of these first LANs was to be able to share these large hard disks.
The sharing of expensive peripheral devicessuch as color laser printers or high-speed
optical mass storage unitscontinues to be one of the benefits of a LAN.
Shared resources, continued
19

Software
In addition to the ability to share hardware, a LAN provides the user of one station the
ability to access files and programs stored on another station. This program sharing can
save substantial sums of money.
With stand-alone PCs, software must be purchased for every PC in the office. The cost of
buying multiple copies of software is high. Software vendors, eager to avoid widespread
piracy (unauthorized copying) of their products, have introduced versions of their software
designed specifically for LANs. In such arrangements, the company pays for a license
which allows a given number of users to simultaneously access the program files.
As the number of users who need access to the package grows, the company purchases
additional licensesindividually or in bundles (e.g., 5-user or 10-user licenses).
Sharing of software resources can also lead to the added benefit of standardizing on a
limited number of software packagestwo word processing packages instead of tenand
the number of versions of a package.
With the increased appearance of LANs in the typical office environment, a new category
of software has been developedgroupware. Groupware is software specifically designed
for use on a LAN. It permits, for example, multiple users to work on a given document at
the same time, encouraging collaboration.
Shared resources, continued
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Files
Files can be shared by users on the LAN just as they share software programs. By placing
files in a common areaa hard disk directory where more than one user has access
privilegesfile sharing can take place. This common area is usually found on a file server.
Since only one version of a file exists with file sharing, the likelihood of users updating
different versions of the same filecreating inconsistencies and data redundancyis
eliminated.
File and program sharing have the added benefit of saving disk space. Files that are
shareable need only be kept on one hard disk. In many cases, the saved disk space is
substantial.
Incremental growth
LANs grow as users needs grow. If it is discovered that users sharing a printer are waiting
too long for their jobs to print out, an additional printer can be added to the LAN. Money is
spent only when needed.
Contrast this with a minicomputer or mainframe environment where the bulk of the expense
is in purchasing the central computerthe terminals used for access to such machines are
typically less expensive than PCs. When the limits of the minicomputer or mainframe are
reached, the company has little choice but to upgradeeither by purchasing options or by
replacing the unit with a more powerful one. Each option is costly and typically leaves the
company with unused capacity for which if has already paidan inefficient use of resources.
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Security
Access control
Security features of LANs permit the network administrator to allocate privileges among
users in such a way as to permit data sharing to occur while respecting security
requirements. Not all users will require access to all files and different users will require
different levels of access to certain files.
For example, payroll files may need to be accessed by the Vice-President of

Finance, the Controller and two payroll clerksall of whom are users on the
LAN. The network administrator must make certain that only these
individuals, and no others, have access to this confidential information.
There are also additional requirements beyond simple access to files. The
payroll clerks may be authorized to add new payroll data, but not view or
change existing payroll records. The Vice-President and the Controller can
view payroll records, but not change them.
The network administrator is responsible for assigning access privileges so
that the Vice-President and the Controller each have read-only privileges,
while the clerks are assigned write-only privileges.
With such a setup, the clerks cannot look through the file and see things
they shouldnt and management cannot change the existing datagreatly
reducing the potential for abuse.
Security, continued
22

Backups
Centralized backups prevent a failed system from causing permanent damage to the
organization.
Audit trails
Audit trails provide details such as user name and time of access for some or all network
files. Being able to track who accessed individual files and when they did so discourages
abuse and greatly enhances management control.
Cost accounting
Cost accounting is provided through the use of chargeback software. Such software
permits individual users or entire departments to be allocated the cost for their share of
LAN use. Use of a chargeback system makes budgeting for the network a much simpler
task.
23

Improved communications
By connecting PCs together, a new communications channel is created within the company.
It functions alongside other, more traditional channels, such as the telephone, formal
meetings, lunchroom chats and company-sponsored events.
Productivity
By using products such as electronic mail, scheduling and/or electronic bulletin boards,
employees can use the LAN to better coordinate their activities.
A LAN can also permit users located outside the office to access network resources.
Remote access software allows users to remain in touch with colleagues and tasks.
Customer relations
Improving communications between employees reduces the organizations response time
to market changes. This provides a competitive advantage by allowing a quicker response
to the needs of the customer.
The company can also use a LAN to forge closer links with its customers and/or its
suppliers by allowing access to some of its files or its LAN electronic mail system.
For example, customers and suppliers can access the companys

warehouse inventory file in read-only mode to prepare orders or shipments,
and they can inform staff by sending messages through the companys LAN
electronic mail system.
24

Summary
There are many benefits a LAN can providesome easily measurable, others not so easy to
measure. It remains the responsibility of managers to hire and develop those individuals who
will actively seek these benefits. By itself, a LAN is simply an information-delivery systemit
represents the piping of a communications channel. Competitive advantage comes about
through unique and innovative uses of the channel.
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Components of a LAN
Introduction
A LAN is made up of three basic elements:
The hardware which is connected to form the LAN.
The software (or programs) which is accessed through the LAN.
The users, who create, work with and manage the various files.
Each of these elements can be divided into a number of components. Each component
represents only a part of the whole system and a LAN will only function properly if each part
operates according to specifications.
A poorly designed network, one with mismatched components, often results in below-average
performance. This becomes ever more critical as LANs become more sophisticated in their
abilities.
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LAN hardware
A LAN can be thought of as a system composed of a series of building blocks. These
blocks can be added and configured as needed. Though LANs come in a variety of
configurations and can connect from two to thousands of devices, it is possible to group
these building blocks according to the role each plays in the LAN environment.
The hardware components found on a typical LAN include the following items:
Transmission channel.
The medium which connects the network devices.
Network Interface Cards (NICs) for attached devices.
Servers.
File servers.
Print servers.
Communications servers.
Stations.
Local.
Remote.
Hubs and switches.
LAN hardware, continued
27

Shared peripheral devices.
Printers.
Hard disk drives.
CD-ROM drives.
Modems.
Following are a series of illustrations. Please note that any single LAN illustration can be
made too complex by trying to show all possible configurations. The following diagrams are
an attempt to balance the need for detail with the need for comprehension. In each diagram,
specific hardware components are identified.
28

FIGURE 1.6:
LAN HARDWARE
Network Interface Card

Trans mission
Channel
Hub
COMPONENTS
Local Station
Shared Hard Disk
Shared CD-ROM Drive
File Server
Shared Printer
Print Server
Remote Station
Shared Modem
Communications Server
29

FIGURE 1.7:
DEPARTMENTAL LAN
Telecommunications Closet
Accounting
Software
Hub
File Server
Station
Station
Station
Station
Non-dedicated Server
(Combined Server
and Station)
Station
5th Floor
Accounting
Department
Shared Printer
Station
30

FIGURE 1.8: C AMPUS LAN
Building 1
File Server
Hub
Shared
Printer
Intrabuilding
Backbone
Cable
File Server
Station
File Server
File Server
Station
Building 2
Interbuilding
Backbone Cable
31

FIGURE 1.9: R EMOTE ACCESS TO A LAN
File Server
Communications
Server
Local Station
Shared Modem
Remote Station
Remote Station
32

Transmission channel
The primary purpose of any LAN is the ability to transmit messages from one networked
device to another. Typically, such transmission channels are in the form of cables
physically connecting devices, although certain wireless transmission channels are
available.
This physical infrastructure provides the foundation for all other devices and if it is not
functional and stable, it can be guaranteed that none of the other components will be able
to function as desired.
The most common transmission channels are made up of some type of cabletwistedpair, coaxial or optical fiber cableand corresponding connection hardware. Each of these
is discussed in some detail in the following section.
A distinction must be made between the transmission channel used locally and that used
for remote access to the LAN:
The local transmission channel is often limited to a single building, or at most to a

cluster of buildings closely co-located.
The transmission channel used for remote access to a LAN is often part of the
public network.
33

Network Interface Cards (NICs)

Networked stations require a means to connect to the transmission channel. They do so
through a circuit board referred to as a Network Interface Card (NIC). The NIC allows a
device to be attached to a LAN and all LAN devices must be equipped with a NIC.
The NIC plugs into an available expansion slot in the device to be networked, and the
transmission medium is attached to a connector on the NIC.
Servers
Servers manage the shared resources on the LAN. The server combines hardware and
software to offer (or serve) network resources.
The server hardware may be an ordinary PC or a high-performance unit designed
specifically to be a server. The software running on the server will vary with the type of
server. (It is possible for a LAN to have many different types of servers, each providing for
different types of services.)
LAN servers often resemble host machines (mainframes or minicomputers) conceptually
and diagramatically. There is one fundamental difference between the two:
In a host-based system, all processing takes places in the central host machine.
The attached terminals lack a microprocessor and are therefore unable to process
any information themselves. Processing is centralizedterminals are totally
dependent on the host device for all processing functions.
34

A LAN server resembles a host machine in that it also provides shared functions. It
differs from a host machine in that it is not the only source of processing power.
LAN stations are considered to be intelligent devices and are capable of processing
information themselves. In the LAN environment, processing is distributed among
all of the intelligent devicesservers, stations and peripherals.
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File Servers
All LANs typically have at least one type of servera File Server. The role of the file
server is to provide and manage a shared storage area on the network.
Although each computer on the LAN could create and control its own files and then make
those files available to others, it is preferable to provide a centralized storage and
management facility. It cannot be guaranteed that the individual PCs will always be
available. Using a file server ensures shared files will be available to users when needed.
File management allows multiple users access to files. The file server controls
simultaneous access to files, enforces access rights and restrictions, and provides a
directory structure that recognizes file names and supports the grouping of files.
While the primary function of a file server is to manage the shared storage device(s), it
also performs other valuable services. Some of these services include the following:
File server software tracks authorized users and maintains listings of privileges and
authorizations for these individual LAN users. These lists reflect the access
privileges each user has to files and programs.
A file server makes it possible to provide a working environment independent of the

station. It allows a user to be able to work at different stations at different times (a
station may fail, users may need to work at multiple physical locations, stations
may be managed as a common pool, etc.). If all files and programs can be found in
a central location, they can be accessed by any attached station.
Centralizing the location of files and programs simplifies the backupand if

required, the restorationof files. Backups must be performed regularly as a
defense against storage device failure or user error.
36

Print Servers
A print server acts as a centralized printing location. Typically, it is a PC or other device
connected to at least onebut often multipleprinters. It is able to handle the printing
requirements for a large number of stations.
Print servers commonly use a technique known as spooling. A spool (Simultaneous
Peripheral Operation On Line) is a combination of hardware and software that redirects
requests destined for a printer (a relatively slow output device) to a hard disk (a much
faster storage device).
When a print request comes in to the server, it is spooled onto the hard disk (i.e., it
is written to the hard disk instead of being sent directly to the printer). Files are
organized on the hard disk in a first-in, first-out queue (although most print server
software allows files to be reordered). Files are retrievedin orderfrom the hard
disk and printed.
Spooling files before printing overcomes two common problems:
A print file stored on a hard disk can be read one block at a time and printed. This
is useful when the file to be printed is larger than the space available in main
memory.
Print requests are queued (lined up) so users can continue with their work without
waiting for the printer to become available. This is important when multiple users
work with a single printer and many print requests may come in while a file is
printing.
37

Communications Servers
Access to distant (non-local) systems often requires the use of modems. Modems or
equivalents are used whenever connections to the public network are necessary.
Only a small percent of the total number of users on the LAN will require access to a
modem at any given time. For this reason, a server with one or more attached modems
and corresponding telephone lines can support multiple LAN users.
Use of a communications server is more economical than individual modems and
telephone lines with monthly charges for each user. Calling controls and security can be
implemented far more easily using communications servers.
Stations
The typical station on a LAN is a PC. In certain environments where security is a critical
issue, it is desirable to have a type of station known as a Diskless Station. These are PCs
which contain no hard disks or diskette drives. These devices function as any other station
but the user is unable to store any files or programs locally.
A common feature of all stations is their ability to function independentlythey do not
need to be part of the LAN in order to function. LANs do not depend on terminals that
require a host processor for operation.
A station is considered to be local when it is connected to a server directly through the
local transmission channel. A station is considered to be remote when it connects to a
server through a telecommunications link using a modem or equivalent.
38

Hubs
Also referred to as a concentrator or switching node, a hub provides connections to and
from multiple network devices.
Hubs are useful for their centralized management facilities and for their ability to isolate
stations from disruptions.
Hubs are available in a variety of forms and functions:
They may be passive devices simply redirecting signals from one network device to
another.
They may be active devices where incoming signals are regenerated before being
sent to another device.
They may contain bridging, routing, network management and other sophisticated
modules to actively control the LAN.
Switches
Switching hubs, or simply switches, are devices that provide dedicated circuits or
connections to individual LAN stations or LAN segments. They use a technique referred to
as microsegmentation. This allows individual stations to have a direct transmission
channel to the switch. The switch then handles all connections between different stations
needing to communicate with each other.
Switches provide a newer technology that can greatly reduce the traffic on the LAN. By
providing a station with a dedicated transmission channel, there is no sharing of the
bandwidth of the transmission channeleach station gets the full bandwidth.
39

Shared peripheral devices

A peripheral device is any devicesuch as a printer, hard disk drive, CD-ROM drive or
modemthat is connected to and controlled by a computer. Any or all of these devices
can be accessed by multiple users when connected to a LAN in the proper manner.
A peripheral device can be shared by all users by connecting the device to a file server or
a specialized server (such as a print server or communications server). A peripheral may
also be attached to a users station. It can be accessed by other stationsbut only when
the station to which it is attached is itself connected to the LAN.
40

LAN software
Once the physical building blocks of the LAN are put into place, the next step is to make
them functional. Software is needed for devices to function cooperatively and effectively on
the LAN.
There are three categories of software found on a LAN:
The operating system of each attached server.
The operating system of each attached station.
Applications software accessed by LAN users.
LAN software, continued
41

Server operating systems

The server operating system is considered to be the brains of the network. It controls the
most critical aspects of network operations:
Network performance.
Network management.
File integrity.
Access security.
Each of the file servers on a LAN is controlled by an operating system, which manages all
activities taking place inside that file server. Unlike a station, which has only one user
accessing its files at any time, a file server must handle simultaneous requests from
multiple users.
From its position in the file server, the server operating system must satisfy station
demands for programs, files, printing resources and communications services while
maintaining network security. In this capacity, a network operating system found on a LAN
server is very similar to the operating systems which run minicomputers and mainframes.
42

Station operating systems

All PCs require an operating system to function. A station operating system is designed for
a stand-alone PC and provides access to programs, files, printing resources and
communications services found on that PC. When the PC becomes a station on a LAN,
the PC operating system remains unaware of the change. It does not recognize that it now
has access to LAN resources.
The station operating system must be made responsible for establishing the connection
with the network and the file server and control communications flow between the station
and the file server.
Often, the modification to the station operating system is software which is called a shell
or shell software. The term comes from the role this software plays on the station. After
it is installed, it covers the operating system running on the PC.
When the user at the station requests a program or a file, sends a file to a printer or sends
a message to another station, the shell intercepts the request and examines it. If the shell
finds that the request can be handled by the station, it passes the request to the station
operating system. If the request is for LAN resources, the shell sends it to the network
interface card (NIC) in the station, which places the request on the transmission channel
and sends it to the server.
43

Applications software
Applications software is the term given to software used to perform a specific task. The
most common business applications are word processing, spreadsheet analysis and
database management.
In a LAN environment, the program files necessary to run these applications are usually
placed on the file server to permit shared access. Note that applications software which
resides on the hard disk of a station is not considered LAN software because it cannot be
accessed by other users, even though the stations themselves may be connected. By
contrast, an applications software that resides on a file server but can only be accessed by
one individual for security reasons is considered to be LAN software because it can be
accessed by other users if the administrator grants them access privileges.
Client/server computing
A more recent method of sharing software is called client/server computing. In client/
server computing, the applications software is created and sold for use expressly on a
LAN. Client/server software has two distinct partsthe client part which runs on the
users station and the server part which is installed on the file server.
With traditional applications software, all of the files are installed on the file server. When
a user runs the software, all of the needed program files are transferred across the
transmission channel to the station. When the user requests data files to use with the
program, those files must also be transferred.
44

In the client/server environment, when the user first makes a request for a program, only
the client portion of the program is sent to the stationnot the entire program. This client
portion permits the user to make inquiries of data files. When the server receives an
inquiry from a station, rather than send the entire data file to the station, it performs the
inquiry locally and sends only the results to the station. This dramatically reduces the
traffic on the transmission channel.
An additional benefit of client/server computing is data integrity. Since the data files never
leave the server, there is less likelihood of file corruption.
Groupware
A second type of application software has been introduced for the LAN environment
groupware.
As the name implies, groupware is software designed specifically for use in a LAN
environment by a group of individuals with common goals and responsibilities. This group
may be one department, a project team or all employees in an organization.
At its core, groupware manages the interactions between the members of the team by
tracking their schedules, by providing electronic mail boxes for communication and by
permitting people to work on documents simultaneously. The software acts as a central
administrator, allowing individuals to work on different parts of a project while tracking
progress as a whole.
Groupware is particularly useful to teams whose members are geographically dispersed
over many time zones. Instead of coordinating activities through ongoing long-distance
phone calls and/or periodic meetings, the members use the groupware as their office.
45

The people
Among the most important elements of a LAN are the people. The purpose of a LAN is to
allow the sharing of resources. This sharing is done by peoplemaking them an integral part
of the structure.
With any LAN there are two groups of people involvedthose who use the resources and
those who manage the resources.
The users
A user is defined as a person who makes use of the network resources. This person uses
a station to access the server(s) and work with the resources stored there.
Although the term user combines all of the individuals using a network, it is a varied
collection. Within the group will be individuals who are very knowledgeable about PCs,
those who know how to use only a single application package, and everyone else in
between. Due to the varying levels of competence, the LAN must be effortless to work
with. The easier a LAN is to use, the better the chance that people will actually make use
of it.
Making a LAN easy to use is a two-step procedure:
1.
Design and configure the LAN properlythis avoids having to make changes at a
later time, which is inconvenient and frustrating to users.
2.
Train users on LAN operationsthis helps users gain confidence in their ability to
work with the LAN.
The people, continued
46

The network administrators

The network administrator is the individual responsible for maintaining the LAN. It is
essential that the administrator have a good understanding of how the network is put
together and how it functions. Responsibilities of an administrator include:
47
All aspects of maintenance and troubleshooting.
Making final decisions regarding the manner of installation of new software.
Reconfiguring the network for performance, security or changes.
Addressing user inquiries.
Keeping up-to-date with changes in the industry.
Ensuring the proper use of LAN software and equipment.
Maintaining standards and proper licensing.

LAN architectures
Introduction
If asked to define the word architecture, most people would answer that it includes the design
and all of the information needed to construct a building. Just as the architecture of a building
determines its appearance and function, a LAN architecture defines the LANs appearance
and function.
The appearance of the LAN is primarily defined by its transmission channel

infrastructurein most cases, its cabling setup.
The function of the LAN is determined by the manner in which the devices on the
LAN communicate with each other.
Introduction, continued
48

The heading architecture groups together the fundamental technical ingredients that
together make a LAN. There are five components that are used to define the architecture
of a LAN:
49
Transmission medium defines what is used to connect the devices on a LAN.
LAN topology defines how the transmission medium is used to connect the
devices on the LAN.
Access control defines the way in which a station on the LAN gains access to the
transmission medium.
Transmission technique is the manner by which the signals or messages sent by

the station travel over the transmission medium.
Transmission speed is how fast the signals or messages are able to travel over
the transmission medium.

Transmission media
Commonly the term transmission medium (or simply medium) is referred to as cabling.
However, this is no longer an accurate description. In places where a physical cable
connection is not feasible, devices can communicate using wireless systemsspecialized
radio or infrared equipment.
In all cases, the physical infrastructure of the LAN is critical to the successful operation of the
LAN. Without it, devices would be unable to communicatewhich was the reason for
installing a LAN in the first place.
Cabling media can be classified into three categoriestwisted pair, coaxial and optical fiber.
Each has its own characteristics, advantages and disadvantages.
Twisted-pair cables
A twisted-pair consists of two individual insulated copper wires physically twisted together.
The two wires are twisted together to minimize unwanted electromagnetic signals from
interfering with or radiating from the pair.
A wire pair acts as a single telecommunications path. Typically, a number of twisted-pairs
are bundled into a cable by wrapping them in a protective sheath.
FIGURE 1.10:
TWISTED - PAIR WIRE
Transmission media, continued
50

Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)

Historically, UTP cable was referred to as telephone wire. This is no longer an appropriate
reference. Technical advances in the area of UTP cabling have transformed UTP into a
high-quality channel capable of accommodating high-speed LAN systems.
FIGURE 1.11:
UNSHIELDED TWISTED - PAIR CABLE
Cable jacket
UTP Advantages
It has a large installed base, and is

a familiar technology.
It is relatively inexpensive.
Most LAN systems are readily capable of running over UTP.
UTP Disadvantages
High quality UTP requires specialized installation procedures.
UTP is more sensitive to external electromagnetic interference than other media.
51

Shielded twisted-pair (STP)

Shielded twisted-pair cables have individual wire pairs covered with a layer of metallic
shielding to further reduce interference-related problems.
FIGURE 1.12:
S HIELDED TWISTED- PAIR CABLE
Shielding around individual pairs
STP Advantage
Cable jacket
Provides better
Overall shield
performance than
UTP in environments with
high noise levelshigh levels of unwanted electrical signals.
STP Disadvantages
It is more labor intensive than UTP.
Not all LAN systems work readily over STP.
52

Coaxial cables
Coaxial cable is commonly referred to as coax. All coax consists of a central copper core
surrounded by a layer of insulating material. This insulation is enveloped by a metallic wire
mesh or, in some cases, a solid metallic sleeve. All of this is then protected by an outer
layer of nonconducting material. Both the central
core and the mesh or sleeve are capable of
Metallic mesh or sleeve
conducting electrical signals.
Central copper core
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
FIGURE 1.13:
COAXIAL CABLE
Coax Advantages
It is less
susceptible to
interference than
twisted-pair cable.
Insulation
Non-conducting outer layer
It is theoretically capable of supporting higher data transmission rates than twistedpair cable.
Coax Disadvantages
53
There are many types of coax cables, each suited for one, or at most, a small
number of LAN systems.
Due to its high metallic and insulation content, coax cable is usually more
expensive than other cable types.
Optical fiber cables

Optical fiber cable contains glass fibers rather than copper wire. Signals are transmitted
across these fibers in the form of light pulses rather than electrical pulsesas is the case
with metallic cables (twisted-pair and coax).
Optical fiber strands are thin filaments of glass consisting of an inner core and an outer
cladding. The diameter of the core varies with the type of optical fiber. Single-mode optical
fiber has approximately an 8.5 m core diameter and a commonly used type of multimode
optical fiber has a core diameter of 62.5 m. The cladding diameter for both is 125 m.
Signals are transmitted as light pulses through the core of the optical fiber. When these
light pulses strike the cladding they are reflected back to the corebecause the glass
used in the cladding has a lower refractive index than the core. This prevents the
transmission signal from being lost.
Cladding
FIGURE 1.14: O PTICAL FIBER CABLE
Core
Optical fiber has become an important consideration in the design of LANs.
54

Optical Fiber Advantages
Optical signals through glass encounter less loss than electrical signals through
copper. This translates into lower attenuation and higher bandwidth than copper,
allowing transmission to occur over longer distances.
Total immunity to electromagnetic interference since signals are sent as light and
not as electricity. Extremely high-speed LANs are possible, especially at short
distances.
Optical Fiber Disadvantage
For lower-speed LANs, more expensive electronics are required than with copper
systems.
55

Wireless systems
Although the majority of LANs connect devices using a physical cable, there are instances
where it is difficult or impossible to install cablesuch as historical properties or when
there is no right-of-way access between two adjacent buildings. In such cases, wireless
transmission media is used to connect network devices. Wireless systems do not
physically connect network devices since the links between the devices are invisible. They
are either infrared light or radio links.
Infrared links
Connecting devices using infrared light signals work essentially the same way that remote
controls work with television sets. These systems consist of a base unit connected to the
server and device connections for the stations. The base unit has two optical nodesone
to receive signals from the station and one to send signals to the station.
Since the system depends on infrared light to transmit, a requirement is that the base unit
and the station connections are in a direct line of sight to each other. Alternatively, some of
these systems use a reflective surface positioned between the base unit and the station to
redirect the signal.
56

Radio links
This second type of wireless media uses radio waves to transmit information between the
server and the stations. Most of these systems use spread-spectrum technology where
data is transmitted at low density over a frequency range of 902 MHz to 928 MHzthe
range specified by the U.S. government for data communications.
These systems also work with two componentsa Control Module connected to the
server and User Modules which connect to the network devices. The control module and
the user module do not have to be in direct line-of-sight with each other. The radio signals
are capable of passing through most office building doors and walls.
Wireless Advantage
Can be used in situations where it is difficult or impossible to install cable.
Wireless Disadvantages
57
Typically, such systems are not able to meet the performance demands of large or
busy networks.
Transmission can only occur over limited distances.

Topologies
The definition of the word topology states than an items topology defines its physical
appearance. For example, a topological map represents the physical appearance of the area
shown. In many ways a LANs topology is the sameit is representative of the LANs
physical appearance.
LAN topology is determined by how transmission channels are used to connect network
devices. Typically, it refers to how the LAN is physically set up and the cabling strategy being
used. It is acknowledged that topology is the foundation of a LAN.
It should be pointed out that within the context of LANs, the word topology takes on a dual
meaning. Both aspects are important to how the LAN will function.
1. First, topology refers to the physical appearance of the LAN. This is known as the
physical topology.
2. The second aspect refers to how the LAN functions. This logical topology is
determined by how the messages are transmitted from device to device.
There are many instances where a LAN has a certain physical appearance but logically
transmits its messages in a different manner. For this reason, it is necessary to make the
distinction between the physical topology and the logical topology of a LAN.
The purpose of this section is to illustrate the physical appearances a LAN may take. The
logical aspect will be discussed in a later section.
There are three fundamental topologiesstar, bus and ring. From these three, a number of
hybrid topologies have developed, including tree, star-wired ring, clustered star and
hierarchical star.
Topologies, continued
58

Star topology
In a star topology, the hub or switch is placed in the logical center of the network. The
remaining network devices are connected to this central hub like the points on a star.
FIGURE 1.15: STAR TOPOLOGY
Each device has its own direct, dedicated line to the hub or switch.
Any network device wanting to send a message to another
network device does so through the central hub.
The station sending the message sends it to the
hub. The hub then routes the message to the
specified destination stationthis is known as
switching. Since the hub handles all the message
switching, the stations on the network do not
require any extra technology to route signals over
the transmission channel.
Hub
Star Topology Advantages
Faults are easier to locate and isolate.
Provides a central location for managing the network.
Star Topology Disadvantage
59
It may be vulnerable to breakdown as the network is essentially controlled by one

device.
Bus topology
A bus topology is a linear configuration. It places all of the network devices on one length
of cable, similar to stops on a city bus route. The hubs, server, stations and peripheral
devices all use the same continuous length of transmission channel.
FIGURE 1.16: B US TOPOLOGY
The ends of the transmission channel, in this
arrangement, are not connected to network
devices. Ordinarily, problems would occur
when the transmitted signal is sent along the
cable and it reaches either of the ends. For
this reason, each end of the cable is
connected to a terminator which safely stops
the transmission signal.
When a message is sent on this topology,
the following takes place. The transmission
signal leaves the sending device and travels
along the cable in both directions. The
device for which the message is intended will
recognize the transmission and read the
message as it passes by.
60

Bus Topology Advantages
It is easily adaptable to many environmentsit can be configured to suit most

situations.
It is easily expanded by adding devices at any point along the cable.
Bus Topology Disadvantages
It lacks central controlfinding a fault is difficult.
If the cable is damaged or if either end of the cable loses its termination, the entire
network will fail.
61

Ring topology
A ring topology places all of the network devices in a circle. It uses one transmission
channel to connect all devices. Each device is connected to the next one. The last device
is connected to the firstclosing the circle.
FIGURE 1.17: RING TOPOLOGY
When a message is sent, it travels from
device to device around the circle. The
sending device sends its message towards
the destination device. Each device
between the sender and the receiver
listens to the message as it passes by. If
the message is not intended for a
particular device, it resends the message
and the next one in the ring repeats the
procedure. This continues until the intended
destination receives the message.
62

Ring Topology Advantage
There is no reliance on a central deviceall messages pass through all devices.
Ring Topology Disadvantages
Additional network devices can only be connected while the network is inoperative,
since breaking the ring would cause network failure.
If any device fails, the entire network is affected.
Although the ring topology is considered as one of the three fundamental network
topologies, it has never been popular in its basic form. The more popular dual-ring
topology provides two paths between stationsa primary path and a backup path. In the
event of a failure in the primary path, the signal can be diverted to the backup path by
stations on either side of the point of failurepreventing total network failure.
63

Hybrid topologies
Hybrid topologies resulted from a need to meet specific requirements or industry
technological advancements. While there are many variations of the three topologies
discussed above, certain hybrids achieved greater popularity than others.
Tree topology
The tree topology is an
extension of the bus
topology. By adding cable
extensions to the basic bus
topology, a larger network
can be achieved using less
cable. Each additional cable
extends from the underlying
bus structure and supports
multiple network devices
along its length.
FIGURE 1.18:
TREE TOPOLOGY
64

Star-wired ring topology

A star-wired ring is also referred to as a collapsed ring. In this configuration, the network
devices are connected to each other as they are in a ring topology. The difference is that
they are connected through a central unit which acts as a wire center. The transmission
method is the same as with the ring topology except now dual rings are present, one
primary and the other backup, and all messages must first pass through the wire center
before moving to the next device. The
main improvement over the ring
topology is that the failure of a single
device will no longer cause the whole
network to fail, due to active monitoring
by the wire center.
FIGURE 1.19:
S TAR- WIRED RING TOPOLOGY
65

Clustered star topology

A clustered star is much like the tree topology except
that there are clusters of devices at the end of each
branch. There exists an underlying bus configuration
which supports cable extensions. Each of these cable
extensions has a cluster of network devices at its
end.
Hub
FIGURE 1.20: CLUSTERED STAR TOPOLOGY
Hub
66

Hub
Hierarchical star topology

A hierarchical star topology is an
extension of the star topology. In this
configuration, departmental network
devices are connected to a hub or
switch as in a star topology. These
hubs or switches are then connected
to each other via a central hub, also
following a star configuration. This is
the recommended topology for
structured cabling systems in
buildings and in campus
environments.
Hub
FIGURE 1.21:
HIERARCHICAL STAR TOPOLOGY
Hub
Central Hub
67

Access controls
Access control is the way in which a device on the LAN gains access to the transmission
media. Since there are many devices on a network, a method needs to be established for an
individual device to gain access to the cable. Only then can it transmit its message. Access
control represents how the devices get permission to communicate on the network.
There are five basic ways in which a network device obtains use of the transmission
channelpolling, token-passing, slotted ring, CSMA/CD (Carrier-Sense Multiple Access/
Collision Detection) and switching.
Some access schemes are naturally suited for certain kinds of topologies. However, the use
of any given access method is not necessarily governed by the LAN topology.
Polling
As the name implies, polling requires that each device on the network be asked if it has a
message to transmit. To ensure that each device is given an equal opportunity to speak,
polling must be under central control. It is therefore, most commonly found on networks
with a central controlling device such as that found in a star topology.
When polling is used, the device gains access to the transmission channels as follows:
68
The central controlling device checks with, or polls, each station regularly to see if
it has a message to send.
If the station has a message to send, and the transmission channel is clear, the
station receives exclusive use of the channel and sends its message.
As soon as the station has sent its message, the channel is free for another device
to use.
Access controls, continued
Token-passing
Token-passing is a method that uses an electronic signal called a token. Possession of the
token gives a device exclusive use of the transmission channel. The token travels along
the channel and stops at each device. A device with a message to send will pick up the
token and use it in order to send its message.
When token-passing is used, the device gains access to the transmission channel as
follows:
A network device with a message to send captures the available token as it passes
by on the channel.
The message is attached to the token.
The message-bearing token continues to circulate on the channel.
As the token stops at a device, it is checked to see if the message is for the
devicethis destination device will recognize its address and will read the
message.
The destination device then attaches an acknowledgment of receipt to the token

which continues to circulate.
When the sending device eventually receives the acknowledgment, it clears the
token so it may be used by another device.
The token-passing scheme is most commonly used in ring or bus topologies.
69

Slotted-ring
The slotted-ring access scheme is used only with a ring topology. It was developed so that
more than one device would be able to use the network at a time. Instead of a single token
circulating, a number of fixed-length slots circulate around the telecommunications
channel.
The procedure followed is much like that used in token-passing. The difference is that
messages are now divided into packets. Each packet is the size of one of the slots.
When slotted-ring is used, the device gains access to the transmission channel as follows:
The sending device deposits a packet into each empty slot that passes until the
entire message has been sent.
Each message packet has a header attached to it identifying the destination device
and whether or not the packet completes the message.
The destination device recognizes from the header that the packet is meant for it
and copies the message.
If indicated from the header, it will wait to receive the rest of the message from
additional packets.
When the slot returns to the sending device, it is emptied and released to begin the
cycle again.
70

CSMA/CD (Carrier-Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection)

The CSMA/CD access scheme allows all network users equal access to the
telecommunications channel. It uses neither a central controller nor tokens to control
network access. It is a scheme used most often with a bus topology.
The procedure for sending messages is twofold. The first part is referred to as carrier
sensing and the second is collision detection.
Carrier sensing
Carrier sensing is the part of the operation where a device with a message to send
monitors the transmission channel to see whether or not it is clear. It is checking to see
whether or not another device is transmitting a message.
The role of carrier sensing is as follows:
When the sending device detects a clear channel, it transmits its message
marking it with the destination address.
The destination device accepts the message and returns an acknowledgment of

receipt to the sending device.
When the sending device receives the acknowledgment, the transmission is

complete.
71

Collision detection
A collision occurs when two or more devices attempt to send a message at the same time
and the messages interfere with each other on the transmission channel.
The role of collision detection is as follows:
The sending device will wait a specified amount of time for the acknowledgment.
If the acknowledgment is not received in this period of time, the sender assumes
that the message was not received because a collision occurred in the transmission
channel.
When the sending device detects a collision, it stops transmission.
The sending device waits for a random amount of time and retransmits the
messagetypically, such an attempt can be repeated many times.
If collisions are still detected after many attempts, the user is informed that the
network is too busy to transmit.
Throughout this time, all idle network devicesthose not transmitting messagesare
continuously monitoring the transmission channel to see if any messages are directed at
them or if the channel is available for transmission.
72

Switching
While not strictly an access control scheme, switching provides a mechanism where a
station does not have to share a transmission channel. Switching provides a dedicated
transmission channel to each port of a switching hub. Each transmission channel can have
multiple stations attached to it, but in high traffic environments, each station can be
assigned its own dedicated channel to the switching hub. The switching hub is responsible
for providing communications between the channels.
Traditionally, if a network is experiencing excessive trafficslow performancethe
network is split into smaller segments, each with its own hub and with fewer attached
stations. A switching hub performs this type of segmentation inside a single chassis. It has
a number of ports, each of which is a dedicated LAN segment.
When switching is used, stations access the transmission channel and communicate as
follows:
73
The sending station puts its data onto the transmission channel.
The switching hub handles the connection to other stations.
The switching hub handles intersegment traffic via an internal matrix switch.
When a packet arrives at the switch, its destination address is noted and a
connection is made to the destination station.
The packet is then switched to the destination station.
Subsequent packets are relayed through the switch automatically.

Transmission techniques
A transmission technique defines how the signal is actually transmitted over the channel. It
determines how the message travels on the medium.
The various transmission mediatwisted-pair, coax, optical fiberare capable of
transmitting data at various frequencies. The range of frequencies they can use is called the
bandwidth. A transmission technique describes how a device uses the available bandwidth to
transmit signals to another device.
The two transmission techniques used in the LAN environment are known as baseband
transmission and broadband transmission.
74

Transmission techniques,
continued
Baseband transmission
Baseband transmission is the more commonly used method in the LAN environment. This
technique allocates the entire bandwidth to a single channel. Baseband transmission is
best suited for networks covering a small geographic area, such as a LAN.
Baseband transmission handles only digital data and is capable of high-speed
transmission.
Baseband Transmission Advantages
It is a less expensive technology to implement than broadband.
It is relatively easy to design.
It allows for easy reconfiguration and addition of stations.
Baseband Transmission Disadvantage
75
There is only one pathway, which means only a single stream of data can exist on
the channel at any instant in time.

Transmission techniques,
continued
Broadband transmission
Broadband transmission divides the bandwidth into multiple channels. Since there are
many channels available for transmission, more then one device can transmit at a time.
Simultaneous transmissions can, therefore, occur without collisions.
Broadband transmission can handle large amounts of data at one time. As well, it is not
limited to handling only digital data transmission. This method of transmission can support
analog traffic, making it capable of handling traditional voice and video signals.
Broadband transmission was designed for transmission over long distance with a channel
length measured in kilometers or miles. A network using this technology can, therefore,
cover a much larger geographic area than one using baseband technology.
Broadband Transmission Advantages
It can handle the simultaneous transmission of many network devices.
It can handle many types of signals over long distances.
Broadband Transmission Disadvantages
76
It is costly to implement.
It requires the mastery of complex equipment. The network is difficult to maintain

and reconfigure.

Speed
The speed is a measure of how fast the signals travel over the transmission media.
Speed is, in reality, not a totally separate component. It is actually dependent on the four
areastransmission media, topologies, access controls and transmission techniques
already discussed.
Typically, transmission speed ranges from a low of 235 Kbps (kilobits per second) for an
AppleTalk LAN to 155 Mbps (megabits per second) for an ATM (Asynchronous Transfer
Mode) LAN. Speeds in the Gbps (gigabits per second) are possible, but these are not
currently used in LAN environments.
77

Basic network design

Introduction
When designing a LAN, many decisions need to be made. The previous section discussed
the five components of LAN architecturetransmission media, topologies, access controls,
transmission techniques, and speed. While making wise selections in each of these areas is
critical, decisions about which transmission medium to choose or how to physically configure
the LAN is best made after deciding which underlying LAN structure best suits the
environment.
Essentially, it must first be decided what role each of the network devices will play in the
LAN. Broadly defined, LANs come in two varietiespeer-to-peer and centralized server.
Each of these environments has its own characteristics, advantages and disadvantages and
will be the more appropriate choice for a given situation.
78

Peer-to-peer LANs
A peer-to-peer LAN is one in which any PC can contribute to or share network resources. In
such a LAN environment, there is a great deal of freedom regarding the location of shared
files, programs and peripherals.
As the name implies, all stations on this type of a LAN are peersmeaning they can work as
equalscontributing and using files, programs, printers and other peripheral devices. There
are cases where some stations in a peer-to-peer network will have more responsibilities than
others.
There are three configurations that a station on a peer-to-peer LAN can assumea no-server
configuration, a non-dedicated server configuration and a dedicated server configuration.
No-server configuration
In this configuration, a station on a peer-to-peer LAN is set up solely to access files,
programs and peripheral devices found on other stations. The station itself does not
contribute any resources of its own to the network.
Non-dedicated server configuration

In this configuration, a station both accesses files, programs and devices on other stations
and at the same time allows those other stations to access some or all of its files and
attached devices. A station configured in this manner is called a non-dedicated serverit
is capable of servicing requests while at the same time allowing a user to work with its
keyboard, screen, files and attached devices.
Peer-to-peer LANs, continued
79

Dedicated server configuration

In this configuration, a station will do nothing but allow other stations to access its files
and attached devices. Such a machine will not permit a user to work with its keyboard and
screen since its only purpose is to respond to requests coming over the network from other
stations. A station set up in this manner is called a dedicated serverit is dedicated to
doing nothing else but serving requests.
On a peer-to-peer LAN, one will see the non-dedicated server type of configuration most
often, with each station both accessing and contributing to network resources.
Design issues
Peer-to-peer LANs are easy to set up but difficult to administer due to the changing role of
each station. On any given day, the user of a station may allow others access to a specific
directory on their machine and the next day remove this privilege.
If a station on a peer-to-peer network is being repaired, or if someone in the office decides
to shut it off, other users are affected.
As well, backups become a major issue. In essence, everyone on a peer-to-peer network
must make their own daily backups to avoid a group disaster if a hard disk fails.
Peer-to-peer LANs, continued
80

Another problem area is security. At best, security is difficult. If a peer-to-peer LAN is

being considered, certain questions must be asked before a final decision is made.
Who has access to which files?
How can the organization prevent certain data on a station from accidentally
becoming available to other users?
What prevents someone from walking up to a station, copying its files onto
diskettes, and walking away?
Who will have overall responsibility for security?
These issues illustrate the overall problem with peer-to-peer LANsthey are difficult to
administer. For this reason they are not nearly as common as centralized server LANs.
Peer-to-peer LANs are found in environments where the PC users are very experienced.
They must be able to handle the administrative and technical details imposed on each of
them. Offices where software developers or writers for computer-related publications work
are two such environments.
81

Centralized server LANs

A centralized server LAN is defined as a LAN in which one or more PCs are serversthey
contribute files, programs and peripheral devices to the network for shared use. All other
PCs are stationsthey have access to the files, programs and peripheral devices on the
server(s). Please note:
The server(s) can be dedicated or non-dedicated.
The stations can have their own hard disks and attached peripheral devices but
these will not be available to other stations on the networkonly those on the
server are sharable.
There are similarities between a centralized server LAN and a peer-to-peer LAN.
A dedicated server corresponds to a dedicated server station on a peer-to-peer LAN.
A non-dedicated server corresponds to a non-dedicated server station on a peer-topeer LAN.
A station corresponds to a no-server station on a peer-to-peer LAN.
This forces the question to be askedWhat is the difference between a peer-to-peer LAN
and a centralized server LAN?
82
There is one major differenceon a peer-to-peer LAN, any user can change the
configuration of their own station from one day to the next, simply by issuing the
appropriate commands at the station.
For example, a user can change the status of their peer-to-peer station from a nondedicated server station to a non-server station. This would deny other users
access to that stations files and peripheral devices.
Centralized server LANs,
continued
Design issues
On a centralized server LAN, once it has been established that a given PC will be a server
(dedicated or non-dedicated), it may take several hours or days and some expertise to
configure and put the server into service on the LAN. Changes will require similar effort.
There is a clear line which separates server and station. This makes administration a
much easier task. Servers are identified and stable. It is clear which PCs contain the
shared files and therefore, need to be backed up.
Similarly, security is simplified. The servers on a centralized server LAN can be physically
isolatedplaced in a locked room with keys given only to the network administrator(s).
Once physical access to the server is restricted, access to its files through the network can
be controlled by assigning passwords and directory/file access rights to individuals. This
should not be taken to mean that centralized server networks are automatically more
secure and easier to administer than peer-to-peer LANs. They can be, but this is entirely
dependent on management. Poor or nonexistent use of the security and administrative
resources provided on a LAN will only invite abuse and disastersaccidental or
deliberate.
83


continued
Security features
Two common security features on a LAN are login security and password security.
Login security
Login security controls the users access to the network by installing the following
features:
Users can only login at specific hours and days.

This feature controls the days of the week and the hours of the day that a user can
access the network.
For example, it is possible to limit a users access to the network to Monday
through Friday from 8:30 A.M. to 6:30 P.M. This ensures that the user cannot
access any files on the weekends or after working hours.
Users can only login at specific stations.

All stations are assigned a number by the network operating system. This feature
restricts the physical station(s) where an individual user can work.
For example, it is possible to restrict users to their own desktop stations. This
means that the users can only access the network from their own work areas.
84


continued
Users can have a limited number of simultaneous logins.

This feature controls the number of simultaneous active sessions a user can have.
For example, limiting the user to one simultaneous login specifies that the user can
log into the network once. If the user wants to log into the LAN again from another
station then they must first log out of the network from the first station.
Unauthorized user (intruder) detection/lockout option.

This feature tracks the number of times an unauthorized individual tries to access
the network. An unauthorized individual is anyone who tries to gain access to the
network with an incorrect password.
After the threshold of unsuccessful attempts is exceeded, the intruders user name
is barred from accessing the network for a predetermined period of timefrom a
few minutes to many days.
Automatic expiration date on accounts.

This feature prevents a user from accessing the network after a specific date. Such
users can be employees hired for temporary work or students enrolled in a course
needing PC lab accounts for the semester.
85


continued
Password security
Password security controls access to the LAN by forcing users to provide passwords
before they can use network resources. These passwords can have the following
restrictions placed on them.
Passwords must be a certain length.

Setting a minimum length for a password (e.g., at least seven-characters long)
makes it more difficult for someone to guess a users password.
Users are forced to change their passwords on a regular basis.

Such a restriction requires a user to change their password after a certain period of
time (e.g., once a month). This makes it more difficult for an intruder to obtain and
keep using a users password.
Unique passwords are required (ones not used in the past).

Each time a new password is required, it must be different from a set number of
previous passwords. Typically, it is not possible for users to use one of their last
ten passwords.
Limit the number of grace logins (logins allowed after the password has
expired).
A grace login allows a user access to the network after their password has expired.
A message then warns the user to change the password. By limiting such grace
logins, the users are reminded to observe strict password maintenance.
86

Overview of LAN communications

Introduction
In this discussion of LAN communications the objective is to examine how devices on a LAN
are able to communicate with each other. Specifically, three areas need to be covered:
Communications signaling
The way in which signals are generated by the sending devices.
Communications addressing
The way in which a signal finds its way to the correct destination.
Communications processing
87
The path the signal takes once it arrives at its destination.

Communications signaling
The lowest-level function of LANs is the generation of digital dataall information processed
by a PC is in a binary format consisting of a series of 0s and 1s. There are two general
techniques for doing thisgenerate the data as a digital signal or as an analog signal.
Digital signaling.
The digital data is transmitted as digital signals. Signals consist of a series of
constant-voltage or light pulses.
Analog signaling.
The digital data is transmitted as an analog signal. The signal consists of a
continuously varying electromagnetic or light wave.
In both cases a form of encoding is required. Digital data must be represented by elements
suitable for transmission over a given medium. The signal must be recognizable by the
receiving device and decoded to reproduce the original data.
The form of encoding chosen optimizes the transmission in terms of cost, performance,
reliability or a combination of these factors.
88

Communications signaling,
continued
Digital signaling
Since a digital signal can take on only one of two values, the simplest way to transmit a
digital signal is to use two different voltage or light levelsone for each binary digit
(0 or 1).
The following sections describe the various encoding schemes in terms of voltage;
however, the same principles exist with optical fiber using light instead of voltage.
Nonreturn-to-zero-level (NRZ-L) encoding
In this encoding scheme the signal never returns to zero voltage. The code uses a
negative voltage to represent the binary digit one and a positive voltage level to represent
the binary digit zero. So long as the bit stream remains constanta series of 1s or a
series of 0sthe signal voltage level does not change. Only when the bit stream changes
from a 0 to 1 or from a 1 to 0 does the voltage level change.
Bit stream
FIGURE 1.22: NRZ-L ENCODING

A serious disadvantage of NRZ-L
transmission is difficulty in determining
where one bit ends and another begins. If
there is a long series of 1s or 0s, the
output is a constant voltage over a long
period of time. Any drift in timing between
the sending device and the receiving device
results in a loss of synchronization.
89

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continued
Manchester encoding
Manchester encoding is an example of a biphase encoding technique.
All biphase techniques have at least one transition in voltage level per bit transmitted. This
produces a maximum modulation rate twice that of NRZ-L encoding. The corresponding
bandwidth requirement for signal transmission also increases. However, biphase encoding
has several advantages:
Since there is a predictable transition for each bit transmitted, the receiver can
synchronize on that transition. Biphase codes are also known as self-clocking
codes.
The absence of an expected transition indicates that an error may have occurred.
An error would go undetected only if noise inverts both the signal before the
expected transition and the signal after the expected transition.
In Manchester encoding there is a transition in the middle of each bit sent. A zero bit is
represented by a high-to-low transition (it has a high level voltage during the first half of
the bit time and a low level during the second half of the bit time). A one bit is represented
by a low-to-high transition (it has a low level voltage during the first half of the bit time and
a high level during the second half of the bit time).
90

continued
FIGURE 1.23:
M ANCHESTER ENCODING
Bit stream
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0 - - - - - - - -|- - - -|- - - - |- - - - |- - - - -| - - - -| - - - -| - - - -| - - |
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The transition in the middle of the bit serves as a clocking mechanism as well as data.
91

continued
Differential Manchester encoding

Differential Manchester encoding is another form of biphase encoding. This scheme has a
transition in the middle of each bit time to provide clocking. A zero bit is represented by
the presence of a transition at the beginning of the bit period. A one bit is represented by
the absence of the a transition at the beginning of the bit period.
FIGURE 1.24:
DIFFERENTIAL M ANCHESTER
Bit stream
ENCODING
An advantage of differential encoding

is the method by which signals are
decoded. Decoding is accomplished
by comparing the difference between
adjacent signal levels instead of
determining the absolute numerical
value of the voltage level. This may
be more reliable in detecting a
transition due to noise.
92
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continued
Analog signaling
Analog encoding is based on a continuous constant-frequency signal. Digital information
must be encoded using a modem to modulate one, or a combination, of the characteristics
of the signalamplitude, frequency or phase.
Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
With amplitude-shift keying the digital signals two binary values are represented by two
different amplitudes in the analog signals frequency. Often one of these amplitudes is
zerothe absence of a frequency. One of the binary values is represented by the
presence of a frequency signal while the other binary value is represented by the absence
of the frequency signal.
FIGURE 1.25:
AMPLITUDE -SHIFT KEYING
Bit stream
Digital signal
This technique is commonly used to

transmit digital data over optical fiber. With Analog signal
LED transmitters, the binary digit one is
represented by a short pulse of light and
the binary digit zero is represented by the
absence of light. With laser transmitters a low light level represents a zero binary digit and
a higher amplitude light level represents a one binary digit.
93

continued
Frequency-shift keying (FSK)

In frequency-shift keying, the two binary digits are represented by two different
frequencies. This scheme is most often used for high-frequency radio transmissionin the
range of 4 to 30 MHz.
FIGURE 1.26:
FREQUENCY - SHIFT KEYING
Bit stream
Digital signal
Analog signal
94

continued
Phase-shift keying (PSK)

In phase-shift keying, data is encoded by shifting the phase of the analog signal. In a twophase scheme, the binary digit zero is represented by sending a signal burst in the same
phase as the previous signal burst sent. The binary digit one is represented by sending a
signal burst in a phase opposite to the previous one sent.
FIGURE 1.27:
TWO - PHASE P HASE- SHIFT KEYING
It is possible for phase-shift keying to use

more than two phase shifts.
Bit stream
Digital signal
Analog signal
Please note that the techniques discussed

above may also be combined in various ways
for a given signal, to increase the efficiency of the transmission.
95

Communications addressing
An address is a unique identification code assigned to a network device so it may
independently send and receive messages.
Each device on the network knows its own address and accepts any message sent to that
address. The sending device is responsible for specifying the correct address to use in the
message.
There are situations where a network name service is available. In these cases, operations
use the names rather than network addresses. Facilities are required to translate the network
names into network addresses. Two approaches are available to meet this requirement:
96
Each device tracks its own network names and provides the address associated
with the name when required.
Alternately, a centralized facility maintains a table of network names and

associated addresses. This centralized location translates a name into an address
using the table when required.

Communications addressing,
continued
Setting addresses
For devices to communicate on a network they must be able to contact each other. For
this reason, each network device must have its own unique address. Each address
identifies a device. The manner in which devices are assigned addresses is a function of
the type of network structure being used.
Addressing in the LAN environment can take two formsuniversal addressing or networkspecific addressing.
Universal addressing
When universal addressing is used, each network device has a unique network address,
most often embedded in the unit by the vendor. To avoid duplication, blocks of addresses
are assigned to each vendor by an administrative organizationusually a standards
committee.
97

Communications addressing,
continued
Network-specific addressing
When network-specific addressingalso known as locally administered addressingis
used, each device within a given network has a unique address, usually assigned by the
owner of the network. With this method, therefore, it is possible to find the same address
on another linked network. In these cases, a unique network identifier must be used with
the station address to provide a unique address for network-to-network communications.
This is essentially a first name/last name scheme for network devices.
The way in which addresses are set will depend on the LAN environment. In some cases,
unique addresses come preset on the Network Interface Card (NIC)universal
addressing. In other cases, the address can be set by the individual installing the LAN
network specific addressing.
Using addresses
In a LAN environment, each device is provided a unique identifying addressthese are
known as station addresses. For communication among devices within that LAN, this
address is sufficient.
In the case where LAN to LAN, LAN to WAN, or any other communication outside of one
distinct LAN is necessary, the address of the destination network is also required.
98

Communications processing
Data on a LAN goes through a sequence of processes and transfer points to get from the
sending device to the receiving device. Once a request is made, a series of steps is followed:
1.
A request is made at a station.
2.
The shell software identifies the request as a network request.
3.
The request is routed to the Network Interface Card (NIC).
4.
The NIC divides the request into smaller unitspackets.
5.
The packets are placed onto the LAN cable.
6.
At the receiving device, the packets are reassembled by the NIC and processed.
Packets
Technically, a packet is a collection of binary digits representing data with attached control
codes. The control information is needed to provide both source and destination device
addresses.
A packet provides the format needed to transmit messages from one network device to
another.
The components and appearance of a packet is a function of the LAN architecture being
examined.
99

CONTENTS
OF
CONTENTS TABLE
OF
TABLE
Definition of a LAN .......................................................................... 1

LANs vs. WANs ................................................................................ 3
Purpose of a LAN ............................................................................. 4
Objectives of an effective LAN ..................................................... 4
Simplicity ........................................................................................... 5
Reliability ........................................................................................... 5
Transparency ..................................................................................... 6
Manageability .................................................................................... 7
Characteristics of a LAN ................................................................ 8
Evolution of LANs .................................................................. 9

The concept of networking ............................................................ 9
Development of computer networks .......................................... 11
The mainframe environment ............................................................ 11
The minicomputer environment....................................................... 13
The Personal Computer (PC) environment .................................... 14
Terminal emulation .......................................................................... 15
The LAN environment ..................................................................... 15
Enterprise-wide computing .......................................................... 17
Stage 1: Personal productivity ........................................................ 17
Stage 2: Workgroup LANs .............................................................. 17
Stage 3: The integrated organization .............................................. 18
Future trends .................................................................................. 18
CHAPTER 1 - LOCAL AREA NETWORK OVERVIEW
100
Defining LANs ......................................................................... 1
Summary ......................................................................................... 25
CONTENTS
OF
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS TABLE
Shared resources ........................................................................... 19

Hardware ......................................................................................... 19
Software .......................................................................................... 20
Files ................................................................................................. 21
Incremental growth ........................................................................ 21
Security ............................................................................................ 22
Access control ................................................................................. 22
Backups ........................................................................................... 23
Audit trails ....................................................................................... 23
Cost accounting ............................................................................... 23
Improved communications .......................................................... 24
Productivity ...................................................................................... 24
Customer relations .......................................................................... 24
101

Benefits of a LAN ................................................................. 19
CONTENTS
OF
CONTENTS TABLE
OF
TABLE
Introduction ..................................................................................... 26
LAN hardware ................................................................................. 27
Transmission channel...................................................................... 33
Network Interface Cards (NICs) ..................................................... 34
Servers ............................................................................................ 34
File Servers ................................................................................... 36
Print Servers ................................................................................. 37
Communications Servers .............................................................. 38
Stations ........................................................................................... 38
Hubs ................................................................................................ 39
Switches ........................................................................................ 39
Shared peripheral devices............................................................... 40
LAN software .................................................................................. 41
Server operating systems ............................................................... 42
Station operating systems ............................................................... 43
Applications software ...................................................................... 44
Client/server computing ................................................................ 44
Groupware ..................................................................................... 45
The people ....................................................................................... 46
The users......................................................................................... 46
The network administrators ............................................................. 47

102
Components of a LAN ......................................................... 26
CONTENTS
OF
CONTENTS TABLE
UTP Advantages ............................................................................................... 51

UTP Disadvantages .......................................................................................... 51
Shielded twisted-pair (STP).......................................................... 52

STP Advantage ................................................................................................. 52
STP Disadvantages .......................................................................................... 52
Coaxial cables ................................................................................. 53

Coax Advantages .............................................................................................. 53
Coax Disadvantages ......................................................................................... 53
Optical fiber cables.......................................................................... 54

Optical Fiber Advantages ................................................................................. 55
Optical Fiber Disadvantage .............................................................................. 55
Wireless systems ............................................................................ 56

Infrared links .................................................................................. 56
Radio links ..................................................................................... 57
Wireless Advantage .......................................................................................... 57
Wireless Disadvantages ................................................................................... 57
TABLE
OF
Introduction ..................................................................................... 48
Transmission media ...................................................................... 50
Twisted-pair cables ......................................................................... 50
Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) ..................................................... 51
103

LAN architectures ................................................................. 48
CONTENTS
OF
CONTENTS TABLE
OF
TABLE
Star Topology Advantages ................................................................................ 59

Star Topology Disadvantage ............................................................................. 59
Bus topology .................................................................................... 60

Bus Topology Advantages ................................................................................. 61
Bus Topology Disadvantages............................................................................ 61
Ring topology .................................................................................. 62

Ring Topology Advantage ................................................................................. 63
Ring Topology Disadvantages ........................................................................... 63
Hybrid topologies ............................................................................. 64

Tree topology ................................................................................ 64
Star-wired ring topology ................................................................ 65
Clustered star topology ................................................................. 66
Hierarchical star topology ............................................................. 67
Access controls ............................................................................. 68
Polling .............................................................................................. 68
Token-passing ................................................................................. 69
Slotted-ring ...................................................................................... 70
CSMA/CD (Carrier-Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection) ... 71
Carrier sensing .............................................................................. 71
Collision detection ......................................................................... 72
Switching ......................................................................................... 73

104
Topologies ....................................................................................... 58
Star topology ................................................................................... 59
CONTENTS
OF
CONTENTS TABLE
Basic network design .......................................................... 78
TABLE
OF
Speed ............................................................................................... 77
105
Baseband Transmission Advantages................................................................ 75

Baseband Transmission Disadvantage............................................................. 75
Broadband transmission.................................................................. 76
Broadband Transmission Advantages .............................................................. 76
Broadband Transmission Disadvantages ......................................................... 76
Introduction ..................................................................................... 78
Peer-to-peer LANs ......................................................................... 79
No-server configuration ................................................................... 79
Non-dedicated server configuration ................................................ 79
Dedicated server configuration ....................................................... 80
Design issues .................................................................................. 80
Centralized server LANs .............................................................. 82
Design issues .................................................................................. 83
Security features ............................................................................. 84
Login security ................................................................................ 84
Password security ......................................................................... 86

Transmission techniques ............................................................. 74

Baseband transmission ................................................................... 75
CONTENTS
OF
CONTENTS TABLE
OF
TABLE
Introduction ..................................................................................... 87
Communications signaling ................................................................................ 87
Communications addressing............................................................................. 87
Communications processing............................................................................. 87
Communications signaling .......................................................... 88

Digital signaling ............................................................................... 89
Nonreturn-to-zero-level (NRZ-L) encoding ................................... 89
Manchester encoding .................................................................... 90
Differential Manchester encoding ................................................. 92
Analog signaling .............................................................................. 93
Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) ........................................................ 93
Frequency-shift keying (FSK) ....................................................... 94
Phase-shift keying (PSK) .............................................................. 95
Communications addressing ...................................................... 96
Setting addresses ............................................................................ 97
Universal addressing ..................................................................... 97
Network-specific addressing ......................................................... 98
Using addresses ............................................................................ 98
Communications processing ...................................................... 99
Packets ............................................................................................ 99

106
Overview of LAN communications .................................... 87
FIGURES FIGURES FIGURES FIGURES
A two-station LAN ................................................. 1
Figure 1.2:
A Wide Area Network .......................................... 3
Figure 1.3:
The typical mainframe environment ................. 12
Figure 1.4:
The typical minicomputer environment ........... 13
Figure 1.5:
The typical PC environment .............................. 14
Figure 1.6:
LAN hardware components .............................. 29
Figure 1.7:
Departmental LAN .............................................. 30
Figure 1.8:
Campus LAN ...................................................... 31
Figure 1.9:
Remote access to a LAN ................................... 32
Figure 1.10:
Twisted-pair wire ................................................ 50
Figure 1.11:
Unshielded twisted-pair cable ........................... 51
Figure 1.12:
Shielded twisted-pair cable ............................... 52
Figure 1.13:
Coaxial cable ...................................................... 53

107
Figure 1.1:
FIGURES FIGURES FIGURES FIGURES
Optical fiber cable ............................................... 54
Figure 1.15:
Star topology ....................................................... 59
Figure 1.16:
Bus topology ....................................................... 60
Figure 1.17:
Ring topology ...................................................... 62
Figure 1.18:
Tree topology ...................................................... 64
Figure 1.19:
Star-wired ring topology ..................................... 65
Figure 1.20:
Clustered star topology ...................................... 66
Figure 1.21:
Hierarchical star topology .................................. 67
Figure 1.22:
NRZ-L encoding ................................................. 89
Figure 1.23:
Manchester encoding ........................................ 91
Figure 1.24:
Differential Manchester encoding ..................... 92
Figure 1.25:
Amplitude-shift keying ........................................ 93
Figure 1.26:
Frequency-shift keying ...................................... 94
Figure 1.27:
Two-phase Phase-shift keying ......................... 95

108
Figure 1.14:

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Defining LANs

A datacom system allowing a number of independent devices to

Definition of a LAN, continued

Chapter 1 - Local Area Network (LAN) Overview

Typical characteristics of a LAN environment:

Full connectivity among all stations.

Fully administered by the owner.

Runs over a shared transmission mediumoften, cabling.

The network is confined to a small areaa single building or a cluster of buildings.

The data rate is highseveral Mbps (million bits per second).

Chapter 1 - Local Area Network (LAN) Overview

LANs vs. WANs

Chapter 1 - Local Area Network (LAN) Overview

Objectives of an effective LAN

To improve employee productivity.

To improve information management.

To improve interaction between staff.

To provide for standardized hardware and software usage.

Chapter 1 - Local Area Network (LAN) Overview

Objectives of an effective LAN,

Telephones are an example of such a technology. People are able to use

Devices are functional when needed.

The voice network illustrates this concept of reliability. It works when

Chapter 1 - Local Area Network (LAN) Overview

Objectives of an effective LAN,

Chapter 1 - Local Area Network (LAN) Overview

Objectives of an effective LAN,

Future growth requirements.

The expense of downtime.

Chapter 1 - Local Area Network (LAN) Overview

Access control method.

Chapter 1 - Local Area Network (LAN) Overview

A data network is an interconnected system of computers,

Chapter 1 - Local Area Network (LAN) Overview

The concept of networking,

Key years in the history of computer networking are the following:

Geographically dispersed university research mainframes are connected

The first commercial mainframe network used for airline passenger

Nationwide air-traffic control in the United States.

The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) connects

Chapter 1 - Local Area Network (LAN) Overview

Development of computer networks

Chapter 1 - Local Area Network (LAN) Overview

Department of Human resources

Research and Development

Mainframe com puter

Chapter 1 - Local Area Network (LAN) Overview

The minicomputer environment

Permitted smaller companies to afford their own computer.

Allowed large companies to buy several low-cost minis as computing services

From a networking perspective, minis are no different from mainframesterminals are

Chapter 1 - Local Area Network (LAN) Overview

The Personal Computer (PC) environment

FIGURE 1.5: THE TYPICAL PC ENVIRONMENT

The LAN environment

Security is a probleman intruder could walk up to any PC to gain access to its

Expensive peripheralsplotters, laser printers or large hard disksare difficult to

LANs enforce security by requiring passwords and access privileges in order to

LANs permit effective, global backupsbackups can take place automatically

Chapter 1 - Local Area Network (LAN) Overview

Stage 1: Personal productivity

Stage 2: Workgroup LANs

Chapter 1 - Local Area Network (LAN) Overview