Causes of Psychopathology

• Stress/ Trauma
An Integrative Approach to • Physical/ Medical
Psychopathology • Emotional/ Behavioral
• Developmental
Chapter 2a • Social/ Family
• Cognitive/ Academic

One-dimensional Model One-dimensional Model

Stress/
Trauma
• Linear model
• Traces the origins of psychopathology to a Physical/ or
Medical
single cause
• Not accepted anymore by most scientists Emotional/
Behavioral
or DISORDER

and clinicians
or
– Note that though behavioral types tend to Developmental
conceptualize most psychopathology as or
explained by conditioning or learning, they Social/
Family or
rarely (if ever) ascribe to a linear model
Cognitive/
Academic

Multidimensional Model Multidimensional Model

• Systemic and often interdisciplinary Physical/
Medical
• Feedback loop which has many
independent inputs that disappear into and Stress/ Emotional/
Trauma Behavioral
become part of the whole
• Psychopathology is the product of the DISORDER

complex interactions between multiple Social/

Developmental
factors and cannot be considered in an Family

isolated context Cognitive/

Academic

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 Genetic Contributions to
Psychopathology
• Since 19th century we have known that
genes are (at least partially) responsible
for our physical characteristics
– height, hair and eye color
• Although other factors might also affect
physical appearance, our genes determine
the boundaries of our potential
The Nature of Genes
• DNA is in the shape of a double helix
(spiral staircase)
• Chromosomes (Greek: chroma- color,
soma- body) are singular structures of
organized DNA
• Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)
– The last pair are the sex chromosomes
The Nature of Genes
• Mistakes from copying or ordering genetic
material may or may not result in defective
mutations
– Dominant gene mutations will result in a
particular trait
– Recessive gene mutations have to be paired
with other recessive genes to be expressed
Genes
• Long chains of deoxyribonucleic acic
(DNA) molecules located at various
chromosomal sites within the cell nucleus
• Basic physical units of heredity
• Unique in everyone except for identical
twins
The Nature of Genes
• Problems sometimes develop when the
normal contingent of 46 human
chromosomes (arranged in 23 pairs) is
disturbed
– Down's syndrome or trisomy 21, is caused by
an extra chromosome on the 21st pair
The Nature of Genes
– Mendelian laws of genetics uses (simple)
probability to determine how many offspring
will inherit a trait or disorder
– However most traits or disorders (i.e. IQ) are
polygenic, or minimally determined by a
multitude of genes
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 The Nature of Genes
• Genes are also multifunctional, meaning
they can be responsible for more than one
trait or disorder
• Today we use quantitative genetics which
specify which group of genes affect a trait,
but doesn’t specify which genes are
responsible for what effects
The Interaction of Genetic and
Environmental Effects
• Eric Kandel stated that the process of
learning may change the genetic structure
of cells
• Dormant genes might be activated by
environment even after maturation
Diathesis – Stress Model
• A combination of
inherited tendency
(vulnerability) and
specific stressful
conditions are
required to produce
a disorder
New Developments
• Estimate for genetic contribution
personality traits and cognitive abilities in
humans is about 50%.
– No individual genes have been identified
relating to any major psychological disorder
The Interaction of Genetic and
Environmental Effects
• Meaning that our brains, bodies, and
genes have plasticity which allows us to
adapt but also leaves us open to
developing diseases
– Neuroplasticity or Cancer
Reciprocal Gene – Environment
Model
• Genetic predisposition for a disorder also
increase our probability of creating
stressful life events that promote the
disorder
Stress Genetics
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 Nongenomic Inheritance of
Neuroscience and Its Contributions
Behavior
• Several studies (Crabbe et al. 1999, • Neuroscience focuses on understanding
Francis et al. 1999) have found that the role of the nervous system in disease
despite genetic endownments, behavior and behavior
can be inherited through environment • To understand how the brain works we
• Ideas and behavior can be passed on by have to look at its parts
example
• In conclusion, nature vs. nurture debate
rages on

Neurons Neurons
• The typical neuron contain a central cell
• The brain uses nerve cells, called body with two kinds of branches
neurons, to send signals that control every • The dendrites, extend from the cell body to
thought and action receive chemical messages from other nerve cells,
which are converted into electrical impulses
• The brain contains an average of 140
• The axon, transmits these impulses to other
billion neurons neurons

Neurons Neurons
• Neurons operate • Major neurotransmitters implicated in
electrically, but
communicate with other psychopathology include norepinephrine
neurons chemically (or noradrenaline), serotonin, dopamine,
• They communicate in
synaptic cleft, a space and gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA).
between nerve cells • Excesses or insufficiencies will result in
• The chemical
messengers, called different kinds of psychopathology
neurotransmitters, are
sent from one neuron to
the other

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 Neurons Divisions of the Nervous System
CNS (Interneurons) Human PNS (Sensory and Motor)
Brain and Spinal Cord Nervous All other nervous
• The brain is like an electrical system, tissue System

neurotransmitter currents run on circuits,

or specified paths, however those paths Somatic Nervous System
Voluntary
often intersect Input: Sense Organs
Output: Skeletal Muscles
• Almost all drug therapies work by either
decreasing or increasing the flow of
specific neurons in these circuits, Sympathetic Motor System
System “fight or flight” responses
unfortunately alterations can have large Neurotransmitter: Noradrenaline
“Adrenergic System”
scale effects
Autonomic Nervous System
Involuntary
Input: Internal Receptors
Output: Smooth Muscles and
Glands
Parasympathetic Motor
relaxing responses
Neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine
“Cholinergic System”

Divisions of the Nervous System Divisions of the Nervous System

• The peripheral nervous system works in
coordination with the brain stem to ensure
proper bodily functioning and consists of
the
– Somatic nervous system controls muscles
and movement
– Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
regulates the cardiovascular system,
endocrine system (e.g., pituitary, adrenal,
thyroid, and gonadal glands) and aids in
digestion and regulation of body temperature.
• Autonomic nervous system (ANS), is
divided into the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems
– The sympathetic nervous system mobilizes
the body (e.g., increases heart rate) during
periods of stress or danger and is part of the
emergency or alarm response.
– The parasympathetic nervous system
renormalizes arousal and facilitates digestion.

Divisions of the Nervous System Divisions of the Nervous System

• The endocrine system produces its own
chemical messengers (i.e., hormones)
and releases them directly into the
bloodstream.
– Adrenal glands produce epinephrine (also called adrenaline) in
response to stress, including salt-regulating hormones.
– Thyroid produces thyroxine, which facilitates energy metabolism
and growth.
– The pituitary is the master gland that produces several
regulatory hormones
– The gonads produce sex hormones (e.g., testosterone and
estrogen).
• The endocrine system is closely related to
the immune system and is implicated in
anxiety, stress, and sexual disorders
• The hypothalamic-pituitary-
adrenalcortical axis (HPA axis) illustrates
the connection between the nervous and
endocrine systems, and is implicated in
several forms of psychopathology.

5
 Structure of the Brain
• The brain is divided into two parts.
– The lower brain stem is the most primitive
part and is responsible for most of the
automatic functions necessary for survival
(e.g., breathing, sleeping, moving)
– The more advanced brain systems are
located in the forebrain.
Lower Brain Stem
Forebrain
• At the base is the telencephalon, which
contains limbic system (Limbic - border)
• This includes Hippocampus (sea horse),
cingulate gyrus (girdle), septum (partition),
and amygdala (almond).
– Emotional expression, impulse control, sex, aggression,
hunger, and thirst are controlled by this part of the brain
• Another area at the base of the forebrain is the
basal ganglia, including the caudate (tailed)
nucleus.
– Motor behavior is controlled by this area, and damage can
cause twitching or shaking
Structure of the Brain
Lower Brain Stem
• The hindbrain contains the medulla, pons,
and cerebellum (motor coordination)
– These structures control activities such as breathing,
heartbeat, and digestion.
• The midbrain coordinates movement with
sensory input and contains parts of the
reticular activating system (RAS)
– The RAS contributes to arousal, tension, and waking
and sleeping.
• At the very top of the brain stem (i.e., above the
hindbrain) lies the diencephalon, which
contains the thalamus and hypothalamus
– Transmit information to the forebrain and are integral
to behavior and emotion.
Forebrain
• The largest part of the forebrain is the
cerebral cortex, which contains over
80% of the neurons in the CNS
– Reasoning and creative skills are derived
from this brain area
• The cerebral cortex is divided into two
– Left hemisphere appears to be responsible
for verbal and cognitive processes
– Right hemisphere appears more
responsible for spatial abilities
6

An Integrative Approach to
Psychopathology
Chapter 2b
Neurotransmitters
• Drug therapies are either
– Agonists
• Increase flow (agonists)
• Mimic effects (agonists)
– Antagonists
• Decrease flow
• Block receptors
– Inverse Agonists
• Increase competing biochemicals that
deactivate/cancel out neurotransmitter
Serotonin (5HT)
• Serotonin (5HT) is concentrated in the
midbrain and connected to the cortex
– Widespread effects on behavior, mood, and
thought processes.
• Tricyclic antidepressants (e.g.,
imipramine) and new classes of serotonin
specific reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs; e.g.,
Prozac) affect the serotonergic system
(see also St. John’s-wort).
Neurotransitters
• Brain circuits are pathways of
neurotransmitters.
• Neurotransmitters do not necessarily have
a specific receptor
• After a neurotransmitter is released, it is
quickly drawn back via reuptake process.
Serotonin (5HT)
• Serotonin (5-HT)
– Regulatory Neurotransmitter
– Information processing
– Coordination of movement
– Inhibition
– Regulation of appetite and eating behavior
– Sexual and aggressive behaviors
– Mood regulation
Serotonin (5-HT) Deficiency
• Less inhibition
• Instability
• Impulsivity
• Tendencies to overreact to situations (e.g.,
aggression, suicide, impulsive overeating,
excessive sexual behaviors
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 Gamma aminobutyric acid
(GABA)
• Reduces overall arousal
– Tempers anger, hostility, aggression
– Reduces excessive anticipation
– Stabilizes positive and negative emotional
states
Gamma aminobutyric acid
(GABA)
• Reduces postsynaptic activity, thus,
inhibits several behaviors and emotions,
particularly anxiety
• However, effect is not specific to anxiety
• Benzodiazepines make it easier for
GABA to attach to specialized receptors

Norepinephrine Norepinephrine
(Noradrenaline or NE) (Noradrenaline or NE)
• Regulatory Neurotransmitter in CNS and • Regulatory Neurotransmitter in CNS and
PNS PNS
• Controls HR, BP, and Respiration • Also part of the endocrine system
• Triggers “Alarm” Responses • Stimulates at least alpha-adrenergic and
• Energy beta-adrenergic receptors.
• Emotions • Beta-blockers for hypertension reduce
• Attention and concentration the surge in norepinephrine and keep
heart rate and blood pressure down.
• Memory
• Speed of information processing

Norepinephrine (NE) Deficiency Dopamine (DA)

• Poor attention • Activating Neurotransmitter
• Problems concentrating • Acts on the “Reward Pathway“
• Deficiencies in working memory – Aids in Exploratory and Pleasure seeking
behaviors
• Slowness of information processing
• Opposite of Serotonin
• Depressed mood
– DA and 5HT circuits cross at many points and
• Fatigue seem to balance one another

2
 Dopamine (DA) Neurotransmitters
• May act by "switching on" various brain • Dopamine (DA) Deficiency
circuits that inhibit or facilitate emotions or – Parkinson’s Disease
behavior – Tardive Dyskinesia DA Side-effect
• Has been implicated in schizophrenia • Dopamine (DA) Excess
• Reserpine (an antipsychotic) blocks – Schizophrenia
specific dopamine receptors – Addictions
• L-DOPA (for Parkinson’s) is a DA agonist

Behavioral and Cognitive Science Behavioral and Cognitive Science

• The development of psychological
disorders has been traced to
– Neuroanatomy and function
– Psychosocial influences on how humans and
other animals acquire, process, store, and
retrieve information
• Modifying the brain circuitry through
– Biological treatments (changing hardware)
– Psychosocial treatments (changing software)
• Interaction of Psychosocial Factors with
Brain Structure and Function
– Experience may produce richer, more plastic
neural connections in the brain which
determines vulnerability to psychological
disorders later in life
– Neurochemical substances have very
different effects depending on the
psychological histories of the animals

Conditioning and Cognitive Conditioning and Cognitive

Process Process
• Robert Rescorla expanded on Pavlov’s • Martin Seligman
Classical Conditioning experiments – Learned Helplessness
– Learning • Depression stems from attribution to an external
• Complex variety of judgments and cognitive locus of control
processes • Give up attempting to cope
• Measured the meaningfulness of relationships – Learned Optimism
between events and environment • Optimism stems from attribution to internal locus of
• Response maximized benefit or at least minimized control
harm • Function better, psychologically and physically, in
the face of considerable stress

3
 Conditioning and Cognitive
Process
• Albert Bandura
– Modeling
• Observation or Imitation of other individuals
• Symbolic integration of others’ experiences
• Judgments about the consequences of similar
behavior to oneself
• Careful analysis of cognitive processes can lead to
scientific predictions about behavior
Conditioning and Cognitive
Process
• Morris et. al.
– Prepared Learning
• We are genetically endowed with the fear of
certain types of objects or situations which proved
dangerous to our ancestors
– Snakes, bugs, heights, bodily fluids
• Evolution has paired certain stimuli together
because it promotes adaptive behaviors

– Social context of learning

Emotions Emotions
• Emotions are short-lived, temporary states that • The Purpose of Emotions
are responses to external events
– Motivates us to carry out a behavior
• Has three overlapping components
– Behavior – Communicates our experiences
• Freeze, escape, attack • Fear
• Communicative tool – Fear activates the emergency survival responses “fight or
– Physiology flight”
• Primitive brain areas – Affect of fear lets others know that there is danger
• Allows emotional processing with higher cognition
• Psychopathology arises in over - or under
– Cognition
• Appraisals and attributions - expression of emotion

Cultural, Social, and

Emotions
Interpersonal Factors
• Not to be confused with Mood, which is a • Psychopathology can be associated with
more persistent period of emotionality certain
– Mood disorders – Cultures
• Or Affect, which is the momentary • Haitian Voodoo or Malay “amok”
emotional tone that accompanies what we – Genders
say or do • Phobias, Addictions, and Eating Disorders
– Facial expression or body language – Life stages
• Emotions can have physical effects which • Different periods of development have different
is studied in the field of Health Psychology vulnerabilities

4
 Unconsciousness and Memory
• Some other important concepts in
cognitive science
– Equifinality states that a behavior or disorder
may have several different causes
– The presence of the conscious and
unconscious mind
• Implicit - Response but no recollection of events
• Explicit memory - Recalling events
Emotions
• Not to be confused with
– Mood- persistent period of emotionality
– Affect- momentary emotional tone that
accompanies what we say or do
• Facial expression or body language
• Emotions can have physical effects which
is studied in the field of Health Psychology

Cultural, Social, and

Interpersonal Factors
• Psychopathology can be associated with
certain
– Cultures
• Haitian Voodoo or Malay “amok”
– Genders
• Phobias, Addictions, and Eating Disorders
– Life stages
• Different periods of development have different
vulnerabilities