5/2/2014

Improving
Properties of
Granular Soil
using Waste
Materials
A Special Study Project on Using
Rubber Soil Mixture and its variants in
everyday life
Armaan Gupta,
armaangupta625@gmail.com 2011A2PS484P,
BITS PILANI,
0
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank Dr. Ravi Kant Mittal, for giving me an opportunity to do the
project on Improving properties of granular soil using waste materials and
providing me all support and guidance which made me complete the project on time.
I am extremely grateful to him for providing such a nice support and guidance
though he had a very busy schedule.
1
INTRODUCTION

One of the problems associated with socio-economic development of a country is waste disposal. In
engineering and transportation sector one of the wastes generated is scrap tire and it poses serious
environmental problem. Majority of them end up in the already congested landfill or becoming
mosquito breeding places. Worst when it is burnt. Recent statistics in India indicated more than
100% increase in number of registered vehicle within ten years. Some of the applications of rubber
waste in geotechnical area are lightweight fill for embankments and retaining walls, leachate
drainage material and alternative daily cover at municipal solid waste landfills, insulating layer
beneath roads and behind retaining walls, agriculture - soil aeration and detoxification, golf course
green liners, and mats.They found that under repeated loads, the shredded tire chips undergo less
plastic strain per cycle with successive load cycles, ranging from 8% strain for first cycle to 0.03%
strain for 80th cycle. Drescher concluded that by assuming a constant rate of creep for the period of
60-630 days after completion of load. The results indicate that the mixtures up to 20% coarse
grained and 30% fine grained tire- chips can be used above ground water tables where low weight,
low permeability and high strength are needed in fills such as highway embankments, bridge
abutments and behind retaining structures especially built on weak foundation soils with low
bearing capacity and high settlement problems.
Plant roots stabilize soils, through reinforcement of soil in nature, against erosion and failure of deep
slopes. Presently, reinforcement is an effective and reliable technique for increasing strength and
stability of soils. The technique used today varies in the applications ranging from retaining
structures and embankments to surged stabilization and surface drainage systems. In general
soilreinforcements can be classified into two major categories (by their stiffness): (1) ideally
inextensible and (2) ideally extensible inclusions. The former includes high metal strips and bars,
while the latter includes relatively low modulus natural and synthetic fibers, plant roots and polymer
fabrics. Soil reinforced with randomly-distributed inclusions is another type of reinforced-soil, which
have attracted considerable attraction over past years, such as concrete technology and more
recently in soils [ Hoare DJ. 1997].
In this type of soil reinforcement, soil is mixed randomly with discrete small inclusions such as tire
shreds, fibers, filaments and small meshes until it become like a homogeneous material. Reuse and
recycling of scraped tires is essential to avoid growing stockpiles of discarded tires around the world,
e.g. approximately 240 million tires are disposed in United States each year and currently 5 billion
tires are stockpiled [Markets for scrap tiers 1991]. Rubber Manufacturers Association estimates that
about 4595.7 thousand tons of tires were generated in the U.S. in 2007. At the end of 2007, about
128million scrap tires remained in stockpiles in the United States, a reduction of over 87 percent
since 1990. Uses for scrap tires in civil engineering applications are growing recently. There are
around One billion tyres (100 crore nos of tyres) which are thrown away every year in India. Some
300 millions (30 crores) of them are recycled or are used as fuel and the rest are sent to landfill.(Rao
and Dutta 2006)

Scrap tires are used in the production of paving material which is called rubber modified asphalt and
in retaining walls as embankment materials. More recently tires were shredded into smaller pieces
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producing a bulk material, which was used as subgrade fill alone or mixed with granular soil to
improve the engineering properties of the soil [Edil TB. 2002]. The main objective of this study is to
investigate the feasibility of using shredded waste tires as reinforcement to increase the bearing
capacity of soil. Thus a series of laboratory loading tests have been carried out on sand reinforced
with randomly distributed tire shreds to determine the effects of shred content and shred aspect
ratio on bearing capacity of reinforced soil.

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Improving properties of granular soil using waste materials.

SEISMIC BASE ISOLATION:

The stockpiling of scrap tires is a significant threat to our environment. We can utilize scrap tires for
applications in infrastructure protection, base isolation of structures. The method involves mixing
scrap tires with soil materials and placing the mixtures around building foundations, for vibration
absorption.
Seismic base isolation can be defined as forming a laterally flexible system between the ground and
a structure in order to isolate earthquake-induced seismic forces by increasing the natural period of
the structure.Smooth synthetic liners have been proposed underneath the foundation of structures
or between soil layers for dissipating seismic energy through sliding and rubber-soil mixtures (RSM)
have been proposed around the foundation of structures for absorbing seismic energy and exerting
a function similar to that of cushion. (Santucci de Magistris et al., 1999, Tatsuoka et al.,2000).

Energy dissipation is the primary mechanism attributing to the reduction of seismic ground shaking.
Rubber is known for its excellent energy absorption capability, and hence its uses for vibration
control and dampening such as in automotive components have been extensive. Rubber solids and
soil particles are complementary in their functions. Comparing with normal soils, soil reinforced with
rubber demonstrates a significant increase in shear strength and more importantly a tremendous
increase in energy dissipating capability.
Although STP (Scrap Tire Pads) application cannot eliminate foundation-basement structural
requirements, but it presents advantages such as low technology, no-cost pad, weight reduction,
ease of handling, simple shear stiffness adjustment by changing the number of layers, and
environmental benefits by recycling scrap tires.


Fig. 1 Typical example of base isolation of a residential building using RSM (Rubber soil Mixture).

Types of STP to be used in base isolation materials:

STPs are prepared by placing 18 cm x 20 cm cut tread sections layers of car tires on top each other.
Larger size STPs can also be formed by placing longer strips of tread sections (integer multiples of
tread width) side by side in alternating direction layers or using a woven structure. Properties of
STPs are compared with Laminated Rubber Bearing (RB) system. Since, car tires are made from
rubber and have steel mesh reinforcement in the tread section. Scrap Tire Pad (STP) is made by
placing layers of scrap tire thread sections on top of each other in an attempt to mimic the behavior
of RB.(Rao and Dutta 2006)
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COMPRESSION TEST:

All STP specimens used in compression tests had four layers and were prepared by using four well-
known tire brands. All STP specimens had 180 mm x200 mm bearing area and four layers of tires for
a total height of 4050 mm. The tested RB specimen was a standard 150 mm x 150 mm x 40 mm
elastomeric pad, containing a single layer of 3 mm thick steel plate. The specimens were tested
under cyclic axial load with gradual increments.
STP specimens generally failed between 0.20 and 0.25 vertical strain levels. The STP failure began at
about 8 MPa axial stress level and was identified by a series of snapping sounds, while RB started
showing signs of failure at about 40 MPa.
The results of the STP and RB axial loading tests are similar to each other in shape and behavior.
Although the horizontal reinforcement working mechanism is similar for RB and STP lesser amount
of horizontal steel inside STPs causes relatively low vertical strength.(ASTM D4254-00, 2000)


Fig. 2 RB steel plate and STP steel cord layout and working mechanism

Reversed cyclic loading tests:
Large amplitude, reversed cyclic loading tests were conducted in order to obtain the high-strain
shear behavior of STP specimens. Specimens were loaded in shear while they were also under axial
compression. All STP specimen test results show that slippage is initiated at about 2025% of the
vertical load and at a horizontal displacement in the range of 5075% of the height.
The entire test has performed satisfactorily until 2025% of the vertical load which would
correspond to 0.2 g lateral acceleration. The lateral accelerations developing in a seismically isolated
system is expected to be lower than 0.2 g; therefore, STP base isolation system is expected to
perform well during earthquakes.

Inclined compression tests: This test was used to test STP specimens and compare with the static
reversed cyclic loading and free vibration dynamic test results.(Rao and Dutta 2006)

The same specimens were used for shear tests, before being tested to failure under compression
tests.

Fig. 3.G-STP refers to STP from 'GOOD YEAR' tire Brand Company.
5

G-STP graphs in above figure show clear hysteretic behavior when the maximum lateral load was
applied till about 15 KN which was 15% of the vertical load. The lateral deformation measured in
GSTP test was about 20 mm which is equivalent to 43% drift.(Santucci de Magistris et al., 1999,
Tatsuoka et al.,2000).

Hypothetical Case Study:

STP usage was considered for rural bridge supports. Rural bridges generally have low daily traffic
volumes, can have multiple spans, but are usually of simply supported beam type. Total mass of 9
ton/m is calculated for the unit length of the bridge assuming a two lane bridge with five beams
having dimensions of 500 mm x 800 mm that supports a 250 mm thick slab. If an average bridge
length of 10 m is considered, the worst loading case combined with lane or HS20-44 truckloads
would yield a vertical load of 153 KN /pad. This load in turn would generate about 4.2 MPa stress on
a 180 mm x 200 mm STP specimen and would be within the axial load limits. The thermal expansion
demand of the bridge can be obtained by considering thermal expansion coefficient. A temperature
shift of 80 C from -20 C to +60 C would result in a maximum length change of 4.4 mm over 10 m at
each support, which is equivalent to about 8% lateral strain of a 58 mm thick STP (5 tire layers) and is
within the acceptable limits. Therefore, STPs can also be used as a low-cost alternative for
temperature elastomeric bridge support bearings for short to medium span, simply supported rural
bridge supports.

Fig. 4

The Fourier amplitude spectra (FAS) of the (a) horizontal and (b) vertical ground accelerations; and
the corresponding normalized (c) horizontal and (d) vertical ground acceleration time histories for
the Reference scenario (Tsang, 2008). Notes: In each figure, the scenarios of placing RSM and pure
sand were plotted.Rubber has been used as base bearings in the past three decades, with much of
the developmentbyKelly(2007).

The above figure shows that amplitude and acceleration (due to earthquake or any other forces) are
significantly reduced in case of RSM as compared to pure sand.

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CONCLUSION:

1- If vertical strength is taken to be more important than horizontal strength (which is unlikely
in the case of base isolation since earthquake forces act horizontally), RB (Rubber system)
fare better than STP. But for all the rest of cases, STP is better than RB as it is widely
available, cheap and its usage is encouraged by government because it will generate waste
otherwise. (Thenmozhi and Stalin 2010)

2- In summer, when bridges expand, then also the total strain produced in underlying STP is
within the acceptable limits, so we can use STP in bridges too.
3- The steel present inside STP enhances its strength and it also provides horizontal and shear
stiffness.
4- The study shows that wire mesh inside rubber behaves similar to steel plate usage inside RB.
Using higher number of wire-mesh layers may improve vertical stiffness of RB by reducing
amount of bulging between reinforcement layers.
5- STPs may be used for short span bridges (at expansion joints) in developing countries such as
the ones in Middle East, Asia, South America, and Africa. STP may also be used to isolate
masonry houses located in developing countries.
6- We can mix scrap tires with soil to create RSM (rubber soil mixture). RSM layer decouple the
building or structure from ground motions by interposing elements or materials of low
stiffness in between. RSM layer modifies the dominant frequency of the incident seismic
waves and dissipates the seismic energy of high frequency components in particular. On the
other hand, both spherical sliding bearings and geo-synthetic liners limit the transfer of
shear across the isolation interface which has a low level of frictional resistance.
7- Tsaang&Nelson(2008) also presented a paper on potential earthquake protection method by
placing rubber-soil mixtures (RSM) around foundations (footing or pile) of low-to-medium-
rise buildings for absorbing vibration energy and exerting a function similar to that of a
cushion. The validity of the proposed method has been shown by a number of numerical
simulations using various recorded ground motions. On average, 40-60% reduction in
horizontal accelerations at roof and foundation as well as first floor inter-storey drift can be
achieved.
8- Rubber has excellent energy absorption capability, rendering its extensive uses for vibration
control and dampening such as in automotive components.

9- Moreover, soil reinforced with rubber demonstrates a substantial increase in shear
strength compared to normal soils.

10- Tsang's did research on compressibility of tire shreds and found that tyre shred (as well as
RSM) is highly compressible. However, it is shown that the compressibility decreases
substantially once the tyre shreds have experienced one load application. For example, it is
found that embankment sections composed of tyre shreds that were overlain with a soil cap
(in the order of 1 m thick) can significantly reduce the compressibility and deflections. Thus,
preloading can be used to eliminate plastic compression once the fill has been constructed.
Moreover, it is reported that soil-tyre shred mixtures can be compacted using common
compaction procedures.(Thenmozhi and Stalin 2010)

11- We can mix sand and RSM with 75% rubber by volume, which is found to have a
satisfactory performance in shear strength, horizontal stiffness compressibility.

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All the writers have the same view on usage of STP in base isolation, as a medium for energy
dissipation and other fields too.



LIQUEFACTION:
Liquefaction is a phenomenon in which the strength and stiffness of a soil is reduced by earthquake
shaking or other rapid loading. Liquefaction and related phenomena have been responsible for
tremendous amounts of damage in historical earthquakes around the world. Liquefaction occurs in
saturated soils, that is, soils in which the space between individual particles is completely filled with
water. This water exerts a pressure on the soil particles that influences how tightly the particles
themselves are pressed together.When liquefaction occurs, the strength of the soil decreases and,
the ability of a soil deposit to support foundations for buildings and bridges are reduced
The two most important factors accounting for the occurrence of liquefaction include
(1) The cohesiveness and density of the soil deposit and
(2) The level of shaking.
As the above mentioned isolation method requires partial replacement of the soil materials with
RSM. As the density of RSM is reduced from 17.4 kN/m3 (of pure sand) to 9.5 KN /m3, this may lead
to a decrease in the shear strength and potentially enhance the possibility of liquefaction
occurrence. Preliminary studies have shown that the addition of small quantity of tire chips reduces
the cyclic shear strength of RSM. However, there is evidence to show that the shear strength of
loose sand becomes greater than that of dense sand with an addition of more than 10% tire chips.
Various studies of the engineering properties of RSM have also demonstrated a significant increase
in the cohesion intercept.
Moreover, rubber normally has higher frictional angles than normal soils and the value 'phi'
increases with the percentage of shred content in the mix. In addition, randomly mixing tire chips
can reinforce sand, resulting in greater shear strength than that of pure sand at its densest state.
Densification can be carried out to reduce the void ratio and thus increase the density in order to
minimize liquefaction. (Lee 2010).
Tire chips are utilized as liquefaction preventive backfill material. Undrained cyclic shear tests were
conducted on tire chips and sand mixed tire chips for various percentages of mixtures, and the
liquefaction potentials of the mixtures were evaluated. The best mixing percentage of tire chips was
found to be close to 50% by the total volume of sand. Despite the fact that the tire chips reinforced
composite backfill has a very low relative density, there was no liquefaction in the backfill. Also, the
earth pressure on the wall and its residual displacement could be substantially reduced, implying a
good performance of the soil-structure system during earthquake loading.

UNDRAINED CYCLIC SHEAR TESTING:

The results of this test show that for specimens with sf = 1 (where sf= 1 indicates sample composed
of sand only and sf=0 indicate sample composed of tire chips only) and 0.9, the excess pore water
pressure accumulated as the cyclic shear loading progresses until the effective stress completely
dropped to zero. Moreover, since the amplitude of axial strain suddenly increased at a particular
time, it is understood that liquefaction took place. For specimens with sf = 0.8, 0.7 and 0.6, the
effective stress did not disappear completely and reached a steady state at the end, with the
amplitude of axial strain showing gradual increase. For specimens with sf <= 0.5, the decrease in
effective stress with the cyclic loading was controlled, while for specimen with sf = 0 (pure tire
chips), the decrease in effective stress was very minimal. Moreover, the relation between deviator
stress and axial strain for sf = 0 showed visco-elastic behavior, with large axial strain generated
8

during the first cycle of loading followed by small increase in axial strain during subsequent loading.
For specimens with sf = 0.3 and 0.5, the amplitude of axial strain appeared to show gradual increase,
but in the end, the stiffness was maintained and followed a regular loop. Thus, the undrained cyclic
shear behavior of specimens with sf <= 0.5 clearly differed from that of specimens with sf = 0.6~ 0.9,
with the characteristics of tire chips dominant when sf <= 0.5.

Fig. 5 EFFECTIVE STRESS PATH Typical results of undrained cyclic shear tests.



Fig. 6. Relation between maximum excess pore water pressure ratio and sand fraction.

BACKFILL TEST:

Two model backfills were created; one with pure sand and the other one was creating using equal
proportion of tire chips and sand by volume. (Rao and Dutta 2006)
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A sinusoidal acceleration was imparted to the both soil-structure system for a period of 1 sec
(frequency = 20 Hz). They were applied in several stages starting with 100 Gal and increasing up to
600 Gal at an increment of 100. For a given acceleration, the response accelerations, the dynamic
load on the wall, displacement of the caisson, and the pore water pressures at various locations
were measured.(ASTM D4254-00, 2000)
It can be seen that while the conventional backfill shows the increase of the excess pore water
pressure with time, the tire chips reinforced backfill shows almost no increase in the pore water
pressure. This is, in spite of the fact that the two backfill were having almost the same relative
density (40%). The presence of tire chips in the sand could control the buildup of the excess pore
water pressure and thus prevent any liquefaction related damages. It can be inferred from these test
results that the tire chips acts as a good earthquake resistant geosynthetic material.


Fig. 7 Residual displacement of the structure with acceleration amplitude.

CONCLUSION:

1- The studies show that as the percentage of tire chips in sand increases. The decrease in
effective stress becomes slower. When both tire chips and sand are mixed equally in
volume, then decrease in effective stress with cyclic loading was controlled. The adopted
mixing percentage in this model test was reasonable from the liquefaction and practical
point of view.
2- Undrained cyclic shear testing of tire chips and tire chips sand mixtures have demonstrated
that pure tire chips have very small stiffness and displacements are easily generated during
cyclic shear loading, resulting in visco-elastic stress-strain relation. Moreover, excess pore
water pressure was not generated during cyclic loading and liquefaction did not occur. The
occurrence of liquefaction was confirmed for specimens with sand fraction greater than 0.5,
but for specimens with sand fraction less than 0.5, liquefaction was not clearly observed.
3- Tire chips appear to control the build-up of excess pore water pressure of the mixture during
shearing, and for specimens with sand fraction less than 0.7, such effect was remarkable for
low values of sand fraction.(Anderson and Stokoe 1978).
4- The test using tire chips as reinforcing agent by mixing it with sand, have revealed that tire
chips mixed sand does not undergo liquefaction, if proper mixing percentage is selected.
The reinforcing action of the tire chips embedded into the backfill soil could prevent the
liquefaction of the backfill. The test results have also demonstrated that the liquefaction
prevention measures could substantially reduce the earthquake induced permanent
displacement of structures. (Santucci de Magistris et al., 1999, Tatsuoka et al., 2000).
5- Nonlinear Site Response: Nonlinear response behavior can be resulted from soils yielding at
moderate to high levels of strains. As stated in Hauksson and Gross (1991), most damage is
caused by soft, near-surface ground conditions. Hence, it may be reasonable to deduce that
RSM may not be beneficial in reducing the level of ground shaking. However, Trifunac (2003)
10

illustrated that buildings on softer soils were damaged to a lesser degree under strong
shaking (e.g. peak ground velocity > 200 mm/s) due to energy absorption of incident seismic
waves by nonlinear soil response. In fact, soft soils can potentially act as a natural
mechanism for passive isolation, especially for near-field earthquakes that are rich in high-
frequency wave components. Considering the excellent energy absorption capability of
rubber, it is therefore believed that the proposed method should be feasible.

DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR OF RUBBER SAND MIXTURES (RSM):

It is assumed that the percentages of rubber used ranges between 0 and 35% by mixture weight.
G
O
(dynamic shear modulus) values increase whereas DT
O
(damping ratio) values decrease
systematically as the content of rubber decreases and the mean confining pressure increases.

Based on the experimental results they proposed an analytical relationship for the estimation of G
O
,
which is expressed in terms of an equivalent void ratio that considers the volume of rubber solids as
part of the total volume of voids, along with an analytical relationship for the estimation of DT
O
.
Granulated rubber or tire chips composed of recycled scrap tires exhibit low unit weight of solids,
along with low bulk density, high drainage capacity, and high elastic deformability.

In addition, physical soils, when mixed with recycled rubber; exhibit, in general, lower unit weight
and satisfactory strength characteristics. Recycled rubber materials are commonly used as
lightweight construction material in high embankments overlying soft soils and lightweight backfill
material in retaining walls and slopes. In addition, due to their high hydraulic conductibility, recycled
rubber materials are used as drainage layer at landfills.
Only those mixtures that are composed of uniform, fine to medium grained sands and uniform
recycled rubber materials (classified as granulated rubber), that exhibit, in general, a ratio of
D50,r/D50,s>=1, where D50,r and D50,s are the mean grain size of rubber and sand particles,
respectively are studied here(Matthew Oman 2013).

Effect of Rubber Content and Specimens Size on Small-Strain Shear Modulus and Damping Ratio

Figures 1 and 2 show the effect of the mean effective confining pressure and rubber contentpr on
the initial shear modulus GO and the initial damping ratio DTO of the sand/rubber mixtures. Figure 1
refers to the saturated 35.7mm x 82.2mm specimens, and Fig. 2 refers to the dry 71.1mm x
142.2mm specimens.


11


Fig. 8

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CONCLUSION:

1- As illustrated in these figures, GO values systematically decrease as the rubber content
increases, whereas the opposite trend is observed for DT
O
values. In addition, such as in
clean sands, the GO values increase and the DTO values decrease as mean confining pressure
increases.

2- Study reported that the increment of rubber content and, in particular, for the rubber contents
used herein, the void ratio decreases; that is, mixtures exhibit a more dense fabric of the
sand/rubber solid matrix as the rubber content increases. The specimens of this study exhibit
the general trend of decreasing void ratio with increasing rubber content.

3- Effect of mean confining pressure on the small-strain shear modulus of clean rubber
specimens is significantly lower compared to clean soils, whereas the effect of mean confining
pressure on the small-strain damping ratio of clean rubber specimens is relatively
negligible(Vucetic and Dobry, 1991).

4- Furthermore,Hazarika et al. (2008), Anastasiadis et al. (2009) and Senetakis et al. (2011a).
reported that dry and saturated sand/rubber specimens of the same geometry (71.1mm x
142.2 mm) exhibit similar values of GO, whereas saturated specimens exhibit slightly higher
DTO values compared to dry specimens of the same size due to strain-rate effects.


5. Also specimens of clean rubber materials exhibit significantly lower shear stiffness compared
to clean soils (on the order of 1:100). In addition, the increase of the rubber content
monotonically leads to a decrease of the shear stiffness and an increase of the damping ratio
at small-strain levels.

6. Increase of the initial shear stiffness of the mixtures with increasing mean confining pressure is
mainly due to the increase of normal stresses at soil-to-soil and soil-to-rubber interfaces. In
addition, the decrease of the initial damping ratio with increasing mean confining pressure is
possibly due to the effect of mean confining pressure on the sandy part of the solid skeleton.
Furthermore, the decrease of the mixtures initial shear stiffness with increasing rubber
content cannot be sufficiently represented by the void ratio. (Rao and Dutta 2006)

7. In eeq(equivalent void ratio), the volume of rubber solids is considered as part of the total
volume of voids, whereas the volume of solid particles that contribute to the stiffness of the
sand/rubber matrix is assumed to be the volume of the sandy particles. This is possible
because of the small contribution of rubber solids on the shear stiffness of the sand/rubber
matrix.

8. The effect of moisture seems to be less important on GO.

9. An increase of the rubber content leads to a reduction of pore water pressure buildup at the
same shearing strain amplitude. This trend is clearly shown for rubber content equal to 15 %
by mixture weight. These observations are possibly explained by the high deformability of
rubber particles, which leads to an expansion of pore water pressure buildup during the
13

cycling loading. This general trend of more gradual pore water pressure buildup with
increasing rubber content was also reported by Hazarika(2007) who studied similar mixtures.

10. The increase of rubber content in the mixtures increases the rubber-to-rubber interfaces and
thus mixtures gradually transform from sand-like to rubber-like behavior. At relatively high
rubber contents (above 15% by mixture weight) the soil /rubber solid matrix is significantly
controlled by the synthetic portion. The transformation from sand-like to rubber-like behavior
is also affected by the relative size of soil versus rubber solids, expressed as D50, s/D50, r. The
increase of rubber-to-rubber interfaces is more pronounced as the ratio D50, s/D50, r
increases.


Note: Based on research done by Tsang and others on Seismic base isolation systems, the
recommended proportion is mixing sand and RSM with 75% rubber by volume.
Based on research done by Tsang(2008) , Gonghui Wang, M.N. Sheikh(2008) and others on use of
tire chips in soil against liquefaction, the recommended proportion is using equal proportion of tire
chips and sand by volume.
Based on research done by,Hazarika et al. (2008), Anastasiadis et al. (2009) and Senetakis et al.
(2011a) the recommended proportion is percentage of rubber used should be in between 0 and 35%
by mixture weight.

Almost all writers mentioned above recommend using tire chips for seismic base isolation and
against liquefaction. Using tire chips in soil doesnt changes odor and color of ground water
significantly and the change may not be apparent to common man, so there is no worry of rejection
of drinking water by common man due to usage of tire chips/shreds in soil.

Dynamic properties of granular soils mixed with granulated rubber
In the last two decades many studies were conducted on engineering properties of soilrubber
mixtures by numerous researchers. Some key parameters studied are shear modulus, bearing
capacity, permeability, shear strength, poissons ratio, compaction characteristics, swelling, and
compressibility. A series of conventional direct shear, torsional resonant column, large-scale direct
shear and dynamic triaxial tests are carried out by various researchers across the globe to investigate
the feasibility of using shredded waste tires, granulated rubber and tire buffings as reinforcement
materials to find out their effects on physical properties of sands.
They found that shred content and sand matrix unit weight were the most significant characteristics
influencing the shear strength of the mixture. Foose et al. also stated that reference strain can be
used to normalize the shear modulus into a less scattered band for granulated rubber/sand
mixtures. shear modulus and damping values of sand-tire mixtures were higher than those
measured for tire buffings only, and tire buffings addition to sand increased the initial slope of shear
stress-displacement curve. Attomreported that the addition of shredded waste tires increased both
the angle of internal friction and the shear strength of the sands(Matthew Oman 2013).
Mechanical behaviour of tire chipsand mixtures and the usefulness of optimizing the size of waste
tire shreds on shear strength were investigated ..Gotteland et al. showed that the percentage mass
and unit weight had effective influence on maximum shear strength. Ghazavi and Sakhifound that,
14

for a given width of tire rectangular shreds, there is solely a certain length, which gives the greatest
initial friction angle for sand-tire shred mixtures.
A series of laboratory tests were conducted on Ottawa sand by mixing ground rubber of similar size
and reinforcing the effects of the newly devised Tirecell made from treads of waste tires, in sand.
Pamukcu and Akbulutshowed a simultaneous increase in both the shear modulus and the damping
ratio of the sand specimens up to an optimum volume proportion of the rubber. Yoon et al. found
that the bearing capacity increased and the settlement reduction was the highest at the lowest
density of sand, and the reinforcing effect of sand was obtained when the embedded depth was
within 1.0B, where B was the loading width. (Robinson and Sharon 2000)
A series of experimental works performed on the effects of the addition of shredded waste tires,
compacted rubber fiber and waste polymer materials on the properties of clayey soils . The test
results of Attom et al. showed that increasing the amount of shredded waste tires will increase the
shear strength and decrease plasticity index, maximum dry density, permeability, swelling pressure,
swell potential, and the compression index of the clayey soil. The findings of Tsang(2008) and Baykal
showed that the peak strength of the composite is comparable to or greater than that of clay alone
when tested at confining pressures below 200300 kPa. Above this threshold, the presence of
inclusions tended to degrade the strength of the clay. (Robinson and Sharon 2000)clearly showed a
significant improvement in the shear parameters (c and phi) of the treated soils.
Engineering demand for modelling of behaviour of earth structures formed of waste materials will
continue to increase. Due to the lightweight and high capacity of rubber in damping energy, it can be
used for seismic force reduction and absorption of earthquake vibration in various Civil Engineering
structures.

Fig. 10 The particle size distribution for granular soil and granulated rubber.

The soil tested was river type granular soil excavated from a huge mine. Based on ASTM D 3999-91,
specimens shall be cylindrical and the largest particle size shall be smaller than 1/6 the specimen
diameter; thus, regarding the mould dimensions, (diameter and height were 15 and 30 cm,
respectively), 100 percent of the used materials must be finer than 25 mm in diameter. Considering
above figure , it is understood that this limitation is fully observed.(Cabalar 2011)
The coefficients of uniformity and curvature were determined 77.77 and 1.29, respectively based on
ASTM D 2487-10 . The percentage passing sieve number 200 was 8.5%. The values of sand
15

equivalent and plasticity index of the tested soil determined based on ASTM D 2419-02and ASTM D
4318-00 and were 51 and 4%, respectively. Based on Unified Soil Classification System , the tested
soil was well-graded gravel with clay, GW-GC. The specific gravity of the tested soil was found to be
2.65 at a temperature of 20 1C using ASTM Test Method for Specific Gravity of Soils (D 854-02) .The
above stated information are summarized in below table


The granulated rubber used in the test samples was composed of waste tires that had been
mechanically chopped using multiple chopping steps and sieved with mesh numbers of 3/800 , No.4,
No.10, No.40 and No.100. The particles passing sieved 3/800 and remaining on sieve No.100 were
used. These particles had non-spherical shapes with dimensions, from 0.15 to
9.5mm.Theparticlesizedistribu-tion curve for the granulated rubber is shown in above figure. The
specific gravityofthegranulatedrubberwasfoundtobe1.1ata temperature of20 1C according to ASTM
Test Method for Specific Gravity of Soils (D 854-02) . Generally, the specific gravity of granulated
rubber varies between 1 and 1.36 . The difference depends on the existence of steel wire particles.
In this research, the steel wire particles were extracted by a magnet. (Rao and Dutta 2006)
Specimen preparation procedure:
Based on the standard laboratory procedures ASTM D4253-00 and ASTM D4254-
00, relative density expresses the degree of compactness of tested mixture with
respect to the loosest and the densest conditions. ASTM D 4253-00suggests that,
for some soils containing between 5 and 15% fines, the use of impact compaction may be useful in
evaluating appropriate maximum unit weight. By this consideration, the soil was mixed with 0, 8, 10
and 14% granulated rubber by weight with the same grain size distribution. Then, to determine the
maximum dry unit weight and optimum water content, the compaction tests were carried out based
on ASTMD1557-02e1. The optimum water content, maximum and minimum dry unit weights, and
specific gravities of the mixtures are presented in below table.

16





Test procedure :
All the samples were tested with a large-scale cyclic triaxial apparatus manufactured by
WykehamFarrance in United Kingdom. The samples diameters and heights were 15 and 30 cm,
respectively. Based on ASTM D 3999-91 , clauses 10.3, 10.4, and 10.5, all the samples were
17

saturated, and pore water pressure parameter, B, reached over 95%. Then, each sample was
consolidated iso tropically under 50, 100, 200 and 300 kPa pressures, Hazarika et al. (2008),
Anastasiadis et al. (2009) and Senetakis et al. (2011a).
In each test, forty cycles with the same deviator stress amplitude and the same conning pressure
were applied on the specimens under stress controlled condition and 1 Hz frequency. In every cycle,
100 data were obtained by data logger and saved by computer program.
Test results and discussion:

Kokusho suggested that the effect of the number of cyclespractically disappears when the stress
application is repeated for more than 10 cycles. Therefore, the 11th cycle output data were used for
calculation procedures and diagram layout.
Considering the grain size distribution curves of granular soil and granulated rubber, it is clear that
the granulated rubber grains accommodate amongst the soil grains, and since the grains of
granulated rubber have more exibility than the soil grains, the dependency of mixture function on
the behaviour ofgranulated rubber is expected. Based on the tested materials, the following
discussions are made on the mixture behaviours.(Anderson and Stokoe 1978).

Discussion on shear modulus :
The shear modulus-shear strain amplitude curves for the soil-granulated rubber mixtures are given.
the confining pressures of 50, 100, 200, and 300 kPa and 0.0, 8, 10, and 14% of granulated rubber
additive. The results indicate that at a constant cofining pressure, with an increase in granulated
rubber percentage, shear modAlso, by replacement of the soil grains with granulated rubber
themixture becomes softer and the shear modulus decreases. It can be observed that, for the soil
with or without rubber, with an increase in cofining pressure, shear modulus increases. This
phenomenon is due to increasing intergranular friction as a result of an increase in conning
pressure which leads to an increase in stiffness.Figure also shows that, with an increase in
granulated rubber percentage, the effect of conning pressure on shear modulus decreases. This
coincides with the results obtained by Feng . This result was predictable by comparing the stiffness
of rubber and soil grains.
who worked on sand-granulated rubber. They showed that, in soilrubber mixtures containing high
percentage of rubber, the material tends to behave more elastic, and also the influnce of confining
pressure on the materials stiffness is insignificant.(perlea 1998)
Discussion on damping ratio:
The damping ratio-shear strain amplitude curves for soil-granulated rubber mixtures are presented
in or the conning pressures of 50, 100, 200, and 300 kPa and 0.0, 8, 10, and 14% addition of
granulated rubber. The results show that, with an increase in rubber inclusion, damping ratio
decreases for the conning pressures of 50 and 100 kPa, while this trend is reversed for the conning
pressures of 200 and 300 kPa. This discrepancy may be described in this way that, in low conning
pressures (50 and 100 kPa), with an increase in rubber inclusion and due to the high elastic
deformation capacity of rubber grains, the elastic strain increases and causes damping ratio to
18

decrease. However, for high cofining pressures (200 and 300 kPa), the rubber grains are pressed and
become inflexibe, which leads to an increase in the relative displacement of the grains during the
application of deviator stress and finally to an increase in bothplastic strain and damping ratio.
The damping ratio-shear strain amplitude curves for soil-granulated rubber mixtures are presented
in Fig. 5 for 0.0, 8, 10, and 14% of granulated rubber additive and the conningpressures of 50, 100,
200, and 300 kPa. It can be observed that, for the soil without rubber inclusion, with an increase in
conning pressure, damping ratio decreases. The explanation for this behaviour is that, with an
increase in intergranular friction which is due to an increase in conning pressure, plastic strain
decreases. Thus, the width of hysteresis loop decreases and causesthe damping ratio to decrease.
It also shows that, for the soil with granulated rubberinclusion, with an increase in conning
pressure, damping ratioincreases and is reversed for the soil without granulated rubberinclusion.
This discrepancy may be described in such a way that,in the soil with rubber inclusion, increasing
conning pressure causes the rubber grains to be compressed and become more inexible; hence,
during the application of deviator stress, the slippage of the soil grains on each other increases. So
the plastic strain increases and cuases damping ratio to increase.(perlea 1998)
Furthermore, the results indicate that, not only does the damping ratio increase with an increase in
conning pressure for 8, 10 and 14% rubber inclusion, but also the inuence of conning pressure on
damping ratio increases as rubber inclusion increases(Vucetic and Dobry, 1991). This phenomenon
can be explained in a way that, when higher percentage of rubber is used, the mixture has more
plastic strain at high conning pressures and more elastic strain at low conning pressures.
Therefore, it makes a higher difference between damping ratios at different conning pressures due
toincreasing rubber inclusion.

19


Fig. 11



Fig. 12 Damping ratio versus shear strain amplitude for the confining pressures of 50, 100, 200 and
300 kPa and the variation of granulated rubber percentages (Matthew Oman 2013).
20


Fig. 13 Maximum shear modulus versus granulated rubber percentage for the variation of the
confining pressures.(Robinson and Sharon 2000)

Fig. 14 Reference shear strain versus granulated rubber percentage for the variation of confining
pressures.

Conclusions:
In the present research a series of large-scale consolidated undrained cyclic triaxial tests was carried
out using granular soils-granulated rubber mixtures. Based on the tested materials, the following
conclusions are made:
1. Shear modulus decreased with an increase in rubber inclusion for all the confining pressures.
2. Shear modulus increased with an increase in the confining pressure for any percentage of
rubber inclusion.
3. Damping ratio decreased with an increase in rubber inclusion at 50 and 100 kPa confining
pressures. However, for 200 and 300 kPa confining pressures, the results were vice versa.
4. Damping ratio in granular soil-granulated rubber mixtures increased as the confining
pressure increased. This was the reverse for granular soil without rubber inclusion.
5. A model was introduced to predict Gmax for various conning pressures and rubber
inclusion percentage. (Robinson and Sharon 2000)
6. A model was established to evaluate the normalized shear modulus (G/Gmax) versus shear
strain amplitude (g) for various conning pressures and rubber inclusion percentage.
21

7. For a given percentage of rubber, with an increase in conning pressure, the values of
G/Gmax increased.
8. At a given conning pressure, the values of G/Gmax increased with an increase in rubber
inclusion percentage.(perlea1998)
Seismic isolation by rubbersoil mixtures for developing countries
This Paper proposes a promising seismic isolation method particularly suitable for developing
countries,which makes use of rubbersoil mixtures. Apart from reducing the level of shaking in the
horizontaldirection, the distinctive advantage of the proposed method is that it can also significantly
reduce theshaking level of vertical ground motion, to which an increasing attention has been paid in
the earthquakeengineering community. On the other hand, the use of scrap tires as the rubber
material can provide analternative way to consume the huge stockpile of scrap tires all over the
world. Moreover, the low cost ofthis proposed seismic protection scheme can greatly benefit those
developing countries where resourcesand technology are not adequate for earthquake mitigation
with well-developed, yet expensive, techniques.(ASTM D4254-00, 2000)
A seismic isolation system is defined as a flexible or sliding interface positioned between a
Structure and its foundation for the purpose of decoupling the horizontal motions of the ground
from the horizontal motions of the structure, thereby reducing earthquake damage to the structure
and its contents. Rubber has been used as base bearings in the past three decades, with much of the
developmentby Kelly since 1976. Laminated rubber bearing is currently the most commonly
adoptedsystem due to the strength requirement in the vertical direction to support the full weight
of thebuilding. Another type of seismic isolation technique is typified by the sliding system, such as
thefrictionpendulum system. It limits the transfer of shear across the isolation interface. At
present,owing to the tremendous cost of implementing base isolation technique, applications can
only beseen in structures with critical or expensive contents.(Anderson and Stokoe 1978).

The main intention of this invention is to provide low-cost seismic protection method for
residential buildings in developing countries and economically distressed areas within the United
States. This method requires minimal treatment on the scrap tires, rendering it a very convenient
method of seismic isolation. Experiments resulted in an acceleration response of structure that
could be reduced by more than 70% at low periods. However, one potential problem is that the
structure has to be detached from the ground, which is practically not favourable in particular for
small residential houses. The feasibility of this method to large structures is also questionable.

There is an increasing interest in applying seismic isolation technology to public housing, schools
and hospitals in developing countries where the replacement cost due to earthquake damage could
be significant. This paper proposes an alternative seismic isolation scheme particularly suitable for
developing countries, making use of rubbersoil mixtures (RSM). It is emphasized that there is no
intention to claim that the proposed method can replace the well-established and commonly
adopted isolation system (Lee 2010).
The method has been demonstrated through a series of numerical simulations. As well as other well-
known seismic isolation systems, it can greatly reduce the level of horizontal shaking. In addition, it
can significantly reduce the level of vertical shaking, to which increasing attention has been paid to
the earthquake engineering community. A parametric study has also been carried out
22

to test the robustness of the proposed system.
Use of rubber:

Energy dissipation is the primary mechanism accounting for the reduction of shaking level in the
proposed isolation method. Rubber has excellent energy absorption capability, rendering its
extensive uses for vibration control and dampening such as in automotive components. Hence, the
use of rubber is the key component in this method(Vucetic and Dobry, 1991).
The first use of rubber for earthquake protection of building structure was in Macedonia in 1969. A
three-storey concrete structure was constructed on large blocks of unreinforced natural rubber.
However, the building would bounce and rock backwards and forwards in an earthquake. In light of
this practical problem, the proposed use of RSM could avoid bouncing and rocking to happen, as the
rubber solids could be reinforced by normal soil materials. This concept of reinforcing rubber is
actually similar to the commonly adopted laminated rubber bearing. Also, the use of pure rubber is
not recommended for RSM.The dynamic properties of RSM have been investigated by Feng and
Sutter (2000).
In fact, rubber solids and soil particles are complementary in their functions. Soil reinforced with
rubber demonstrates a substantial increase in shear strength compared with normal soils , and more
importantly a tremendous increase in energy dissipating capability. More details of the
Engineering properties of rubber-reinforced soils can be found in later sections.(Anderson and
Stokoe 1978).

Use of scrap tires
It is generally believed that recycled rubber will play an important role in base isolation in the near
future, and scrap tire is potentially a suitable source of material for the proposed method. The
durability of tires is also guaranteed, for instance, they are termite proof, fireproof and do not
outgas once they are buried. The potential environmental effects have been discussed in the
Discussion section.
Scrap tire stockpile has been a significant disposal problem. Citing the United States as an example,
since the banning of the disposal of used tires in sanitary landfills, the stockpile has grown up rapidly
at a rate of around 300 million tires per year. It has been a hot topic among engineering community
to find new beneficial ways to recycle and reuse the huge stockpile, notably among those are the
uses as fuel in power plants and for asphalt mixtures in pavement construction.
Moreover, many scrap tires are exported to foreign countries to be reused as rethreads or fuel.
Unfortunately, not all exported tires were reused or recycled, but ended up with a disproportionate
amount of tires, in addition to their own internally generated scrap tires. Hence, the proposed
seismic protection method presented in this paper provides a promising way to reduce the huge
Stockpile, especially that each project could use up a large volume of tires.

23


Fig. 15 Shear modulus degradation curves

Fig. 16 damping curves adopted


Nonlinear site response
It is well recognized that soils yield at moderate to high levels of strains and give rise to non linear
response. There was a consensus that damage was mostly caused by soft, near-surface ground
conditions, as stated by Hauksson and Gross. Hence, it might be reasonable to postulate that RSM
may not be beneficial in reducing the shaking level. However, Trifunac and Todorovska showed that
buildings on softer soils were damaged to a lesser degree, because the energy absorption of incident
seismic waves by nonlinear soil response would lead to a reduction of the destructive power of the
strong motion. This finding has been further confirmed in a later study. Hence, soft soils can
potentially act as a natural mechanism for passive isolation, especially for near-field earthquakes
that are rich in high-frequency wave components. Evidences have already been shown in the
simulations presented in the form of FAS from which significant reduction in amplitudes could be
observed in high-frequency range. It is therefore believed that seismic isolation using RSM
should be a feasible method,considering the excellent energy absorption capability of rubber.
(Edil TB, 2002)

oil resonance effects

Earthquakes produce seismic waves with a wide spectrum of frequencies. If a certain seismic wave
24

component with high energy matches the natural frequency of the surface geological deposits, the
interaction could potentially amplify the level of shaking, commonly referred to as soil resonance.
As the proposed method requires replacement of a certain thickness of surface geological deposits
by RSM, which would significantly modify the stiffness (and in turn the natural frequency) of the
materials beneath the structure, the potential harmful effects should not be neglected. Although
this problem could not be observed in the finite element modelling in the previous section, further
investigation has to be carried outby Feng and Sutter (2000).
On the other hand, if the natural frequency of the site can be adjusted, with specific design of
the configuration and properties of the RSM layer, to a frequency that does not coincide with that
of the incident seismic waves, the level of shaking can then be further reduced, in addition to
energy dissipation by RSM, which is basically the underlying philosophy of the traditional base
isolation system (Matthew Oman 2013).

Liquefaction
Liquefaction is defined as the state when saturated sandy soil loses shear strength and effective
stresses are reduced as a result of increased pore water pressure. The two most important factors
attributing to the occurrence of liquefaction are the cohesiveness and density of the soil deposit and
the level of shaking . As the method proposed in this paper requirespartial replacement of the soil
materials by RSM, it concerns whether it would enhance the potential of liquefaction
during earthquakes.(Anderson and Stokoe 1978).
Various studies of the engineering properties of RSM demonstrate a substantial increase in the
cohesion intercept (commonly referred to as the c-value) . Moreover, rubbers generally have
higher frictional angles (commonly referred to as the phi value) compared with normal soils
and shown to be increasing with the percentage of shred content .
It is mentioned in the previous section that the density of RSM is reduced from 17.4kN/m3 (of
pure sand) to 9.5kN/m3, which would result in a decrease in the shear strength and potentially
enhance the occurrence possibility of liquefaction. However, it is shown that an addition of more
than 10% tire chips into loose sand results in shear strength that is greater than that of the dense
sand . It showed clearly that randomly mixing tire chips can reinforce sand to shear strength
that is greater than the strength of pure sand at its densest state. Furthermore, densification works
can be performed to reduce the void ratio and, hence, increase the density.
Regarding the ground shaking intensity, it is evident from the previous section that the damping
effects of RSM could significantly reduce both the peak and root-mean-square ground accelerations.
Thus, the probability of liquefaction occurrence should be reduced. Nevertheless, other remedial
measures against liquefaction could be implemented during the construction process.

Ground settlement
It is well known that tire shred (as well as RSM) is highly compressible. However, it is shown that the
compressibility decreases substantially once the tire shreds have experienced one load application.
Thus, preloading can be used to eliminate plastic compression once the fill has been constructed.
Bosscheret al. found that embankment constructed with pure tire shreds settled slightly more than
that constructed with soils. However, embankment sections composed of tire shreds that were
overlain with a soil cap (in the order of 1 m thick) can significantly reduce the compressibility and
deflections and perform equally well as those constructed with soils.
25

Moreover, it is reported that tire shreds and soiltire shred mixtures can be compacted using
common compaction procedures, such as dynamic compaction method by dropping a heavy weight
from a high position, vibratory tamper method by the oscillating force coupled to a vibrating base
plate, and so forth (Matthew Oman 2013).
Surface compaction (e.g. rolling and ramming) is the cheapest and the simplest one among available
ground improvement methods, rendering it suitable particularly for developing countries. It is the
process of increasing the soil unit weight by forcing the soil particles into a tighter state and reducing
air voids by the addition of either static or dynamic forces . In the case of cohesion less soils,
compaction leads to higher density and higher internal frictional angles. For cohesive soils, the
compaction process leads to closer particle arrangement and more cohesion.

Environmental effects
There is an increasing interest in the applications of recycled rubber in civil engineering. However,
the long-term environmental issues, such as ground water contamination and impact on local
ecology, have been the subjects in intense debates. It was shown by laboratory tests and augmented
by field studies that both the concentrations of metallic components and the organics were well
below the standards specified in two protocols in the United States, namely, toxicity characteristics
leaching procedure regulatory limits and extraction procedure toxicity; this proved that recycled
scrap tire is not a hazardous recycled material.
There is a common concern regarding the increase in iron and manganese levels. However, iron level
is only specified in the aesthetic drinking water standard (taste), rather than of health concern. Also,
manganese is naturally present in ground water in many areas. Hence, it was concluded that there is
little or no likelihood of significant leaching of tire chips for substances that are of specific
public health concern.

CONCLUSIONS
This paper presented a new seismic isolation method using RSM, which is particularly suitable
for developing countries. There are a number of distinctive advantages, including the ability of
reducing both horizontal and vertical ground motions and the substantial consumption of the huge
stockpile of scrap tires all over the world. A series of numerical simulations and parametric study
have been carried out to demonstrate the effectiveness and the robustness of the proposed
method. On average, it can reduce the horizontal and vertical ground accelerations by 6070% and
8090%, respectively.
In the early development of such a new technology, it is of particular importance to identify and
evaluate if there is any drawback or hidden problem. Five important issues regarding the concept
and feasibility of the proposed method have been identified, namely (1) nonlinear site response,
(2) soil resonance effects, (3) liquefaction, (4) ground settlement and (5) environmental effects.
Background information has been provided on each issue. Further discussion and research are
required.In addition, the proposed method can be generalized as a distributed seismic isolation
system, which involves isolating the entire contact surface of the foundation structure.

Seismic Responses of Geogrid Reinforced Wall with Tire Derived Aggregates (TDA) Backfill
using Reduced-Scale Shake Table Test

26

Tire shreds, also known astire derived aggregates (TDA), are pieces of processed andshredded waste
tires that can be used as lightweight and quickfills for embankments, subgrades, bridge abutments,
andretaining wall backfills. TDA of different sizes have beenwidely studied as alternative backfills in
the past twenty yearsand vast literature references are available.
In contrast to the relatively rich literature on the staticbehaviors of tire shreds, scarce
experimental data are available on the seismic performances of mechanically stabilized walls and
bridge abutments with tire shreds/chips as backfills. Tsang (2008) was one of few researchers who
studied a rubber-soil mixture backfill under seismic conditions. In his shake table tests, it was found
that site response of the backfill was nonlinear and helped absorb incident seismic waves.(Feng and
Sutter (2000).

Material
There are two types of TDA that are used in the USA: type A with a maximum size of 7.5 cm and type
B with a maximum size of 30.0 cm. In this research, the TDA was provided by a TDA vendor in
California, USA. The size distribution is shown in Figure 1. It can be seen that the materials
maximum size is approximately 10 cm, and 76% (by mass) TDA are smaller than 7.5 cm. The TDA was
judged to be close to type A.


Fig. 17

Youngs modulus of the TDA was also obtained using alarge-scale compression test. The dimensions
of the TDA sample in the compression test was 112 cm long, 71 cm wide, and 50 cm tall and was
confined in a wooden box. The stress- strain relationship, which was not included in this paper due
to page limit, showed an apparent upswing trend as the compressive deformation continued. Within
10% strain, the curve appeared to be a linear line, and the Youngs modulus of the TDA is
approximately 400 kN/m2. The bulk density of the TDA in the backfill was 721 kg/m3, which is at the
lower end of the density range that is used in the engineering practice. Higher density was not able
to be reach due to the compaction capability in the lab. In order to obtain the shear resistance of the
TDA, large scale shear testing was conducted. The shear resistance of the TDA was found to be
approximately c = 0, phi= 30.

Experimental Setup
A section of reduced-scale MSE wall was built in a 1.5 m x1.87 m x 1.8 m rigid steel box that was
anchored on a 2.4 m x2.1 m one-dimensional shake table. The load capacity of the shake table is
27

177.9 kN, the actuator provides 245 kN of hydraulic driving force, and the maximum travel
distance of the table is 12.7 cm. The shake table is capable of replicating recorded historical
earthquake motions that are within the tables allowable displacement range. Figure 18 is a photo
of the shake table and the box with a retaining wall built shows the completed model MSE wall
with TDA backfill (Matthew Oman 2013).
The model MSE walls configuration is shown in Figure 2.The wall was 1.5 m high, 1.2 m deep, and
1.5 m long. Fivewrap-around layers of reinforced TDA were used. Uniaxialgeogrid was used for both
reinforcement and containment ofthe TDA.

Figure 18. Configuration and instrumentation of MSE wall

beneath the first layer of the TDA, a 10 cm sand layer wascompacted to simulate the friction of the
base soil. It is noted that in each of the wrap-around layer, the top geogrid sheet is only half of the
length of the bottom geogrid sheet for that layer, since the top wrap-around sheet was not intended
to serve as a reinforcement layer. The TDA were compacted using a 15 kg hand hammer with a long
handle and 30 cm x30 cm steel base to reach the target density of 721 kg/m3. A concrete slab was
placed at the top of the wall and anchored to the top layer with ten steel rebar, so that the slab did
not move freely during the shaking. The concrete slab simulated a surcharge of3.4 kN/m2.

Transparent Plexiglas sheets were used at the interface between the TDA wall and the sides of the
box to minimize the friction between the TDA and the boundaries.

Figure 2 also depicts the instrumentations used in the modeltest. Three linear potentiometers were
used to measure the horizontal deflections of the wall face at the bottom, middle, and top layers.
The potentiometers were fixed to an inertial frame outside of the shake table, and an inelastic
wireconnected each potentiometer to the geogrid at the threedesignated levels. The fourth
potentiometer was connected to the shake table in order to measure the actual seismic motions
generated by the actuator. The potentiometers were spring- loaded, but the spring force was
significantly smaller than the seismic force and therefore did not affect the responses of the walls.
The vertical settlements of the MSE wall during the shaking were measured by LVDT transducers
that were anchored on the shake table above the concrete slab. The transient vertical
28

effective stresses in the backfill were measured using dynamic soil pressure cells, which were
placed flat at the bottom of layers 1, 3, 4, and 5. Wire-free accelerometers were embedded in
each of the five layers and were close to the wall face in order to measure the acceleration
responses of the backfill. One accelerometer was attached to the shake table and one to the box to
measure their acceleration responses as well. A delayed start timer was set in each
accelerometer, and the data recording (100 data per second) predetermined time when the shake
table test wasscheduled to run.
In order to simulate the natural retained soil on the back ofand beneath the MSE wall, spring-loaded
boards were installed at the back-side and the bottom of the box. The springs were so
mic stiffness of dense sand,following the approach suggested by Gazetas (1991).

Conclusion and limitation of this research:

This paper presents a preliminary experimental research on theseismic responses of a reduced-scale
geogrid-reinforced retaining wall with TDA backfill under the simulated Loma Prieta earthquake
excitations. The research used a shake table to produce the scaled earthquake motions. Overall the
wall with TDA backfill performed well with no apparent damage. The maximum horizontal deflection
of the wall face occurred at the top of the wall and was 7 cm, or 4.7% of the wall height. Due to the
difficulty in achieving higher density, the TDA had a small settlement (approximately 2 cm) in the
first 10-15seconds, or 1.3% of the wall height.

experimental study has several limitations.

(1) Thegeogrids tensile strength was not scaled, this could result in an over-reinforced wall.
(2) The reinforcement was based on static design. Seismic design using the methodologies presented
by National Concrete Masonry Association (NCMA 2010) may change the internal configuration of
the MSE wall and consequently the seismic behaviour.
(3) The scaling law used in the model test should be improved to consider the scaling of the TDA-
geogrid composite material properties.
(4) External (global) stability, such as deep-seated rotational failure that can be caused by
earthquakes, cannot be simulated in this test due to the shallow soil depth.
Because of these limitations, extrapolation of the model results to the field is premature at this
stage. This research work is continued to address the limitations in (1), (2), and (3).
Furthermore, numerical model using Plaxis is being developed to simulate the laboratory conditions
(including the boundary conditions, material properties, and seismic excitations). Using the same
conditions, the numerical modelcan be calibrated using the model test results; then the
numerical model can be used to predict the seismic performance of this type of retaining
walls in the field.

Liquefaction strength of fly ash reinforced with randomly distributed fibers

A study on the improvement of liquefaction strength of fly ash by reinforcing with randomly
distributed geosyntheticfiber/mesh elements is reported. A series of stress controlled cyclic triaxial
tests were carried out on fly ash samples reinforced with randomlydistributed fiber and mesh
elements. The liquefaction resistance of reinforced fly ash is defined in-terms of pore pressure ratio.
29

The effects of parameters such as fiber content, fiber aspect ratio, confining pressure, cyclic stress
ratio, on liquefaction resistance of fly ash have been studied. Test results indicate that the addition
of fiber/mesh elements increases the liquefaction strength of fly ash significantly and arrests the
initiation of liquefaction even in samples of loose initial condition and consolidated with the low
confining pressure.
The use of fly ash as alternative material to natural soilsfor construction of fills and for filling low
lying areas couldsolve the problem of disposal of fly ash to a great extent. Toth et al. studied the use
of fly ash as a structural fill and found that the physical behaviour of fly ash is similar to that of silt
and the structural fill made with fly ash could perform better than the fill constructed with natural
materials. Leonards and Balleysuccessfully used the untreated pulverized coal ash, with more
cementing qualities as a material for structural fill to support the foundation of a new precipitator
for a power generating station in Indianapolis, USA. Sridharan et al. investigated the geotechnical
characterization of various ash ponds in India and reported that pond ashes, in general possess low
unit weight, good frictional properties, low compressibility and low permeability and they are well
suited for their use as a structuralfill (Matthew Oman 2013).

Liquefaction behaviour of sands has been extensivelystudied and is currently a phenomenon
that can bereasonably predictable. Perlea et al. reported that many silt and clay deposits with low
plasticity index such as tailing materials have also been found vulnerable toliquefaction. Since fly
ash predominantly consists of non-plastic silt size particles of relatively low permeability than sand,
it is prone to liquefaction during earthquakes. Therefore, it is essential to improve liquefaction
strength of fly ash by an appropriate ground improvement technique. Gandhi and Dey studied the
improvement of fly ash by blasting techniques and found that fly ash is densified to great extent in
deeper depths. However, for shallow depths,the blasting technique may not be suitable.

Soil reinforcement technique with randomly distributedfibers is used in a variety of applications like,
retainingstructures, embankments, subgrade stabilization etc. Random fiber reinforcement is a
variant of admixture stabilization in which, discrete fibers are added and mixed with the soil in the
same manner as cement, lime or other. Many studies have been conducted relating to the behaviour
of soil reinforced with randomly distributed fibers under static loading conditions. Various types of
randomly distributed elements, such as polymeric mesh elements , metallic fibers, synthetic fibers
and discontinuous multi- oriented polypropylene elements had been used to reinforce soils. It was
shown that the addition of randomly distributed elements to soils contributes to the increase
instrength and stiffness. (Robinson and Sharon 2000)
However, the studies on behaviour of soils reinforced withrandomly distributed elements under
cyclic loading are verylimited in the literature. Vercueil et al.(2009) found the liquefaction
resistance of saturated sand reinforced withcircular sheet geosynthetics and concluded that
thereinforcement increases the liquefaction resistance significantly due to reduction in the
interstitial pressure distri- bution. In this paper, the study on effectiveness of randomly distributed
geosyntheticfiber and mesh elements inimproving liquefaction strength of fly ash is reported.
Fly ash
The fly ash collected from North Madras Thermal PowerStation, Chennai, India is used for testing.
The fly ashconsists predominantly (about 82%) of silt size particles. Laboratory experiments were
carried out on the fly ash to find out the index properties of fly ash and the resultingproperties of
the fly ash are given in Table 1.
30


Reinforcement
Two forms of reinforcement namely; fiber and meshwere used for reinforcing fly ash samples. The
fiber and mesh elements are made from commercially available non- woven polypropylene geogrid
sheets. The sheets were cut into the specified length and width to get the required aspect ratio (AR).
The physical properties of geogrid used are shown in Table 2. A typical view of fiber and mesh
elementsused in the present study is shown in Fig.18.


Fig. 19. Details of reinforcement used.
Liquefaction strength of unreinforced fly ash

In general, from the laboratory cyclic tests, the liquefaction state of the soil is identified either by
considering thepoint when the pore pressure ratio (u/s3) becomes unity, i.e. when the pore pressure
(u ) equals the confining pressure (s3) or when the peak to peak value of dynamic axial strain
exceeds a certain limit, say 10% . In the present study, the liquefaction is defined as the state when
porepressure ratio becomes unity. The liquefaction resistance ofan element of reinforced fly ash
depends on how close the initial state of fly ash is to the state corresponding to liquefaction failure
and it is expressed in terms of pore pressure ratio.Typical variation of applied cyclic deviatric stress
and the corresponding variation of pore pressure ratio and induced strain with number of stress
cycles for unreinforced fly ash with relative density of 70% are shown in Fig. 19. (Matthew Oman
2013).
It is observed that during first few cycles, pore pressure increases rapidly and thereafter (i.e. beyond
stress cycles of about 25 numbers) the rate of increase in pore pressure per stress cycle is
appreciably low until the state of liquefaction is reached. This behaviour is just opposite to the
behaviour of sand where a gradual build-up of pore pressure is immediately followed by a rapid
increase, near the condition of liquefaction. It is mainly due to the uniform particle size of fly ash,
which permits rapid propagation of pore water pressure through the sample. Fig. 19 also shows the
response of fly ash under post-cyclic monotonic loading. It is noticed from Fig. 19 that decrease of
pore pressure with an increase of axial strain indicating dilative response under post-cyclic
monotonic loading as reported by Vaidand Thomas for water deposited Fraser River sand. The
typical plot of effect of relative density on the pore pressure ratio variation with number of stress
31

cycles is shown in Fig.3. It can be observed that the pore pressure ratio causing liquefaction
decreases withthe increase in the magnitude of relative density at aparticular confining pressure.

Fig. 20. Variation of (a) cyclic deviatric stress, (b) pore pressure ratio and (c), axial strain with number
of stress cycles.

Fig. 21. Effect of relative density on liquefaction resistance of unreinforced fly ash 3c = 60 kN/m2

At all the relative densities, theresistance of fly ash to liquefaction increases with increase
32

in confining stress. However, resistance to liquefaction appears to be nearly same for all confining
stress levels when fly ash is subjected to very low magnitudes of cyclic load indicating that fly ash
liquefies within a very closerange of stress cycles.(Edil and Bosscher 1992).

Reinforcedfly ash samples with mesh content 2% and above are notgetting liquefied even at higher
number of stress cycles. However, the least value of pore pressure ratio, i.e. higher liquefaction
resistance is observed at mesh content of 2%. Experiments carried outon fiber reinforced fly ash
samples reveal that higher liquefaction resistance is attained at fiber content of 2%. At higher
mesh/fiber content, the homogeneity of the sample will not be same because of the segregation
between fly ash particles and reinforcement. As a result, there will be local deformations and,
failure will happen due to rise of excesspore water pressure leading to liquefaction or due
toexcessive axial strain.
The effect of AR on liquefaction resistance of fly ash reinforced with distributed mesh elements is
shown . The fly ash samples reinforced by mesh elements with AR of 10 and 20 are not getting
liquefied. However, mesh reinforced fly ash with AR of 10 resulted in lower pore pressure ratio, i.e.
higher liquefaction resistance than for reinforced samples with AR 20. At higher AR the mesh
elements may not remain straight and thus the effective length of mesh element available to
mobilizeshear strength is getting reduced. This is similar to thebehaviour, for fiber-reinforced sand
under static conditionsreported.(Lee 2010).

We also compare the behaviour of fly ash samples bothreinforced and unreinforced for different
ranges of confiningpressure. From the figure, it is observed that unreinforced fly ash at low confining
pressures liquefies at less number of stress cycles. But the number of stress cycles causing
liquefaction, NL increases with increasing in confining pressure. that higher rate of gain in
liquefaction resistance of fly ash is indicated at lower confining pressure. Since fly ash is of
low unit weight and the low effective confining pressure of 40 kPa corresponds to 7 8 m below
ground level in practice, it can be concluded that providing mesh reinforcements can significantly
increase liquefactionresistance of fly ash.

The comparison of liquefaction behaviour of mesh-reinforced fly ash with fiber-reinforced fly ash
at optimummesh/fiber content of 2% is shown. In this case the AR for mesh elements is 10 and for
fiber elements is 20. Fig. 10 clearly indicates the superiority of mesh elements over fiber elements
for improving liquefaction resistance of fly ash. It is due to the fact that the mesh inclusions provide
better interlocking property of the fly ash material, and the same time it also provides easy
dissipation of pore pressurealong the sample length. (Rao and Dutta 2006)
33


Fig. 22.(Cabalar 2011)

Conclusion:

From the detailed experimental study carried out onreinforced fly ash to investigate the
liquefaction resistance,the following conclusions are drawn.There is sudden build up of pore
pressure with cyclicstress applications initially and this behaviour is just oppositeto the behaviour of
sand. This behaviour is due to the uniform particle size of fly ash, which permits rapid propagation of
pore water pressure through the sample. There is sudden increase in axial strain within the first ten
stress cycles for fly ash samples at all relative densities.It is concluded that at low confining
pressures, randomly distributed geosynthetic fiber/mesh reinforce- ment provides higher rate of
gain in liquefaction resistance of fly ash. Addition of randomly distributed mesh and fiber elements
increases significantly the liquefaction resistance of fly ash at low relative densities.
The maximum value of pore pressure ratio is about 50% less when compared to unreinforced
samples. Randomly distributed mesh elements better arrest liquefaction when compared with
randomly distributed fiber elements. It is because the mesh elements provide better interlocking
property of the fly ash material and also provide easy dissipation of pore pressure along the sample
length. Optimum percentage of fiber/mesh content is found to be 2% against liquefaction.

The gain in liquefaction resistance of fly ash due to mesh/fiber reinforcements is more pronounced
at lower confining pressures and hence reinforcing fly ash with mesh/fiber elements is a better
choice among available ground improvement techniques to improve liquefactionresistance of fly
ash(Thenmozhi and Stalin 2010).
An in-house computer program has been developd using nite element method to model the time-
domaindynamic response of a two-dimensional soilfoundationstructure system
34


Fig. 23(Thenmozhi and Stalin 2010)

The superstructure is modeled by an assembly of two-dimensional frame elements. The element
massmatrix is derived as a lumped-mass matrix. A linear model has been adopted for the dynamic
analysis of the building structures. The governing dynamic equations are solved on the basis of
Newmark method. For foundation (either raft footing or piling system) and subsoil materials, four-
node quadrilateral plane-strain elements are used in the modeling. The element mass matrix is also
derived as a lumped-mass matrix. The element damping matrix is constructed using Rayleigh
method, in which frequency-independent material damping ratio is considered.

As the rst mode of vibration dominates the dynamic response of low-to-medium-rise buildings
(i.e., the subject of this study), the damping effects should be minimized at the fundamental
frequency of the entire soilstructure system. Special treatment has been made for nodes located at
the soilstructure interface (annotated in Figure 2). A node in a two-dimensional frame element has
three DOFs, whereas a node in a plane- strain element has two DOFs. In the model, displacement
compatibility has been ensured at the interface nodes, where the rotational DOF is free, and the two
transformational DOFs as in frameelement are coupled with those in the four node quadrilateral
element. Meanwhile, full contactbetween soil (or RSM) and piles is assumed.

35


Fig. 24(Thenmozhi and Stalin 2010)

In order to simulate the non-reective effects of the innite soil transmitting half-space, the
model ofviscous boundaries has been assumed as the boundary (transmitting base) of the
computationaldomain.
Six performance indicators have been chosen for comparing and evaluating the effectiveness of the
GSIRSM system. As most severe damages are caused by strong ground shaking produced by near-
eld earthquakes that are rich in high-frequency seismic wave components, horizontal acceleration
response time histories have been collected at the mid-point of the roof of the building (referred to
as the roof horizontal acceleration) and at the mid-point at the base of the footing (or the pile cap;
referred to as the footing horizontal acceleration). The mid-point of the roof has been chosen
because it typically represents the maximum horizontal acceleration response of the structure.

The second location has been chosen because it is commonly considered as the location where
earthquake input ground motion is applied in an ordinary structural analysis. Owing to the fact that
soft-story mechanism is the major cause of collapse of many buildings in earthquakes, rst-oor
inter-story drift has been chosen as the third parameter. The peak and root-mean-square
(abbreviated as RMS) values of the three parameters have been computed and shown by
Hazarika(2008) hence, altogether, six parameters havebeen selected as the performance indicators.

CONCLUSIONS

This paper presented a potential GSI system by placing RSM around foundations (raft footing or
pile cap) of low-to-medium-rise buildings for reducing seismic demand and exerting a function
similar to that of a cushion. The use of scrap tires as the rubber material can provide an alternative
way of consuming huge stockpiles of scrap tires from all over the world. Moreover, the possibly low-
cost feature of this proposed method could greatly benet impoverished regions where resources
and technology are not adequate for earthquake mitigation with well-developed, yet expensive,
techniques..(Cabalar 2011)

36

(Thenmozhi and Stalin 2010)
Figure 25: The correlation between the average percentage (%) reduction in the root-mean-square
values of the three response parameters and the ratio of the fundamental natural periods between
the model with rubbersoil mixtures and that with pure sand (i.e., period lengthening ratio).

A brief review of the latest research progress made on the development of the GSIRSM
system has been presented, which is followed by an overview of the variety of GSI systems that
have ever been proposed. An in-house computer program has been developed for the dynamic
analysis of the soilfoundationstructure system involved in the GSIRSM system. It is a time-
domain, two-dimensional nite element program that can efciently model the dynamic response of
soilfoundationstructure system. In the program, superstructure is modelled by an assembly of
two-dimensional frame elements, and foundation and subsoil are modelled by four-node
quadrilateral plane-strain elements.
The effectiveness of the proposed GSIRSM system has been shown by a preliminary parametric
study using three recorded earthquake ground motions. Six performance indicators, including the
peak and RMS values of horizontal acceleration at the roof and the foundation as well as the rst-
oor inter-story drift, have been evaluated. On average, 4060% response reduction could be
achieved, and the results have been found to be the most sensitive to variations in the thickness of
the RSM layer. Finally, the correlation between the period lengthening ratio and the reduction
effectiveness has been briey explored.

Tire Shreds Used In Construction
Introduction

Based on its material properties and resultant characteristics some of the applications as a
geotechnical material have been discussed.

Lightweight fill
Lightweight fills are used to reduce stress on the underlying soil in order to reduce consolidation
settlements or to increase global stability of constructions by reducing load. The low bulk density of
tyre shreds, compared to soil materials, makes the material suitable as lightweight fill material. The
high porosity and drainage capability limits the presence of water in the fill and the low maximum
water content in individual tyre shreds preserves the low bulk density over time. (Lee 2010).

37

In large fills the fire risks should be considered. ASTM (1998) recommends maximum fill height of
tyre shred fills to 3 m. In a large noise barrier fill, NPRA (2004), 1 m thick vertical clay layers every 70-
80 m have been used as fire barriers in order to reduce the risk of horizontal fire spreading in the
fills.

Thermal insulation
Frost penetration combined with accessibility of water causes frost heave in especially fine grained
soils. Thawing and corresponding bearing capacity loss due to low draining capacity in the partly
frozen soils is also common. Thermal insulation materials are used to reduce frost penetration. The
low thermal conductivity in tyre shreds makes the material suitable for thermal insulation material.
Combined with the high permeability the material could decrease the frost heave by acting as
capillarity breaking layer and increase bearing capacity at thawing by draining of excessive
water.(Feng and Sutter (2000).
The low specific heat capacity of the tyre shreds in combination with the low water content, result in
low freezing resistance. Thus the layer of tyre shred itself is at freezing condition, i.e. < 0
o
C, even at
low freezing index, but effectively insulates the layer below. The insulation effect is acting on the
underlying soil and reduces the heat transfer. A frost susceptible soil is fine grained, it is
recommended to use geo textiles to reduce the migration of the fine grained soil into the tyre shred
layer. This will preserve the thermal insulation properties and drainage capability of the material.

In road constructions the resulting strain in the pavement is a limitation factor. The tyre shreds does
not a high bearing capacity in frozen conditions like geological materials have. Using tyre shreds as
thermal insulation layer will result in lower bearing capacity of the road during the frozen period
compared to when granular soils are used. Tyre shred does not undergo the stiffness increase when
pore water freezes to ice. Another effect which was notified was that the deflection of the road
surface prevented an ice cover to be formed which was the case on the rest of the road. The high
permeability of the tyre material will mitigate the bearing capacity loss due to excess water during
thaw. This effect is not quantified. In order to have a road structure stiff enough the (ASTM 1998)
recommendation is at least 900 mm of superstructure material above the tyre shred layer. Thermal
insulation has also been studied by Humphrey and Eaton (1995), Lawrence et al. (1999) among
others.

Drainage layer
In landfill construction, drainage layers are used in the bottom construction and in the top cover to
protect the sealing layers to have water pressures being built up. The bottom drainage layer is a part
of the leach-ate collection system used for transportation of leach-ate for treatment or release.
Normally a gas drainage system is installed in landfills. The gas drainage system collects landfill gas.
The gas has a high greenhouse effect potential due the high content of methane and it also increases
the risk for landfill fires. In figure 6.3 the different drainage systems in a landfill are illustrated.
The high permeability makes tyre shreds interesting to use as drainage material. In addition, the
durability, resistance against chemicals, low bulk density and thermal insulation properties can be
utilised in addition to the drainage capability.
There are several studies of utilising tyre shreds as drainage material. Main focus has been on the
use of tyre shreds as bottom drainage layer, since it includes most of the design issues. The
suitability of tyre shreds used as bottom drainage layer has been investigated in several studies,
38

Reddy and Saichek (1998a), Warith et al. (1997). Tyre shreds have high permeability even at high
vertical stress. At a vertical stress of 1 GPa and 65 % compression the permeability was
approximately 10-4 m/s. Reddy et al. (2005) shows that tyre shreds resists clogging even at high
intrusion of fine soil material. The resistance against leach ate degradation has been tested on
different lactates, e.g. acidic, and has proven to be persistent. Despite the high compressibility of
tyre shreds the permeability is still high. The compressibility must be considered to maintain enough
thickness of the drainage layer in a long term perspective. To preserve the permeability, geotextile
material should be used to protect the tyre shreds from clogging. Stability and mobilised shear
strength in the tyre shred layer and in the tyre shred/geotextile interface in a long term perspective
must be considered. In studies, e.g. Cosgrove (1995), it has been concluded that a shear plane in
between the tyre shred/geotextile interface is the limiting factor.

Cosgrove (1995) recommends maximum slope angles between 10-16
o
for smooth surfaced
geotextiles and textured surfaced geotextiles 21-28
o
in order to achieve a safety factor of to 1.3 and
1.5 respectively. Tyre shreds cannot be placed directly on geosynthetic liners for the risk of
puncturing. A protective layer of 100-200 mm of e.g. sand is recommended by several authors, e.g.
Duffy (1996), and Reddy and Saichek (1998a). An important design factor of the top cover
constructions in cold regions is frost penetration. Freezing may affect the sealing layer negatively. By
combining the utilisation of tyre shreds as drainage material with thermal insulation a lighter top
cover may be used which is beneficial for the top sealing layer. It will thus reduce the total
settlements. This shown in the figure where a construction using tyre shreds as thermal insulation
layer is compared with a conventional construction.(Lee 2010).

Backfill material
Tyre shreds reduce earth pressure on constructions when used as backfill material, Tweedie et al.
(1998) and Humphrey et al. (1997b). The use as backfill material is both technical and economical
motivated, Cosgrove (1996). In addition to low earth pressure the material will serve as drainage
layer and as thermal insulation.

Seismic Stability
Distributed seismic isolation system

A new method of utilizing scrap tires for earthquake protection involving mixing scrap tires with soil
sediments and placing the mixtures around civil engineering structures, for absorbing vibration
energy and exerting a function similar to that of a cushion was developed. The validity of the
method has been demonstrated by numerical simulations in order to show its effectiveness and
robustness. Two new types of geotechnical seismic isolation systems analogous to the conventional
structural seismic isolation systems using spherical sliding bearings and laminated rubber bearings
which decouple the building or structure from ground motions by interposing elements or materials
of low stiffness in between were introduced. A distributed seismic isolation system, which involves
isolating the entire contact surface of the foundation structure in contrast with conventional
systems which are based on isolation of certain discrete supporting points was effectively analysed
through FEM.(ASTM 1998)


39


Underwater Caisson
A series of large-scale underwater shaking table tests when performed on a gravity type model led
to effective protection technique using tire chips and scrap tire derived recycled products. These
tests concluded that, if the pore-water pressure build-up is used as a basis for defining the onset of
liquefaction, the question of liquefaction does not arise at all at these locations for backfill with the
tire chips cushion. When subject to an acceleration of 1.5 times that of the Kobe Earthquake,
settlement in the conventional sandy backfill was of the order 3.162m whereas the structure
reinforced with cushion did not undergo appreciable differential settlement. The reduction in the
earth pressure at common peak ground acceleration was 75, 25, and 66% at the top, middle, and the
bottom of the caisson, respectively. This implied that the seismic performance of the caisson
improves with the use of the sandwiched cushion.(Hazarika et al.2008)

Resistance to Liquefaction
Since porosity of rubber shreds is much higher compared to soil, they inhibit capillarity. This
prevents sudden rise in excess pore water pressure therby reducing chances of liquefaction during
earthquakes considerably.
Researchers have also qualitatively established that introduction of tire rubber shreds or granulated
particles counteract development of excess pore water pressure under seismic loads hence can
prevent liquefaction.

Limitations in use
Despite all the desirable characteristics of tire rubber , there are limitations which restrict its use in
geotechnical applications. These have been summarised below.

Creep Deformations
The technical limitations of use of tyre shreds are related to the high compressibility and
deformation properties. The high compressibility and creep deformation limits the use in foundation
engineering design. (Thenmozhi and Stalin 2010)

Large Deformations before failure
Differential and long term settlements can cause concrete structures built upon tyre shreds to
damage. Shear stress causes large deformations before failure in tyre shreds compared to that in
granular soils.

Relatively Thick Super Structure
In road constructions tyre shreds requires a relatively thick superstructure to achieve required
bearing capacity. Also due to presence of steel cords there is a chance of rupturing of any geo
membranes used. However when used as a rubber soil mixture this disadvantage is mitigated
considerably.(Anderson and Stokoe 1978).

Self-Ignition Probability
Tyre shreds have an ignition temperature of about 350 C. Spontaneous fires have been registered in
large and thick tyre shred fills. The reason for self ignition is not completely understood, but heat
generation by oxidation of free steel cord by microorganisms, presence of organic soils in
40

combination with the low heat transportation out of the fills are suspected to be main factors. In the
ASTM standard D 62070-98, ASTM (1998), the use is limited to 3 m thick fills of tyre shreds. It is
however pointed out that no fills below 4 m thickness has been observed to self ignite. Fire
assessments for tyre shred processing recommends temporary fills to be maximum 4 m, Hansson
(2003).

Environmentally Hazardous Compounds
Since tyre shreds contains potential hazardous compounds, e.g. PAH and anti-degradants, some
prevention acts is appropriate. Even if only low concentration of target compounds, except for iron
and zinc is found in the leach-ate the use of tyre shred should be aimed to limit the potential
leaching. From an environmental point of view tyre shreds should be placed above the ground or
surface water table combined with good drainage conditions. From a leaching point of view neutral
pH is ideally considering both element and organic compound leaching.(Edil TB, 2002)

Leaching properties
Among the metals it is primarily iron and zinc that is of concern due to the high concentrations
found in the leaching studies. Iron hydroxides could be an aesthetic problem if precipitated outside a
construction and will affect the release of other charged ions which may be accumulated absorbed
on iron hydroxides or released if the hydroxides are dissolved. For zinc to be toxic high
concentrations are needed. If the recipient is sensitive to additional zinc sources the use of tyre
shreds from large constructions to small recipients should be considered. In most cases the zinc
release are acceptable in terms of ecological effect levels in a potential recipient. Aerobic conditions
in the recipient should be sufficient to biodegrade the obtained phenol concentrations in the leach
ate.(Anderson and Stokoe 1978).

Thermal insulation properties
The increase in thermal conductivity caused by moisture (wetted tyre shreds under free draining
conditions) was at average 6 %. Frozen samples have about 10 % higher thermal conductivity
compared to not frozen. The water content, stress and tyre shred size have a minor influence on the
thermal conductivity. The low influence of water content is due to the high draining capacity.

Compaction properties
Compaction increases the density, stiffness and reduces the compressibility of tyre shreds. It has
been concluded that the increased stress, and thus the compression and density, increases the shear
strength. Thus compaction also has an increasing effect on the shear strength. Most of the effect
on bulk density is achieved at low compaction energy (SP). High compaction work (MP) results in
slightly higher density compared to low compaction work (SP).
41




Fig. 26 Effect on density of compaction energy level on tyre shred for Loose Fill (LF), Standard
Proctor (SP) and Modified Proctor (MP).


Non-vibratory compaction methods, such as Proctor compaction, are more appropriate for
compacting tyre shreds than vibratory though the difference in achieved density increase is small,
Ahmed and Lovell (1993). Water content has low effect on the compaction result in Proctor tests
and is from an engineering point of view insignificant, . The effect of tyre shred size on bulk density
in compaction tests is lower compared to used compaction energy, . The optimum size of the tested
tyre shreds for obtaining maximum density is 75 mm. To sum up major factors affecting the
compaction properties are tyre shred size and compaction energy. Minor factor is water content.
There are no significant difference in increase of bulk density of a tyre shred fill by static (Proctor) or
vibratory compaction.(ASTM 1998)

Static liquefaction behaviour of saturated ber-reinforced sand

The problem of static liquefaction of sand is nowadays a classical soil mechanics subject. Using a
ring-shear apparatus, we explore the possibility of ber reinforcement as a new method to improve
the liquefaction resistance of sand. In order to understand the effect of the ber content and sand
density on the static liquefaction behaviour of ber-reinforced sand, a series of undrained ring-shear
tests were carried out on saturated samples with different ber content and sand density, and the
test results and mechanisms of ber reinforcement were then analyzed. The results indicate that the
undrained shear behaviour of ber-reinforced loose samples is not greatly inuenced by the
presence of ber, but for medium dense and dense samples, the presence of ber clearly affects
their undrained behaviour. Untreated specimens showed a continuous decrease in shear resistance
after failure, while the specimens treated with ber showed uctuations even after shear failure,
and these uctuations become stronger with increasing ber content. The peak shear strength
increases with the ber content, especially in dense specimens. After shearing, all the ber-
reinforced and untreated dense samples maintained structural stability, while the unreinforced
loose samples showed a completely collapse of structure. The presence of bers may thus limit or
even prevent the occurrence of lateral spreading that is oftenobserved in unreinforced sand.
42

Unreinforced and ber-reinforced samples were prepared using a moist tamping technique. This
technique is commonly used in laboratory studies of ber-reinforced sand and allows the control of
sample density while preventing the segregation of bers..(Cabalar 2011)

The maximum dry density of samplesdecreases with increasing ber content Pf, and samples
with a higher ber content require more compaction for a given drydensity. In order to maintain
uniform dry densities, lower drydensity/higher void ratios were used in this test. A maximum value
of ber content is required to keep dry sand density and sample volume unchanged for a given void
ratio, and this value increases with increasing void ratio. Three different initial void ratios after
consolidation and four different percentages of ber- 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8% e were chosen for this
investigation. A moisture content of 10% was used for the mixing process of all the test specimens.
The details of the void ratios at the end of vertical consolidation, dry sand density, density grade,
and ber contents of mixturein the preparation of all samples, the required water was rst added
into the dry sand, and then the proposed content of bers was mixed in small increments by hand to
obtain a uniform mixture. It is important to ensure that all bers are mixed thoroughly. After that,
the mixtures were divided into four equal parts, and each part was put into the shear box and
compacted. Samples for this study with a height of 8 cm were prepared in four layers of equal height
to achieve the proposed densities. The sample wasdirectly formed in the testing apparatus.
Experimental results:
In order to discuss the results of the ring-shear tests on thesaturated ber-reinforced sand, the
samples have been divided into three groups (loose, medium dense and dense states), according to
their undrained shear behaviour. (Robinson and Sharon 2000)
Loose samples
The normal stress, pore pressure and shear resistance against shear displacement for loose
specimens with different ber contents are presented and the effective stress paths are
presented. the trends of change in pore pressure and shear resistance are fairly similar for unrein-
forced and reinforced samples with ber contents of 0.2%, 0.4% and 0.6%. In the initial shearing
period, the shear resistance showed a sharp increase to peak shear strength and then underwent a
quick reduction, subsequently decreasing slowly until it reached a steady state. The pore pressure
built up quickly and then increased grad- ually until it reached a steady state accompanying further
shearing. Compared with the above results, the curves for 0.8% ber-rein- forced samples show a
different trend after the peak value, i.e., the pore pressure and shear resistance uctuate. the
effective stress paths of the unreinforced and reinforced specimens show similar trends. Soon after
the start of shearing, with increasing shear stress, the stress path moved leftwards until it reached a
nal steady state point (Lee 2010).
The unreinforced sample clearly shows a completely collapsed structure ,while the reinforced
sample still maintains structural stability even after removal of the upper ring. It seems that the
presence of bers can limit or even prevent the lateral spreading of the soil which is one of the
consequences of liquefaction. This phenomenon in triaxial undrained tests on saturated sand was
alsopresented.(ASTM 1998)



43

Discussion

The distributed bers might act as a spatial three-dimensional network to interlock soil grains,
helping the grains to form a unitary coherent matrix and restricting the displacement. Several
researchers reported that the ber surface roughness strongly affected the ber sliding resistance As
the ber was mixed or samples were compacted, the hard sand particles impacted and abraded the
ber surface, resulting in plastic deformation and even removal of part of the surface layer. It is
speculated that pits and grooves that formed on the ber surface constituted an interlock and
improved the interactions between the ber surface and the sand matrix. These interfacial
mechanical interactions between the ber and sand are greatly dependent on the sand dry density
and ber content. Loose sand corresponds to a higher void ratio and larger pore diameters. It is
speculated that when the sample wassaturated, some of ber was separated from the sand
particles. After the sample shearing, the ber can move easily and has no effect on the static
liquefaction behaviour of the saturated speci- mens. Furthermore, the ber occupies only a part of
the volume of sample pores in low density samples, so the low ber content hardly changes the
shearing behaviour of the saturated sand. But the presence of ber still improves the structural
stability and prevents the lateral spreading of sand due to static liquefaction.
An increase of sand density gives rise to a more effective inter- facial contact area between the ber
and the sand matrix. In the process of preparing samples, more compaction should be applied to
obtain a high density, and this will result in a larger contact forceand interlock between adjacent
sand particles and a greater plasticdeformation and roughness of the ber surfaces. Meanwhile, the
interlock effect increases with the content of ber. So the peak shear strength of samples increased
with the ber content. During ring shearing, the interfacial friction strongly depends on the
resistance of sand particles to rearrangement and rotation. Nor- mally, if sand particles are less likely
to be rearranged during shearing or are more interlocked, this leads to a higher interfacial resistance
to shear and if the resistance offered by mechanical interlocking between the particles and ber
surface is larger than that between adjacent sand particles, it will result in sand particle rotation. It is
speculated that the ber is re-oriented gradually due to the sand rearrange- ment and rotation in
the shearing process, and this ber orientation in a shear zone might lead to the volume expanding,
the pore pressure decreasing and the shear resistance increasing. These orientations increase with
the ber content. So the uctuation in shear resistance occurred more frequently when the ber
contentincreased in medium and dense samples in this study.(Thenmozhi and Stalin 2010)
Conclusions
A series of ring-shear tests were performed to study the staticliquefaction behaviour of sand
reinforced with short polypropylenefiber. The effects of the fiber content and sand density on the
staticliquefaction behaviour of the fiber-reinforced sand were investigated.The main conclusions
from the present study can besummarized as follows:
(1) The ring-shear test provides an efficient analysis tool forevaluating the static liquefaction
behaviour of fiber-reinforcedsand. The ring-shear apparatus used in this study can measurethe
entire process of undrained shear even after sample failureand check the shear behaviour at large
shear displacements.
44

(2) The undrained shear behaviour of ber-reinforced loose sand is not signicantly inuenced by
the presence of ber, but the unreinforced samples after shearing clearly show a completely
collapsed structure, while the reinforced samples still maintain structural stability even after the
removal of the upper ring. It seems that the presence of bers can limit or even prevent the
occurrence of the lateral spreading of sand as normallyobserved for unreinforced sand.
(3) The presence of bers clearly affects the undrained behaviour of medium dense and dense
samples. The results show that the test on sand showed a continued decrease in shear resistance
after failure, while those treated with ber showed uctuations even after shear failure. This
uctuation becomes stronger with increasing ber content. All the medium dense and dense
reinforced samples maintained structural stability after shearing, while the unreinforced medium
dense sample showed a partly collapsed structure and the dense sample showed structural stability.
It seem that densication and ber reinforcement both can limit or even prevent the occurrence of
lateral spreading of the soil due to static liquefaction.(Edil TB, 2002)

(4) The failure shear strength and peak shear strength increases with the ber content, especially for
medium dense and dense samples. And they also increase with increasing dry sand density for the
same ber content. The presence of ber has negligible effects on the residual shear strength of
specimenswith different densities.
(5) The results of this investigation indicated that berreinforcement is useful for improving the
static liquefaction resistance of sand, and the sand density and ber content must be considered in
practical applications. Further study will beperformed to examine the cyclic shear behaviour.

Experimental investigation:
Materials tested
A relatively uniformly graded sand is used in this study. The sand is classified as SW by Unified Soil
Classification System (USCS). The particle size distribution of the sand is shown in Fig. 2. Engineering
properties of the soil are listed in Table 1. For better performance tire shreds are cut from waste
tires with approximately the same size and thickness. Tires are cut with a special cutter by hand into
rectangular shape and different sizes (see Fig. 3). As much as 170 tires are used for the tests. Soil is
mixed with different tire shred contents and size. The shred contents in this study are 10%, 20%,
30%, 40% and 50% by volume. The shreds widths are 2 and 3 cm with aspect ratio of 2, 3, 4 and 5.
Physical properties of the tire shreds are presented in Table 2..(Cabalar 2011)








45

Fig. 2. Grain size distribution curve for sand.[HATAF AND RAHIMI 2005]






Fig. 27. Typical tire shreds used in this study.[HATAF AND RAHIMI 2005]




Fig. 28


Table 1[HATAF AND RAHIMI 2005]
Engineering properties of soil used in the study





46

Table 2[HATAF AND RAHIMI 2005]
Physical properties of tire shreds


2. Footing and testing apparatus
Model footing was made of steel with a cylindrical shape 15-cm diameter and 7 cm thickness. A
cylindrical tank with 1.0 m diameter and 1.0 m height was built. Testing tank was made from steel
plate, 4 mm of thickness, to accommodate the sand. The steel cylindrical tank was designed big
enough to avoid boundary effect on bearing capacity. A static loading system was used by using a
simple lever arm system. Load and settlements were measured using the load cell and dial gauges.

3. Test procedure
Sand and tire shreds were measured properly with respect to the desired tire shreds contents in the
test program (10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% volume of shreds compared to total volume). Then, the
soil and tire shreds were mixed carefully using a spade. The tank was, then, filled up to specified
thickness (20 cm) with the mixed material. Each layer was tamped and compacted with a specific
wooden plate, dropping from a certain height (certain energy for each layer) before the next layer
was poured. Small cans were used to identify sand density in different places in the tank. Relative
density of sand ranged from 35% to 45% with respect to shred content. Relative density decreased
with increasing shred content because shreds absorbed compaction energy. Footing was loaded
statically until failure reached. The settlement of the footing was measured for each load. The
bearing capacity was obtained using tangent method. In this method, two tangents were
plottedalong the initial portion and latter portion of theloadsettlement curve and the load
corresponding to the intersection of these two lines was taken as ultimate bearing capacity of the
footing.(Anderson and Stokoe 1978).

4. Testing program
The sum of 34 tests were carried out on circular footing on reinforced soil with different tire shred
contentsand aspect ratios, as shown in Table 3. The results of all tests were compared to the results
of tests carried out on unreinforced soil to indicate the effect of reinforcing on bearing capacity of
the soil.(Edil and Bosscher 1992).

5. Test results
In general addition of tire shreds to sand increases the bearing capacity and limit reductions in post
peak resistance. Effect of sand reinforcement on bearing capacity (as the ratio of reinforced soil
bearing capacity to unreinforced soil bearing capacity BCR) is shown in Table 3. Figs. 410 show
loadsettlement curves for sand reinforced with tire shreds obtained from performed tests. Fig.
11shows BCR values versus aspect ratios of shreds for different width and shred contents. It seems
that for both selected widths (2 and 3 cm) optimum aspect ratio is about 4. For a constant shred
contentminimum BCR was observed for 2 4 cm shreds. This might be because of the short length of
shreds whentensile force becomes greater than pull out resistanceforce of the reinforcements.
(ASTM 1998)

47

So it can be concluded thatfor better performance a minimum length of shred must be provided. It
can also be seen that for a certain width increase in length, greater than optimum length, decreases
the BCR. This may be due to the fact that increasing the length will decrease area ratio (i.e., AR/A),
which is an important parameter. The 3 12 cm shreds have maximum BCR for all shred contents.
Maximum and minimum BCR reached were 3.9 and 1.17 for 40%tire shreds of 3 12 cm and 10% tire
shreds of2 4 cm, respectively.The effect of shred contents on BCR is shown inFig. 12. As this figure
depicts increasing shred contentincreases BCR. However, it seems that there is an optimumshred
content (about 40%) after that BCR will notincrease further if shred content is increased. The
behaviour of soil mixed with tire shreds in high tire shreds content tends to be more influenced by
the tire shreds material and intensity of the composite material rather than the soil characteristics
Table 3 [HATAF AND RAHIMI 2005]
Bearing capacity ratio (BCR) for reinforced sand

[FIG 4-12 IN HATAF AND RAHIMI 2005]
Fig. 29. Loadsettlement curves for 2 8 cm shreds with different shred
contents.

Fig. 30. Loadsettlement curves for 2 6 cm shreds with different shred
contents.
48


Fig. 31. Loadsettlement curves for 3 12 cm shreds with different shred
contents.


Fig. 32. Loadsettlement curves for 3 9 cm shreds with different shred
contents.
49


Fig. 33. Loadsettlement curves for 2 10 cm shreds with different shred
contents.(Lee 2010).

Fig. 34. Loadsettlement curves for 2 4 cm shreds with different shred
contents.

50

Fig. 35. Loadsettlement curves for 3 6 cm shreds with different shred
contents.

Fig. 36. Bearing capacity ratio (BCR) vs. aspect ratio of shreds.

Fig. 37. Bearing capacity ratio (BCR) vs. shred content.

Fig. 38
51


Conclusion
A series of laboratory test have been carried out on the model of shallow footing resting on
reinforced sand. Tire shreds were used as reinforcement elements. Two parameters were selected
to identify their influence on bearing capacity of sand: shred content and shred aspect ratio. It was
found that addition of 10% shreds by volume increases BCR from 1.17 to 1.83 (increasing bearing
capacity from 17% to 83%), 20% tire shreds increases BCR from 1.6 to 2.2, 30% tire shreds increase
BCR from 2.15 to 3, 40% tire shreds increases BCR from 3.2 to 3.9 and 50% tire shreds increases BCR
from 2.95 to 3.9 with respect to shreds width and aspect ratio. Aspect ratio of 4 was found as the
best aspect ratio for two widths used in this study (i.e., 2 and 3 cm). Shreds of 4 cm length and
smaller work improperly as reinforcement because of the small length. Optimum shred content
found in this study is 40%, further addition of shreds will not increase the BCR significantly.(Lee
2010).

The optimum value of the rubber content:
The optimum value of the rubber content is obtained from testing program described in Table 6. The
tests are done for different rubber contents, Rc different thicknesses of soil cap, hs/B and different
thicknesses of rubber-reinforced soil, hrs/B. The corresponding bearing pressure with rubber
content for different values of hrs/B = 0.25, 0.5, 1, and 1.5, while hs/B value is kept constant (hs/B =
0.25) at different values of settlement is depicted in Fig. 6. This figure may be classified into two
groups; one for hrs/B <=1 (first group), and the other for hrs/B = 1.5 (second group). For the first
group (Fig. 18ac) the improvement in bearing capacity initially is increasing when rubber content
increases from 0% to around 5%, but, thereafter, the bearing capacity decreases with rubber
content, regardless of the footing settlement ratio, s/B and the thickness of rubber-reinforced layer,
hrs/B. For example, in the case of hrs/B = 0.5 and hs/B = 0.25 (Fig. 6b), the bearing pressure
obtained at settlement ratio of s/B = 2.5%, is about 50 kPa, 118 kPa, 154 kPa, and 87 kPa for 0%,
2.5%, 5%, and 7.5% of rubber content, respectively.(Edil TB, 2002)

These values show that the bearing pressure increases about 136%, 208% and 74%, respectively for
2.5%, 5% and 7.5% of rubber content compared to that of the unreinforced bed. The results depict
an optimum shred rubber content around 5% which delivers the maximum increase in the bearing
capacity. The increase in performance improvement with rubber content of 5% could be due to the
available competent reinforced layer beneath the footing. The decrease in bearing capacity after
optimum content of rubber may be attributed to swapping the soil grains with soft material, like
rubber, and also possible increasing the void ratio of mixture tends to the compressibility of mixture
consequently leading to increase in the footing settlement. It may be expected when the rubber
content increases to more than 7.5%, the bearing pressure of footing leads to less than the bearing
pressure of unreinforced bed. The excess of soft rubber particles separates soil particles and forms a
soft rubber fabric and consequently decreases the bearing capacity of footing due to significant
compressible foundation bed.(ASTM 1998)
For the second group (Fig. 39) where a thicker layer of rubber soil mixture (hrs/B = 1.5) is employed
in foundation bed, the general trend in variations of bearing pressure of footing with rubber content,
is similar to those obtained for the first group (hrs/B <= 1). In this case, at the settlement ratio of s/B
= 2.5%, the optimum shred rubber content is obtained around 2.5% which has only delivered a 56%
52

enhancement in bearing pressure of footing while in the first group using hrs/B = 0.5 and 5% of
rubber, 208% enhancement in bearing pressure of footing has been delivered at the same
settlement ratio. It is, therefore, inferred that use of the thicker mixture (hrs/B = 1.5) could not be
compared to that of the thinner mixture even where the optimum rubber content used in the
rubbersoil mixture layer. Consequently, the second group is not as efficient as the first one to be
considered in practical design.











Fig. 39




53

Fig. 40 Variation of bearing pressure with rubber content for constant hs/B value of 0.25 at different
values of settlement, (a) hrs/B = 0.25, (b) hrs/B = 0.5, (c) hrs/B = 1, and (c) hrs/B = 1.5.
The optimum value of the thickness of rubber-reinforced soil:
Fig. 19 depicts the variation in bearing pressure with the thickness of rubber-reinforced soil (hrs/B)
for the experiments with the three different rubber contents of 2.5%, 5% and 7.5% and unreinforced
soil bed at different footing settlement ratio, s/B. The rubber- reinforced layer was placed at a depth
of 0.25 time of the footing width (hs/B = 0.25) from the base of the footing. From this figure, it has
been found that with an increase in hrs/B ratio, the value of bearing pressure increases up to the
value of hrs/B = 0.5, approximately, after which, with further increase in hrs/B ratio, the value of
bearing pressure decreases at all settlements, irrespective of rubber content used in the mixture.

As can be seen from Fig. 19b, at settlement ratio of 2.5% (s/B = 2.5%), the bearing pressure increases
about 100%, 206%, and 62%, respectively for 0.25, 0.5, and 1 of rubber-reinforced layer thickness
ratio (hrs/B) compared to that of the unreinforced bed. Overall, these results reveal that at all
footing settlement level, regardless of rubber content value, the maximum improvement in the
bearing pressure of footing have been obtained at optimum thickness of rubber reinforced soil layer
(hrs/B = 0.5).Fig. 41




54

Fig. 42 Variation of bearing pressure with thickness of rubber-reinforced soil, hrs/B for the soil cap
ratio of 0.25 (hrs/B = 0.25) at different settlement ratio, s/B, (a) rubber content = 2.5%, (b) rubber
content = 5%, and (c) rubber content = 7.5%.

The optimum value of the thickness of soil cap

In order to investigate clearly the beneficial effect of the soil cap over the rubbersoil mixture layer,
the variation of bearing capacity with the soil cap thickness at different levels of footing settlement,
are shown in Fig. 20. This figure shows the results of tests including 2.5%, 5%, and 7.5% of rubber in
the rubber reinforced layer of 50 mm in thickness (hrs/B = 0.5). The rubber reinforced layer was
placed at depths of 0, 0.25 and 0.5 times of the footing width (hs/B = 0, 0.25 and 0.5) from the base
of the footing. This figure depicts that the bearing pressure increases as the hs/B ratio increases, up
to approximately 0.25, but decreases as the hs/B ratio increases further, irrespective of the footing
settlement level.[TAFRESH AND DAWSON 2010]

Fig. 43


Fig. 44 Variation of bearing pressure with thickness of soil cap, hs/B for optimum value of thickness
of rubbersoil mixture (hrs/B = 0.5) at different values of settlement, (a) rubber content = 2.5%, (b)
rubber content = 5%, and (c) rubber content = 7.5%.(Anderson and Stokoe 1978).

Limitation and applicability
The results presented herein provide significant encouragement for the application of randomly
distributed shredded rubber as soil reinforcement, similar to conventional geosynthetic
reinforcement to improve the strength and settlement behavior of foundation bed. But it should be
55

noted that the present experimental results are based on the tests conducted on a small model of
square footing and they are obtained for only one type of shredded rubber, one size of footing
width, and one type of soil. Thus, full application should only be made after considering the above
limitations. However, further study is needed to assess other important factors such as the
importance of shred length, the economic aspects of using shredded waste tires as soil
reinforcement compared to other reinforcement materials, the effectiveness of shredded waste
tires as soil reinforcement in cohesive soil and expansive soil(Lee C etal 2012), and to see if results
obtained in the laboratory are representative of field applications.

Furthermore, although Milligan et al. 1986 and Adams and Collin 1997 in their studies on large- and
small-scale tests on the behavior of granular layers with geogrid reinforcement showed that the
general mechanisms and behavior observed in the small model tests could be reproduced at large-
scale, nevertheless future tests could be conducted with larger scale footings at various conditions.
For example, different footings (in size, shape and depth) and different characteristics and size of the
shredded rubber could be studied to validate the present findings. However, in order to directly
correlate the results of a prototype-scale footing to a model-scale test, the scale effects should be
considered on geometrical dimensions of effective factors and the properties of rubber and soil
used, if any. Although, the results of this study may be somewhat different to full-scale foundation
behavior in the field, the general trend may be similar.
Overall, qualitatively, this study provides insight into the basic mechanism that establishes the
bearing pressure versus settlement response of the shredded rubber-reinforced soil bed and would
be very useful and a fruitful avenue for future studies. On the whole, these results could be helpful
in designing large scale model tests and their simulation through numerical models.(Edil TB, 2002)

Summary and conclusions
In this study, a series of laboratory tests under monotonic load has been carried out on square
footings supported on the rubber reinforced and unreinforced soil beds. The test results have been
used to assess and understand the potential benefits of reinforcing soil with rubber shreds and soil
cap in terms of the increased bearing pressure of footing compared with footing on unreinforced
beds. Based on the results obtained, the following conclusions are derived:

(1) The results prove the usefulness in recycling of tires waste in geotechnical aspects of waste
management. These lead to overall saving in competent soil material costs and re-use of tires waste.

(2) The results strongly suggest the re-use of tire waste in the form of shredded rubber mixed with
soil as reinforcing elements beneath the footing. From the results of tests, the bearing capacity of
footing increases with increase in the rubber content, the thickness of rubber-reinforced soil layer
and the soil cap thickness up to their optimum values, after which the bearing pressure decreases.

(3) The optimum percentages of shredded waste tire rubber are measured around 5% of the total
volume of soil-rubber mixture. This leads to the maximum improvement in bearing capacity of
footing regardless of soil cap thickness and the thickness of reinforcement layer.

(4) Tire shreds-soil mixture used as a reinforcement layer under footing base performs more
effective when covered by a soil cap layer compared to tire shreds-soil mixtures without a soil cap
56

layer. The optimum depth of soil layer beneath the footing (i.e. the thickness of soil cap layer over
the mixture) is obtained approximately 0.25 times the footing width (hs/B = 0.25) which results the
best performance in increasing the bearing capacity.(Edil TB, 2002)
(5) The optimal thickness of the rubber-reinforced soil layer to achieve the maximum improvement
in bearing capacity of footing is measured to be approximately 0.5 times of the width of the footing.
More increase in the thickness of rubber soil mixture than its optimum value increased the
compressibility and the settlement of foundation bed, and consequently the reduction in reinforcing
effect of rubber soil mixture. It may reduce the performance of foundation bed compared to fully
unreinforced bed.
(6) At all the footing settlement levels, bearing pressure of footing has substantially increases for
shredded rubber-reinforced bed, when considering the optimum values of soil cap thickness, the
thickness of rubber-reinforced soil layer and the rubber content compared to unreinforced bed. At
the settlement level of 5%, maximum improvement in bearing capacity was observed as the value of
bearing capacity of footing reaches around 2.68 times of the unreinforced bed.
USE OF TIRE CHIPS IN LANDFILL GAS EXTRACTION APPLICATIONS
In landfills, tire chips have been used as alternative daily cover, in leachate recirculation trenches, as
selective fill above the leachate collection and removal system (LCRS) in new cells (i.e., the
operations layer), and as a primary drainage component in the LCRS. In Florida, the use of tire chips
as a substantial component of the LCRS has been demonstrated by the Hillsborough County (Florida)
Solid Waste Management Department where tire chips are used in the drainage layer of new cells at
the Southeast County Landfill. In the late 1990s, Waste Management Inc. of Florida used tire chips in
augmenting an older bottom liner design to enhance leachate removal prior to initial filling. That
system included supplemental tire chip trenches with a geotextile buffer layer installed between the
tire chips and the geo-membrane liner.(Anderson and Stokoe 1978).
Hydraulic Conductivity:
As vertical loading increases and the tire chip layers compress, thereby reducing void space, the
hydraulic conductivity of the tire chip backfill decreases. A detailed comparison of reported hydraulic
conductivity for various tire chip sizes was prepared by Reddy and Marella (2001).
Various tests indicate that the hydraulic conductivity of tire chip sizes typical of landfill gas
applications (i.e., greater than 2 inches) ranges from a minimum of 0.5 cm/sec to over 20 cm/sec.
Texas DOT (2004) reports tire chip permeability greater than 10 cm/sec. The lower end of the
reported range is representative of smaller chips and/or higher applied loads (i.e., over 5,000 psf,
which corresponds to the pressure exerted by over 80 feet of waste on top of the chips).[ California
Integrated Waste Management Board 1998 ] It has been reported that the pore space provided by
the tirechips allows approximately 100 percent more gas transmission than traditional aggregate
(Nebraska State Recycling Association) and promotes condensate or leachate drainage on the order
of 10 times higher than well-graded soils
Flammability
Tires are flammable and exothermic reactions in tire chip fills have been documented. However, as
reported by the Texas DOT, of the 70 installations of tire chip backfill for road construction projects
57

documented by 2004, only three experienced exothermic, or heat producing, reactions. These
projects in Washington and Oregon were both over 50 feet deep and contained a mix of soil and tire
chips, which resulted in a fill material that was less compressible than tire chips alone.They also
included tire chips that contained significant amounts of exposed steel and were contaminated with
liquid petroleum. The authors are aware of no landfill fires that have been directly or indirectly
affected by, or attributed to, the presence of tire chip backfill within a landfill.
Permeability
The hydraulic conductivity of 3-inch tire chips is comparable to that of typical drainage materials,
and except under the most extreme compressive forces, tire chips provide the same, if not better,
conductivity as compared to aggregate[Donovan et al 1996]. The authors have not witnessed any
situations where the permeability of 3-inch nominal size tire chips used as backfill in landfill gas
collectors or wells appeared to be less than that of stone.
Compaction and Settlement
In order to minimize post-construction settlement, tire chip backfill must be properly compacted in
order to minimize excess void space. The Texas DOT (2004) reports that settlement of 3-inch tire
chips is less than the settlement of 12-inch chips. If the tire chip backfill is not adequately
compacted, over time and/or with the application of vertical loads in the future, the tire chips will
settle into these voids and result in localized ground settlement. The presence of excess voids
around the walls of the collection pipe also diminishes the pipe strength.
For horizontal collectors, compaction can be accomplished by using an excavator bucket to press
down onto the installed tire chips or by driving over the trench with track-mounted equipment.
Settlement caused by inadequate compaction typically is not evident once waste has been filled on
top of the collectors.
However, with vertical extraction wells, localized settlement can be significant. In the case of vertical
wells installed with tire chip backfill at a landfill in Delaware, settlement ranging from 5 to 10 feet
was reported around well casings. While the cause of this settlement was not fully known, the
contractor suspects that large tire shreds caused bridging and the formation of voids within the
tire chip backfill. Once soil backfill was placed above the tire chip layer, these voids collapsed, and
the ground surface subsided. Unless the tire chip backfill extends a substantial distance above the
top of the slotted collection pipe, such settlement can result in soil infiltrating the well casing and
reducing the effectiveness of the well.
Compressibility
The compressibility behaviour of sand-tyre mixtures is of important consideration especially in the
design of geotechnical structures of which both stability and serviceability are of paramount
concerns. Compressibility of scrap tyres is quite high compared to that of pure sand. Hence, the
compressibility of sand-tyre mixtures might be governed primarily by the amount of tyre contents in
the mixture. Ahmed (1993) performed compressibility tests on sand-tyre chip mixtures. The
behaviour of sand-tyre chip mixtures under repeated loads was determined after 3-4
loading/unloading cycles. The influences of sample preparation, compaction efforts, and size of tyre
chips were investigated. It was found that percentage of chips (on gravimetric basis) had significant
58

effect on the compressibility of the mixtures; however, compaction efforts had minor effect on load
deformation response of the mixtures. Edil and Bosscher (1994), Bosscher et al. (1997), and
Humphrey et al. (1993) reported that tyre-soil mixtures exhibit significant initial plastic compression
under load, which is related to the porosity of the mixtures.
Once the material was loaded to a level of reduced initial porosity, it behaved like an elastic
material. The test results indicated plastic (unrecoverable) strain under the first cycle of load
application followed by reduced plastic and elastic strains under subsequent cycles of loads.
Subsequent cycles had similar load-displacement curves with a diminishing rebound compared to
the first cycle. Additionally, Bosscher et al. (1997) found that smaller chips and larger shreds had
similar responses. It is evident from the literature review above that a number of studies were
carried out on shear and compressibility behaviours of sand-tyre chip/shred mixtures. However,
only a few of these studies carried out detailed investigation on the behaviour of S-TC mixtures,
which has equal potential to be used in civil engineering projects. It is noted that the authors and
coinvestigators have recently proposed the use of soil-scrap tyre mixtures for low-cost seismic
isolation (Tsang 2008; Tsang et al. 2009; Tsang et al. 2012) of civil infrastructure, especially suited
for developing countries. The success of such low-cost seismic isolation method mainly depends on
the engineering properties of the soil-tyre mixtures.
This paper presents results of experimental investigations on shear and compressibility behaviours
of S-TC mixtures which have not yet been adequately researched in the literature. It is noted that
development of a constitutive model of S-TC mixtures is considered beyond the scope of the paper
and is part of future research investigations of the authors.
While proper backfilling techniques can minimize some of the settlement of tire chip layers,
designers should consider compressibility when designing horizontal collectors and vertical
extraction wells with tire chip backfill. For horizontal collectors, it is prudent to increase the
thickness of the permeable backfill layer in accordance with the expected overlying pressures.
Assuming a compression of 30 percent, if the desired trench thickness is 3 feet deep, the trench
depth at the time of construction may need to be increased to 4 feet in order to account for
settlement and compression.
For vertical extraction wells, a similar approach should be used such that the resultant settlement
due to compression yields a tire chip backfill that extends above the top of the perforated or slotted
well casing. While backfilling of horizontal trenches enables compaction with standard equipment,
when backfilling a borehole, compaction is normally accomplished only via the weight of the tire
chips and the fill dirt. The expected compression of the tire chip backfill can be estimated based on
empirical and laboratory data presented in various literature referenced at the end of this paper.
At the Orange County (Florida) Solid Waste Management Facility, SCS Engineers (SCS) designed 10
vertical extraction wells with tire chip backfill extending 1 foot above the top of the slotted well
casing. After four years in operation, field personnel report no settlement at the well casings, which
indicates that the tire chips have not compressed significantly. A recently installed landfill gas system
in Hillsborough County (Florida) was designed by SCS to include 10 vertical wells with a minimum of
5 feet of tire chip backfill extending above the top of the slotted well casing. Three months after
installation, there are no signs of localized settlement that would indicate significant settlement of
the tire chips.
59

Economic Feasibilty
The economic feasibility of using tire chips in lieu of coarse aggregate as a construction material for
landfill gas collectors and wells depends on the availability of both materials. In terms of economics,
the cost of tire chips is driven by the market for the chips. Where there is a source of tire chips
and/or a market for their use, costs can be comparable to rock, which is the case in Florida and
Louisiana. Based on recent material quotes in Florida, tire chips are approximately $41 per cubic
yard (not including delivery), compared to non calcareous rock costs of $46 per cubic yard for
AASHTO No. 3 stone and over $60 per cubic yard for No. 4 stone. Note that these costs have been
converted from a cost per ton to cost per cubic yard basis to account for the differences in density of
the materials.(Humphrey 1995)
In states where rock is relatively inexpensive (e.g., Georgia), tire chip use is not common, processors
are not plentiful, or the burial of tires in landfills is permitted (e.g., Alabama), tire chip costs are
generally higher than for No. 3 or No. 4 rock. For example, typical rock prices in Georgia (not
including delivery) range from $18 to $20 per cubic yard, which is approximately one half the $35
per cubic yard cost of tire chips. In Alabama, the cost of rock is less than $10 per cubic yard and tire
chips are not available. In Louisiana, the cost of 4-inch tire chips is the same as for No. 3 rock
In circumstances in which a landfill owner processes tires on site, tire chip costs may be essentially
zero and the economics strongly favor tire chips over rock. Similarly, at a site in Louisiana, the tire
processor provided the tire chips for free. This example illustrates that landfill owners may find
significant cost savings by investigating the availability of tire chips, especially if a tire processor is
located in close proximity to the site, or is currently paying a tipping fee to dispose of tires.
Environmental Incentives
As part of an integrated solid waste management program, using tire chips as a backfill material can
be seen as environmentally beneficial, which may be important to some landfill owners.
REGULATORY CONSIDERATIONS
There appears to be little reluctance from regulators in the Southeastern U.S. and California
regarding the use of tire chips in landfill gas collection systems. In Florida, the Central, Southwest,
and South districts of the Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP) have approved landfill gas
collectors and wells that use tire chip backfill. In Mississippi, the Department of Environmental
Quality (MDEQ) has published literature that encourages the use of tire chips in landfills.
Louisiana Department of Environmental Quality (LDEQ) recently approved a series of horizontal
collectors at an active landfill in the southern part of the state. Staff from the Alabama Department
of Environmental Management (ADEM) and Georgia Environmental Protection Division (GA EPD)
have stated that using tire chips in landfill gas systems would be no different than standard
construction methods from a permitting perspective.
The waste tire program funded by the State of Louisiana offers an economic incentive for using tire
chips in environmental projects. Therefore, LDEQ requires the permitted to quantify the volume of
chipped tires that will be used in the project. Once the project is completed, the State of Louisiana
pays the tire processor $150 per ton of tire chips that are reused in beneficial use projects. Also, in
60

its 1998 Guidance Manual on the Use of Tire Shreds as Gas Collection Material at MSW Landfills, the
California Integrated Waste Management Board stated that there are no restrictions of the use of
tire shreds as LFG collection material for collection trenches within the waste mass or as vertical well
backfill.(Edil and Bosscher 1992).
CONCLUSIONS
Utilization of tire chips in landfill gas applications is becoming more common where there is an
economic or environmental incentive to do so. In summary:
Tire chips have hydraulic and gas conductivity values comparable to or higher than coarse
aggregate, which makes them acceptable for use in landfill gas collection systems.
Successful projects have use 3-inch tire chips with a gradation similar to AASHTO No. 3 stone.
Compressibility of the tire chips must be considered in designing the backfill thickness.
For vertical extraction wells, the tire chip backfill should extend a minimum of 5 feet above the top
of the slotted pipe. A greater thickness is warranted for higher expected compression rates.
Construction CQA inspectors should ensure proper backfilling and compaction methods are used
to minimize bridging of the tire chips and avoid excessive future settlement.
Tire chip backfill has been used successfully in horizontal collectors throughout Florida in landfills
that generate a substantial amount of landfill gas. In some cases, these collectors are buried under
more than 100 feet of waste and are still functioning properly.
The use of tire chips for backfilling vertical wells has not been well documented.
FLY ASH AND TYRE CHIP USED TOGETHER
Recycled Materials in Embankments
One way recycled materials have been used successfully is in highway embankments. The three
recycled materials used most often are fly ash (Type A or Class F), tire chips and wood chips. In the
1970s and 1980s fly ash was popular, but in the last five years tire chips have become more popular
in embankment construction. Compared to fly ash, both tire chips and wood chips are a lighter-
weight fill.
Study
The Center for Innovative Grouting Materials and Technology at The University of Houston
conducted study 0-1351, "Recycled Materials in Embankments, Except Glass, for TxDOT, the Texas
Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ) and the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)" to
research the use of recycled materials in highway embankments and develop specifications as
needed.
Researchers performed limited laboratory tests to verify the engineering and leaching properties of
random samples of the selected materials obtained from various parts of Texas. All of the recycled
materials showed very low levels of contaminant leaching during the Toxicity Characteristics
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Leachate Procedure (TCLP) and TCEQ tests and were characterized as Class 3 non-hazardous waste
materials.
The behavior of the materials with simulated Texas soils was evaluated. The behavior of recycled
materials without soils was also studied. The behavior of the recycled materials is comparable to the
behavior of sand with Texas soils. Hence recycled materials could be incorporated into earth
embankments effectively.Placing the recycled material in the core of the embankment was the most
popular configuration. Research also indicates that the use of recycled material can either increase
or decrease the cost of embankment construction, with transportation costs being an important
factor.
Through the collection and analysis of this information, researchers developed a specification for the
use of recycled materials in embankments.The research team believes future research on using
recycled materials in embankments should:
-Perform field studies to evaluate the success of various embankment configurations using Texas
soils and recycled materials. Instrument the embankments to quantify short- and long-term
settlement of side slopes and evaluate the leachate quality.
-Evaluate the long-term risk to the environment from using recycled materials in embankments.
-Develop a new compaction test to evaluate the densities of long tire chips with and without soils.
-Develop an assurance program to minimize the effects of the variability of recycled material
properties.
-Establish appropriate safety and health practices for handling recycled materials in embankment
construction.
The contents of this summary are reported in detail in The Center for Innovative Grouting Materials
and Technology Research Report 0-1351, "Recycled Materials in Embankments, Except Glass," C.
Vipulanandan, M. Basheer, and M. W. O'Neill, Preliminary Report Dated - January 1996. This
summary does not necessarily reflect the official views of the FHWA, TCEQ or TxDOT.
CONCLUSION
A series of laboratory model tests has been carried out to investigate the using of shredded waste
tires as reinforcement to increase the bearing capacity of soil. Shred content and shreds aspect ratio
are the main parameters that affect the bearing capacity. Tire shreds with rectangular shape and
widths of 2 and 3 cm with aspect ratios 2, 3, 4 and 5 are mixed with sand. Five shred contents of
10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% by volume were selected. Addition of tire shreds to sand increases
BCR (bearing capacity ratio) from 1.17 to 3.9 with respect to shred content and shreds aspect ratio.
The maximum BCR is attained at shred content of 40% and dimensions of 3 12 cm. It is shown that
increasing of shred content increases the BCR. However, an optimum value for shred content is
observed after that increasing shreds led to decrease in BCR. For a given shred width, shred content
and soil density it seems that aspect ratio of 4 gives maximum BCR.
Based on model footing test it is found that for the optimum value of rubber content of 5% at
footing settlement level of 5%, the maximum improvement in bearing capacity of rubber- reinforced
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bed was obtained as 2.68 times of the unreinforced bed. This value of improvement was achieved
using the optimum thickness of reinforced layer of 0.5 times of footing width and the optimum
thickness of soil cap of 0.25 times of footing width.(Edil and Bosscher 1992).
Tyre pieces mixed with soil and aggregates separately in various proportions and tested for
California bearing ratio to determine its optimum content. Aggregate crushing value, impact value
and abrasion value decreased with increase in waste tyre content in the aggregates. Waste tyre
pieces reinforced with soil showed improvement in CBR vaule with its addition upto 7.5% and there
onwards decreased with further increase in tyre content in unsoaked condition. However, waste tyre
pieces reinforced with soil does not show any improvement in the CBR value in soaked
condition.(Rao and Dutta 2006)
It is found that load carrying capacity of the soil + RW + soil layer and soil + RW inter mix are found
to be better than the other combinations such as soil + soil + RW or soil + RW + RW, both in
reinforced and unreinforced case. The soil+RW+soil or soil+RW inter mix can be effectively used in
order to reduce the plastic deformation that the subgrade clay undergoes and also to enhance the
recoverable elastic strain. The placement of geogrid reinforcement at the interfaces of soil and RW
layer improved not only the load carrying capacity but also very much the recoverable elastic strain.




















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