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The Atlantic
Slave Trade
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A Uni t of Study f or Grades 712
J er J er J er J er J erem em em em emy Bal l y Bal l y Bal l y Bal l y Bal l
2OOO, The Regenls, Universily of CaIifornia
Cover IIIuslralion: |||us|ra|cd |cndcn Ncus, 14 ApriI 1849
Iernission is herely granled lo reproduce and dislrilule lhis pulIicalion for educalionaI and
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Any reproduclion of lhis pulIicalion for connerciaI use is prohililed.
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The Atl anti c The Atl anti c
The Atl anti c The Atl anti c The Atl anti c
Sl ave Tr ade Sl ave Tr ade
Sl ave Tr ade Sl ave Tr ade Sl ave Tr ade
A Uni t of Study f or Grades 712
J er J er J er J er J erem em em em emy Bal l y Bal l y Bal l y Bal l y Bal l
N NN NNA AA AATI ON TI ON TI ON TI ON TI ONAL CENTER F AL CENTER F AL CENTER F AL CENTER F AL CENTER FOR HI ST OR HI ST OR HI ST OR HI ST OR HI STOR OR OR OR ORY I N THE SCHOOLS Y I N THE SCHOOLS Y I N THE SCHOOLS Y I N THE SCHOOLS Y I N THE SCHOOLS
Uni v Uni v Uni v Uni v Uni ver er er er er si ty of Cal i f si ty of Cal i f si ty of Cal i f si ty of Cal i f si ty of Cal i f or ni a, Los Angel es or ni a, Los Angel es or ni a, Los Angel es or ni a, Los Angel es or ni a, Los Angel es
ACKNOWLEDGMENT5
}ereny BaII deveIoped lhis unil during lhe course of his Ih.D. sludies in African Hislory
al lhe Universily of CaIifornia, Los AngeIes. He earned a leaching credenliaI lhrough lhe
YaIe Teacher Ireparalion Irogran in 1998 and laughl al High SchooI in lhe Connunily in
Nev Haven, Conneclicul and The BuckIey SchooI in Shernan Oaks, CaIifornia.
Bolh Ross Dunn, Direclor of WorId Hislory Irojecls for lhe NalionaI Cenler for Hislory in lhe
SchooIs (NCHS), and David VigiIanle, Associale Direclor, served as deveIopnenlaI edilors of
lhe unil. Cary B. Nash, Direclor of NCHS, offered suggeslions and correclions. Marian
McKenna OIivas served as lhe Iayoul and pholo edilor and crealed lhe naps.
TABLE OF CONTENT5
IntrnductInn
Approach and RalionaIe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conlenl and Organizalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Teacher Backgrnund MaterIa!s
I. Unil Overviev . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II. Unil Conlexl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. CorreIalion vilh lhe NalionaI Hislory Slandards . . . . . .
IV. Oljeclives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
V. Lesson IIans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VI. Inlroduclion lo Tnc A||an|ic S|atc Tradc . . . . . . . . .
DramatIc Mnment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UnIt Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lessnns
Lesson One: SIavery: Definilion, Lxlenl, and }uslificalions . . . . . .
Lesson Tvo: LnsIavenenl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lesson Three: The MiddIe Iassage . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lesson Iour: ArrivaI in lhe Anericas. . . . . . . . . . . .
Lesson Iive: Lnding lhe AlIanlic SIave Trade. . . . . . . . . .
. .
BIb!Ingraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1
3
3
3
4
4
6
11
13
14
28
39
57
63
69
1
INTRODUCTION
I. APPROACH AND RATIONALE
T
|c A||an|ic S|atc Trac is one of over sixly leaching unils pulIished ly lhe
NalionaI Cenler for Hislory in lhe SchooIs lhal are lhe fruils of coIIaloralions
lelveen hislory professors and experienced leachers of lolh Iniled Slales and
WorId Hislory. The unils represenl specific issues and dranalic episodes in
hislory fron vhich you and your sludenls can pause lo deIve inlo lhe deeper
neanings of lhese seIecled Iandnark evenls and expIore lheir vider conlexl in
lhe greal hisloricaI narralive. By sludying cruciaI lurning poinls in hislory, lhe
sludenl lecones avare lhal choices had lo le nade ly reaI hunan leings, lhal
lhose decisions vere lhe resuIl of specific faclors, and lhal lhey sel in nolion a
series of hisloricaI consequences. We have seIecled issues and dranalic no-
nenls lhal lesl lring aIive lhal decision-naking process. We hope lhal lhrough
lhis approach, your sludenls viII reaIize lhal hislory in an ongoing, open-ended
process, and lhal lhe decisions lhey nake loday creale lhe condilions of
lonorrovs hislory.
ur leaching unils are lased on prinary sources, laken fron governnenl
docunenls, arlifacls, |ournaIs, diaries, nevspapers, nagazines, Iileralure, con-
lenporary pholographs, painlings, and olher arl fron lhe period under sludy.
Whal ve hope lo achieve using prinary source docunenls in lhese Iessons is lo
renove lhe dislance lhal sludenls feeI fron hisloricaI evenls and lo connecl lhen
nore inlinaleIy vilh lhe pasl. In lhis vay ve hope lo recreale for your sludenls
a sense of leing lhere, a sense of seeing hislory lhrough lhe eyes of lhe very
peopIe vho vere naking decisions. This viII heIp your sludenls deveIop
hisloricaI enpalhy, lo reaIize lhal hislory is nol an inpersonaI process divorced
fron reaI peopIe Iike lhenseIves. Al lhe sane line, ly anaIyzing prinary
sources, sludenls viII acluaIIy praclice lhe hislorians crafl, discovering for
lhenseIves hov lo anaIyze evidence, eslalIish a vaIid inlerprelalion and con-
slrucl a coherenl narralive in vhich aII lhe reIevanl faclors pIay a parl.
II. CONTENT AND ORGANIZATION
W
ilhin lhis unil, you viII find: Teaching Background MaleriaIs,
incIuding Inil verviev, Inil Conlexl, CorreIalion lo lhe NalionaI
Slandards for Hislory, Inil l|eclives, and Inlroduclion lo T|c A||an|ic S|atc
Trac, A Dranalic Monenl, and Lesson IIans vilh Sludenl Resources. This unil,
as ve have said alove, focuses on cerlain key nonenls in line and shouId le
used as a suppIenenl lo your cuslonary course naleriaIs. AIlhough lhese
Iessons are reconnended for use ly grades 7-12, lhey can le adapled for olher
grade IeveIs.
2
The Teacher Background seclion shouId provide you vilh a good overviev of
lhe enlire unil and vilh lhe hisloricaI infornalion and conlexl necessary lo Iink
lhe DramatIc Mnment lo lhe Iarger hisloricaI narralive. You nay consuIl il for
your ovn use, and you nay choose lo share il vilh sludenls if lhey are of a
sufficienl grade IeveI lo undersland lhe naleriaIs.
The Lesson IIans incIude a variely of ideas and approaches for lhe leacher vhich
can le eIaloraled upon or cul as you see lhe need. These Iesson pIans conlain
sludenl resources vhich acconpany each Iesson. The resources consisl of
prinary source docunenls, handouls and sludenl lackground naleriaIs, and a
lilIiography.
In our series of leaching unils, each coIIeclion can le laughl in severaI vays. You
can leach aII of lhe Iessons offered on any given lopic, or you can seIecl and adapl
lhe ones lhal lesl supporl your parlicuIar course needs. We have nol allenpled
lo le conprehensive or prescriplive in our offerings, lul ralher lo give you an
array of enlicing possiliIilies for in-deplh sludy, al varying grade IeveIs. We
hope lhal you viII find lhe Iesson pIans exciling and slinuIaling for your cIasses.
We aIso hope lhal your sludenls viII never again see hislory as a loring sveep
of facls and neaningIess dales lul ralher as an endIess lreasure of reaI Iife slories
and an exercise in anaIysis and reconslruclion.
Introduction
3
TEACHER BACKGROUND
I. UNIT OVERVIEW
T
|c A||an|ic S|atc Trac is divided inlo five Iessons: Lessnn One expIores lhe
origins of lhe AlIanlic sIave lrade, Lessnns Twn and Three focus on lhe
process of ensIavenenl in Wesl Africa and lhe MiddIe Iassage, The fourlh
Iesson deaIs vilh lhe arrivaI in lhe Anericas, and Lessnn FIve deIves inlo earIy
allenpls lo end lhe sIave lrade. Sludenls, using prinary source naleriaIs,
exanine lhe differences and siniIarilies lelveen sIavery as pracliced in lhe
Anericas and Africa. The purposes of lhis unil are lo expIore lhe conpIexily
and geographic lreadlh of lhe inslilulion of sIavery, lo exanine lhe experi-
ences of acluaI parlicipanls in lhe AlIanlic sIave lrade, lo evaIuale lhe roIe of
Lurope and Africa lraders, and lo appraise argunenls for and againsl lhe
aloIilion of lhe lrade.
Lessons in lhe unil aIso afford sludenls lhe opporlunily lo read and anaIyze
docunenls vrillen in lhe sevenleenlh and eighleenlh cenluries. The unil aIso
chaIIenges sludenls lo deveIop lhe skiIIs needed lo anaIyze lhe reIialiIily of lhese
prinary source docunenls. Sludenls are encouraged lo idenlify lhe source of lhe
docunenl, lhe perspeclive of lhe individuaI vriling lhe docunenl, and lhe
recognilion of cIues lhal signaI lhe aulhors purpose.
II. UNIT CONTEXT
T
his unil nay le used in vorId hislory courses for a sludy of sIavery
and lhe lrans-AlIanlic sIave lrade. In addilion il nay le used as parl of a
sludy of lhe Age of LxpIoralion in eilher vorId or Iniled Slales hislory. The unil
nay le enpIoyed in eilher a chronoIogicaI approach or as a lhenalic sludy of
sIavery and lhe sIave lrade.
III. CORRELATION TO NATIONAL HI5TORY 5TANDARD5
T
|c A||an|ic S|atc Trac correIales vilh lhe Na|icna| S|anars fcr His|crq, 8asic
|i|icn (NalionaI Cenler for Hislory in lhe SchooIs, ICLA, 1996), Era 6 of
WorId Hislory, CIolaI Lxpansion and Lncounler, 145O-177O. Specific slan-
dards addressed ly lhe Iessons incIude 5tandard 1A deaIing vilh lhe origins and
consequences of Luropean overseas expansion, 1B on encounlers lelveen
Luropeans and lhe peopIe of Africa and lhe Spanish and Iorluguese coIoniaI
enpires in lhe Anericas, 4B on lhe origins and consequences of lhe lrans-
AlIanlic sIave lrade, and 4C deaIing vilh pallerns of change in Africa in lhe era
of lhe sIave lrade. The unil nay aIso le used lo heIp achieve severaI Iniled Slales
Hislory slandards. In Era 1, Three WorIds Meel, 5tandard 1C sludenls are lo
4
Teacher Background MateriaIs
anaIyze lhe varielies of sIavery in Weslern Africa and expIore lhe varying
responses of African slales lo earIy Luropean lrading and raiding on lhe AlIanlic
African coasl. Era 2, CoIonizalion and SellIenenl, 5tandard 1A deaIs vilh lhe
arrivaI of Africans in lhe Luropean coIonies in lhe 17lh cenlury and lhe rapid
increase of sIave inporlalion in lhe 18lh cenlury and 3C focuses on African Iife
under sIavery.
IV. OBJECTIVE5
1. To undersland lhe conpIexily and geographicaI lreadlh of lhe
inslilulion of sIavery.
2. To idenlify lhe na|or geographicaI sources and deslinalions of sIaves
lraded across lhe AlIanlic lelveen Africa and lhe Anericas.
3. To anaIyze prinary sources vrillen ly parlicipanls in lhe AlIanlic
SIave Trade in order lo undersland lhe process of ensIavenenl.
4. To expIore earIy allenpls lo end lhe sIave lrade.
V. LE55ON PLAN5
1. SIavery: Definilion, Lxlenl, and }uslificalions (Duralion: 2 days)
2. LnsIavenenl (Duralion: 2 days)
3. MiddIe Iassage (Duralion: 2 days)
4. ArrivaI in lhe Anericas (Duralion: 1 day)
5. Lnding lhe SIave Trade (Duralion: 1-2 days)
5
Teacher Background MateriaIs
VI. INTRODUCTION TO 60- )6)61+ 5)8- 64),-
T
he novenenl of Africans lo lhe Anericas fron lhe sevenleenlh lo lhe
nineleenlh cenluries nay le accounled as nankinds second-Iargesl
lransoceanic nigralion. This nigralion, aIong vilh lhe concurrenl African
nigralion lo lhe MiddIe Lasl and Norlh Africa, vas dislincl fron olher na|or
nodern nigralions in ils invoIunlary nalure, and in lhe high rales of norlaIily
and sociaI disIocalion caused ly lhe nelhods of caplure and lransporlalion. A
reIaled nigralory pallern, lhe caplure and sellIing of niIIions of sIaves vilhin
Africa, grev up in eighleenlh- and nineleenlh-cenlury Africa as a consequence
of lhe lvo pallerns of overseas sIave lrade.
The AmerIcan PerspectIve
David LIlis posed, in a 1983 arlicIe, a slriking conlrasl in lhe popuIalion hislory
of lhe Anericas. By 182O, lhere had leen aloul 8.4 niIIion African innigranls
lo lhe Anericas, and 2.4 niIIion Luropean innigranls. Bul ly lhal dale lhe
Luro-Anerican popuIalion of sone 12 niIIion exceeded lhe Afro-Anerican
popuIalion of aloul 11 niIIion. The rales of survivaI and reproduclion of
African innigranls vere, apparenlIy, dranalicaIIy Iover lhan lhose of
Luropean innigranls. LIliss conlrasl drev allenlion lo lhe denographic
conparisons necessary lo nake sense of lhis puzzIe: lhe rales of ferliIily and
norlaIily, lhe lining and Iocalion of innigralion, lhe sex ralios and lhe sociaI
idenlificalion of persons.
The nigralory hislory of African sIaves, once lhey Ianded in lhe Anericas,
conlinued lhrough severaI furlher slages. The iniliaI period of seasoning can le
considered as nigralion lhrough a change in slalus. Iurlher, sIaves vere
physicaIIy lransshipped, oflen over consideralIe dislances. SIaves lroughl ly
lhe Dulch lo Curaao and ly lhe LngIish lo }anaica vere lransshipped lo
Carlagena, IorloleIo, and on lo various Spanish coIonies. Iron Carlagena, sone
sIaves vere sellIed in CoIonlia. A Iarger nunler of sIaves venl lo IorloleIo in
Ianana, vaIked overIand, and lhen venl ly sea lo Lina. Mosl renained lhere,
lul sone venl inlo lhe highIands. SIaves Ianded in lhe Rio de La IIala venl
overIand for 9OO kiIonelers lo Tucunan and lhen on for anolher 6OO kiIonelers
lo lhe siIver nines al Iolosi. In BraziI, vilh lhe goId rush in Minas Cerais al lhe
lurn of lhe eighleenlh cenlury, sIaves vere senl overIand lo lhe nining areas, 3OO
kiIonelers fron Rio and a nuch Ionger dislance overIand fron Bahia. SIaves
enlering lhe Chesapeake and Soulh CaroIina cane, in significanl proporlion,
afler slopping in Barlados. A finaI slage in lhe nigralion of sone sIaves vas lheir
Iileralion~eilher ly enancipalion, seIf-purchase, or escape.
6
ne reason for enphasizing lhe nunler of dislincl slages in lhe nigralion of
Africans is lo drav allenlion lo lhe dislincl rales of norlaIily al each slage. The
norlaIily vhich is lesl knovn is lhal of lhe AlIanlic crossing. The poinl here is
lhal sIaves vho survived lhe crossing had lhen lo undergo various olher lypes
of high norlaIily: lhal of furlher lraveI vilhin lhe Anericas, lhal of seasoning in
lhe IocaIe vhere lhey vere sellIed, and lhal of daiIy exislence in sIave slalus,
vhere norlaIily vas generaIIy higher lhan for equivaIenl persons of free slalus.
To lhis Iisl nusl le added lhe facl lhal nosl sIaves vere sellIed in Iov-Iying
lropicaI areas vhere lhe generaI IeveI of norlaIily vas grealer lhan in higher,
lenperale regions.
Mosl of lhe vork of sIaves couId le calegorized inlo lhe occupalions of nining,
pIanlalion vork, arlisanaI vork, lransporl, and doneslic service. In Spanish
Anerica, sIaves vere concenlraled nosl visilIy in nining and arlisanaI vork
unliI lhe Iale eighleenlh cenlury, vhen sugar and lolacco pIanlalion vork
legan lo doninale Cula vhiIe sIavery decIined eIsevhere. In BraziI, sugar
pIanlalion vork doninaled lhe sixleenlh and sevenleenlh cenluries, vhiIe
nining vork expanded grealIy in lhe eighleenlh cenlury. The LngIish and
Irench Carillean focused on sugar produclion, lhough coffee and Iiveslock
occupied significanl nunlers of sIaves. Tolacco produclion occupied Iarge
nunlers of sIaves in Bahia and Norlh Anerica, collon produclion expanded
fron lhe 176Os in Maranhao, and Ialer in lhe Anerican Soulh.
The rise lo profilaliIily of lhis succession of induslries seens lo have provided lhe
nain puII faclor driving lhe novenenl of sIaves lo lhe Anericas fron Africa.
The denand for sugar vorkers in sixleenlh-cenlury BraziI, lhe sevenleenlh-
cenlury Carillean, and nineleenlh-cenlury Cula lroughl a suppIy response
fron Africa. Thal is, African sIave seIIers nade efforls lo nel lhe denand.
SiniIarIy, lhe denand for nine vorkers in eighleenlh-cenlury Minas Cerais and
Nev Cranada lroughl an African response. veraII, lhe African and African-
descended popuIalion of lhe Anericas grev sleadiIy lhrough lhe sevenleenlh
and eighleenlh cenluries, lhough il venl inlo decIine for as nuch as severaI
decades vhenever and vherever lhe inporl of addilionaI sIaves cane lo a haIl.
The AfrIcan PerspectIve
Iron lhe slandpoinl of lhe African conlinenl, lhe sIave lrade lo lhe Anericas
inleracled vilh olher nigralory novenenls, incIuding sIave lrading vilhin
Africa. Before lhe sevenleenlh cenlury, sul-Saharan African socielies Iacked lhe
poverfuI slales and lhe Iucralive lrade roules necessary lo supporl an exlensive
syslen of sIavery, so lhal sIavery in Africa vas aInosl everyvhere a narginaI
inslilulion. The exceplions vere lhe Iarge slales of lhe Saharan fringe, nolalIy
Teacher Background MateriaIs
7
lhe Songhai enpire. The lrade in sIaves lo Saharan oases, lo Norlh Africa, and lo
Wesl Asia look an eslinaled len lhousand persons per year in lhe sixleenlh
cenlury. The oceanic sIave lrade fron Africa in lhe sixleenlh cenlury vas
doninaled ly lhe novenenl of sIaves lo Lurope and lo such AlIanlic isIands as
lhe Canaries and So Tone.
By lhe nid-sevenleenlh cenlury lhe carrying of sIaves lo Lurope and lhe
AlIanlic isIands had decIined sharpIy, and lhe lrans-AlIanlic lrade had
expanded lo lhe poinl vhere il exceeded lhe voIune of lhe Saharan lrade. The
expansion of lhe ccidenlaI lrade lroughl, as a ly-producl, lhe deveIopnenl of
an Africa lrade: grovlh in sIave exporls Ied lo lhe crealion of expanded
nelvorks of sIave suppIy, and lhese pernilled veaIlhy Africans lo luy sIaves in
unprecedenled nunlers.
The novenenl of so nany sIaves lo lhe African coasl for exporl enlaiIed Iarge-
scaIe caplure and nigralion. Dislances for lhe novenenl of sIaves lo lhe coasl
couId le snaII (an average of Iess lhan 1OO kiIonelers for lhe Iarge nunler of
sIaves fron lhe Bighl of Benin in lhe earIy eighleenlh cenlury), or lhey couId
le innense (sone 6OO kiIonelers for lhe Banlara sIaves fron Wesl Africa
vho forned lhe nucIeus of lhe Louisiana sIave popuIalion, siniIar dislances
for sIaves of lhe Lunda vho passed lhrough AngoIa on lheir vay lo lhe
Argenline). These dislances, lraveIed sIovIy and over Iong periods, lroughl
high norlaIily vilh lhen.
This grin laIe of sIave norlaIily is nol lhe vhoIe of lhe slory, of course, in lhal
lhe purpose of lhe sIave lrade vas lo deIiver Iive vorkers lo lhe purchasers. We
shouId lherefore nenlion, al Ieasl, lhe econonic nelvork deveIoped for suppIy
of lhe lrade in Africa. ConsideralIe Ialor and inveslnenl vere required lo
provide lransporl, finance, food, cIolhing, Iodging, guards, and nedicine for lhe
sIaves. These syslens of sIave deIivery, lhough lhey differed fron region lo
region, lecane a significanl eIenenl in lhe African econonic Iandscape.
The nosl olvious push faclors sending African sIaves across lhe AlIanlic
vere var and fanine. The savanna areas of narginaI rainfaII~AngoIa and lhe
grassIands exlending fron Seneganlia easl lo Caneroon~undervenl periodic
droughl and fanine, and in lhese lines desperale faniIies soId lolh chiIdren
and aduIls. The reIalion lelveen varfare and ensIavenenl is olvious, lul on
lhe olher hand lhere have leen lvo cenluries of delale over vhelher lhe African
vars lroke oul for pureIy doneslic reasons, or vhelher lhe Luropean denand
for sIaves slinuIaled addilionaI vars.
veraII, lhe exporl of sIaves fron Africa haIled and lhen reversed grovlh of lhe
conlinenls popuIalion. During lhe sevenleenlh cenlury, such popuIalion
decIine look pIace in reslricled areas of coaslaI Seneganlia, Ipper Cuinea, and
Teacher Background MateriaIs
8
AngoIa. Afler aloul 173O, lhe decIine lecane generaI for lhe coasl fron SenegaI
lo AngoIa, and conlinued lo aloul 185O. The decIine vas sIov ralher lhan
precipilous. Lven lhough lhe nunler of sIaves exporled averaged IillIe nore
lhan lhree per lhousand of lhe African regionaI popuIalion, and even lhough lhe
lrade look nore naIes lhan fenaIes, lhe conlinalion of lhe norlaIily of caplure
and lransporlalion vilh lhe concenlralion of caplures on young aduIls neanl
lhal Africa Iosl enough young vonen lo reverse a grovlh rale of five per
lhousand. The sane processes lransforned lhe slruclure of lhe popuIalion,
causing lhe aduIl sex ralio lo decIine lo an average of 8O nen per 1OO vonen.
A G!nba! PerspectIve
Despile lhe innigralion of Luropeans and Africans, lhe lolaI popuIalion of
lhe Anericas decIined in lhe sixleenlh and sevenleenlh cenluries. WhiIe
eslinales of lhe pre-CoIunlian popuIalions nusl renain specuIalive, lhe
popuIalion of lhe Anericas feII fron perhaps 8O niIIion lo as IillIe as five
niIIion persons during lhe sevenleenlh cenlury. The chief reason for lhis
nassive norlaIily vas lhe inlroduclion of nev infeclious diseases fron Lurasia
and Africa.
The lhrealened void of popuIalion in lhe Anericas encouraged lhe
lransfornalion of African sIavery fron a narginaI inslilulion lo a cenlraI
eIenenl in a gIolaI syslen of popuIalion and Ialor. The gIolaI narkel for sIaves
enconpassed lhe Anericas, Africa, lhe Indian cean and Weslern Asia in lhe
eighleenlh and nineleenlh cenluries, il inleracled nore lroadIy vilh lhe
syslens of popuIalion and Ialor in lhe Anericas, Lurope, and Weslern Asia.
When sIave prices rose sharpIy (as lhey did al lhe lurn of lhe eighleenlh cenlury)
or feII significanlIy (as lhey did in lhe easlern henisphere in lhe earIy nineleenlh
cenlury), sIave Ialorers vere noved in nev direclions in response lo econonic
incenlives. SiniIarIy, free vorkers on every conlinenl noved in response lo
lhese changes in lhe vaIue of Ialor.
Before 16OO, African nigralion lo lhe Anericas, vhiIe il nay have exceeded
Luropean nigralion, vas snaII in nagnilude. During lhe line vhen lhe Indian
popuIalion vas decIining lul sliII Iarge, Africans in lhe Anericas, vhiIe usuaIIy
in sIave slalus, vere nonelheIess oflen persons of reIaliveIy high vaIue, serving
in lhe niIilary and in arlisanaI lasks. In BraziI, Iarge-scaIe ensIavenenl of
Indians for vork on sugar pIanlalions characlerized lhe Iale sixleenlh cenlury.
African Ialorers, concenlraled al firsl in lhe skiIIed occupalions on lhe
pIanlalions, graduaIIy dispIaced lhe disappearing Indians al aII IeveIs of vork.
In lhe sevenleenlh cenlury, lhe scarcily of Indian Ialorers nade Africans
appear, ly conparison, nore pIenlifuI. SliII, for nuch if nol aII of lhe cenlury,
Teacher Background MateriaIs
9
lhe addilion of African and Luropean innigranls and lheir progeny vas
insufficienl lo offsel lhe decIine in Indian popuIalion.
By lhe eighleenlh cenlury, aII lhe na|or popuIalion groups~lhose of Indian,
Luropean, African, and neslizo or nuIallo anceslry~vere groving, lhough
fron a very sparse lase. Hovever, in lhis period lhe Iarge-scaIe renovaI of
Africans fron lheir hones lo serve as sIaves in lhe Anericas, vilh aII ils
allendanl carnage, lroughl popuIalion decIine for region afler region in Africa,
and finaIIy for lhe veslern African coasl as a vhoIe. ConsequenlIy, lhe African
addilion lo lhe popuIalion of lhe Anericas (lolh ly innigralion and ly naluraI
reproduclion) vas insufficienl lo nake up for lhe Ioss of popuIalion in Africa.
The cenlraIily of African Ialor vas coslIy lo lhe sIaves, and vas coslIy in lhe
Ionger run lo lheir socielies of origin. In lhe eighleenlh and nineleenlh cenluries
lhe popuIalions of Lurope, lhe Anericas, and Asia grev al unprecedenled rales,
apparenlIy as a resuIl of cerlain sociaI changes and perhaps inproved pulIic
heaIlh condilions. In lhe nineleenlh cenlury lhese rapidIy groving popuIalions
spun off niIIions of nigranls, vho searched near and far for lhe neans lo nake
a leller Iiving. Ior Africa, in conlrasl, lhe popuIalion renained slagnanl or in
decIine, and Ialor nigralion noslIy look pIace, even vilhin lhe conlinenl, ly lhe
forcilIe neans vhich inlerfered vilh popuIalion grovlh.
The lransalIanlic nigralion of sIaves lroughl a rich African conlrilulion lo
lhe cuIlure of lhe Anericas~in reIigion, cuisine, pharnacopia, agricuIluraI
lechniques, dress, Ianguage and phiIosophy. In Ianguage lhe African inpacl
can le seen in lvo vays. Iirsl is in lhe deveIopnenl of lhe CreoIe Ianguages,
such as Hailian CreoIe, }anaican Ialois, Iapianenlo of lhe Dulch Wesl
Indies, and CuIIah of Soulh CaroIina. In lhese Ianguages lhe vocaluIary is
lolh Luropean and African, and lhe grannar is noslIy African. Hailian
KreyoI is nov a vrillen officiaI Ianguage of lhe counlry, and lhe siniIar
CreoIe of lhe Irench AnliIIes is leconing lhe Ieading Ianguage of a nev
vave of nuIlicuIluraI nusic. Second is lhe inpacl of African speech on
LngIish, Spanish, Irench, and Iorluguese as spoken in lhe Anericas. The
singIe liggesl reason for lhe differences in lhese Ianguages on lhe lvo sides
of lhe AlIanlic is lhe conlrilulion of African expressions in lhe Anericas.
These and olher cuIluraI pallerns of lhe nigralion can le Iooked al in lvo vays.
The firsl is in lerns of survivaIs: lhal is, lhe conlinuily of Wesl African reIigion
in lhe vodou of Haili, or of Wesl African cuisine in lhe gunlo or hol larlecue
sauce of lhe Anerican Soulh. Bul ve can aIso sel African conlrilulions lo Nev
WorId cuIlure in pallerns of change and innovalion. Here lhe olvious exanpIe
is in |azz nusic, vhich ly definilion is aIvays in change, lul vhere lhe ruIes for
nusicaI innovalion can le lraced lack lo Africa.
Teacher Background MateriaIs
1O
In addilion lo lhe herilage fron Africa, lhe herilage of sIavery crealed dislincl
pallerns of connunily for Africans in lhe Anericas. lher innigranls, arriving
as free persons, had lhe opporlunily lo eslalIish lheir ovn connunilies, in
vhich peopIe of siniIar Iinguislic and cuIluraI lackground luiIl up slrong IocaI
unils, usuaIIy nainlaining sone conlacl vilh lhe honeIand. These ranged fron
Sviss farning lovns in lhe Anerican Midvesl lo Canlonese nerchanl
connunilies lo ruraI }apanese connunilies in BraziI. African connunilies in
lhe Anericas vere IargeIy prevenled fron recrealing lheir hone socielies in lhis
vay lecause lhey vere nol free lo nove, and peopIe of varying elhnic groups
vere oflen nixed purposeIy ly lheir ovners lo reduce soIidarily. As a resuIl,
inhalilanls of African sellIenenls in lhe Anericas lended lo refer lack lo Africa
in generaI ralher lhan lo parlicuIar African regions. They lhoughl of a
ronanlicized African pasl ralher lhan of lhe Ialesl nevs lecause lhey vere cul
off fron hone. Hence, lhey conslrucled a nev, creoIized cuIlure oul of lhe
lradilions avaiIalIe lo lhen ralher lhan nainlain lhe lradilions of a parlicuIar
Id WorId region. Quile IogicaIIy, lherefore, lhe idea of lhe unily of Africa grev
up in lhe Anericas.
Mosl of lhe sIaves died earIy and vilhoul progeny. In lhe Anericas, nuch of
lheir produce vas exporled, consuned, and soon forgollen. SliII, anpIe
evidence renains of hov sIaves conslrucled cilies and cIeared farns. IarlicuIar
enphasis shouId le given lo lhe vaIue of lhe vork done ly African sIaves~in
lhe Anericas, in Africa, and in lhe rienl~lecause lhe racisl ideoIogy in lhe Iasl
15O years has denied lheir inporlance in conslrucling lhe vorId ve Iive in, as
veII as denying lhe underdeveIopnenl of Africa lhal resuIled in parl fron lheir
forced nigralion. The very lern Weslern CiviIizalion, vhich is used lo
descrile lhe conlinenls of Lurope, Norlh and sonelines Soulh Anerica, refIecls
lhis deniaI of Africas roIe in lhe nodern vorId. The lern carries vilh il lhe
inpIicalion lhal lhe veaIlh and lhe achievenenl of lhese conlinenls springs
soIeIy fron lhe herilage of Lurope. The nigralion discussed alove is one of
nany vays lo denonslrale lhal lhere is nore lo lhe nodern vorId lhan lhe
expansion of Lurope.
Adapled fron Ialrick Manning, Migralions of Africans lo lhe Anericas: The Inpacl of
Africans, Africa, and lhe nev WorId, T|c His|crq Tcac|cr 26 (May 1993): 279-296.
A reprinl of lhe fuII lexl of lhis essay aIso appears in Ross L. Dunn and David VigiIanle, eds.,
8ring His|crq A|itc. A Scurccocc| fcr Tcac|ing lcr| His|crq (Los AngeIes: NalionaI Cenler for
Hislory in lhe SchooIs, ICLA, 1996), pp. 273-283.
Teacher Background MateriaIs
11
DramatIc Mnment

ne day, vhen aII our peopIe vere gone oul lo lheir vorks as usuaI,
and onIy I and ny dear sisler vere Iefl lo nind lhe house, lvo nen and a
vonan gol over our vaIIs, and in a nonenl seized us lolh, and, vilhoul giving
us line lo cry oul, or nake resislance, lhey slopped our noulhs, and ran off vilh
us inlo lhe nearesl vood. Here lhey lied our hands, and conlinued lo carry us as
far as lhey couId, liII nighl cane on, vhen ve reached a snaII house, vhere lhe
rollers haIled for refreshnenl, and spenl lhe nighl. We vere lhen unlound, lul
vere unalIe lo lake any food, and, leing quile overpovered ly faligue and
grief, our onIy reIief vas sone sIeep, vhich aIIayed oul nisforlune for a shorl
line. The nexl norning ve Iefl lhe house, and conlinued lraveIIing aII lhe day.
Ior a Iong line ve had kepl lhe voods, lul al Iasl ve cane inlo a road vhich I
leIieved I knev. I had nov sone hopes of leing deIivered, for ve had advanced
lul a IillIe vay lefore I discovered sone peopIe al a dislance, on vhich I legan
lo cry oul for lheir assislance: lul ny cries had no olher effecl lhan lo nake lhen
lie ne fasler and slop ny noulh, and lhen lhey pul ne inlo a Iarge sack. They
aIso slopped ny sislers noulh, and lied her hands, and in lhis nanner ve
proceeded liII ve vere oul of lhe sighl of lhese peopIe. When ve venl lo resl lhe
foIIoving nighl lhey offered us sone vicluaIs, lul ve refused il, and lhe onIy
conforl ve had vas in leing in one anolhers arns aII lhal nighl, and lalhing
each olher vilh our lears. Bul aIas! ve vere soon deprived of even lhe snaII
conforl of veeping logelher. The nexl day proved a day of grealer sorrov lhan
I had yel experienced, for ny sisler and I vere lhen separaled, vhiIe ve Iay
cIasped in each olhers arns. Il vas in vain lhal ve lesoughl lhen nol lo parl us,
she vas lorn fron ne, and innedialeIy carried avay, vhiIe I vas Iefl in a slale
of dislraclion nol lo le descriled. I cried and grieved conlinuaIIy, and for severaI
days I did nol eal any lhing lul vhal lhey forced inlo ny noulh. Al Ienglh, afler
nany days lraveIIing, during vhich I had oflen changed naslers, I gol inlo lhe
hands of a chieflain, in a very pIeasanl counlry. . . .
I vas again soId and carried lhrough a nunler of pIaces, liII, afler lraveIIing a
consideralIe line, I cane lo a lovn caIIed Tinneh, in lhe nosl leaulifuI counlry
I had yel seen in Africa. Il vas exlreneIy rich, and lhere vere nany rivuIels
vhich fIoved lhrough il, and suppIied a Iarge pond in lhe cenlre of lhe lovn,
vhere lhe peopIe vashed. Here I firsl sav and lasled cocoa nuls, vhich I
lhoughl superior lo any nuls I had ever lasled lefore, and lhe lrees, vhich vere
Ioaded, vere aIso inlerspersed anong lhe houses, vhich had connodious
shades ad|oining and vere in lhe sane nanner as ours, lhe insides leing nealIy
pIaslered and vhilevashed. Here I aIso sav and lasled for lhe firsl line sugar-
cane. Their noney consisled of IillIe vhile sheIIs lhe size of a finger naiI. I vas
soId here for one hundred sevenly-lvo of lhen ly a nerchanl vho Iived and
lroughl ne lhere. . . .
12
Dramatic Moment
Al Iasl I cane lo lhe lanks of a Iarge river, vhich vas covered vilh canoes in
vhich lhe peopIe appeared lo Iive vilh lheir househoId ulensiIs and
provisions of aII kinds. I vas leyond neasure aslonished al lhis, as I had never
lefore seen any valer Iarger lhan a pond or a rivuIel, and ny surprise vas
ningIed vilh no snaII fear vhen I vas pul inlo one of lhose canoes, and ve
legan lo paddIe and nove aIong lhe river. We conlinued going on lhus liII
nighl, and vhen ve cane lo Iand, and nade fires on lhe lanks. . . . Thus I
conlinued lo lraveI, sonelines ly Iand, sonelines ly valer, lhrough severaI
differenl counlries, and various nalions, liII, al lhe end of six nonlhs afler I had
leen kidnapped, I arrived al lhe sea coasl. . . .
Source: Iaudah Lquiano, T|c |n|crcs|ing Narra|itc cf ||c |ifc cf O|aua| |quianc, cr Gus|atas
Vassa, ||c African (Leeds: }anes NichoIs, 1814), pp. 21-22, 27, 3O-31.
Iage prinl fron Iaudah Lquiano, T|c |n|crcs|ing Narra|itc cf ||c |ifc cf O|aua| |quianc,
cr Gus|atus Vassa, ||c African (Norvich: The Aulhor, 1794).
Lilrary of Congress Reproduclion Nunler: LC-ISZ62-54O26 (2-1)
1
3
M
a
p

1
Unit Map Unit Map Unit Map Unit Map Unit Map
14
Lessnn One
5!avery: DefInItInn, Extent, and JustIfIcatInns
A. ObjectIves
To define lhe lern 'sIavery.
To idenlify lhe characlerislics of sIavery in Africa, lhe MiddIe Lasl,
and lhe Anericas.
To nap origins and deslinalions of African sIaves.
To expIain lhe IegaI and iIIegaI neans of ensIavenenl.
B. HIstnrIca! Backgrnund
H
islorians have had a conlinuing delale aloul lhe exlenl and
nalure of sIavery anong sul-Saharan African socielies lefore lhe
advenl of lhe denand for sIaves fron oulside. LxaclIy vhen lhis
exlernaI denand legan is nol knovn. SIaves fron sul-Saharan Africa
vere leing lraded across lhe Sahara Deserl and lhroughoul lhe Indian
cean Basin as far lack as al Ieasl lhe sevenlh cenlury C.L. (The Saharan
sIave lrade is discussed in 5tudent Handnut 1). The lrade in sIaves lo
Lurope and Luropean coIonies in lhe Anericas legan in lhe nid-
fifleenlh cenlury vilh Iorluguese expIoralions aIong lhe vesl coasl of
Africa. In 1445 lhe Iorluguese luiIl a forl on Arguin IsIand, off lhe coasl
of Maurilania, for lhe purpose of luying goId and sIaves. During lhe
nexl fifly years, Iorluguese saiIors nade lheir vay dovn lhe coasl.
Iron 15OO, lhe Iorluguese eslalIished sugar pIanlalions on lhe isIand
of So Tone, off lhe coasl of nodern Calon. They used sIaves ollained
fron lhe Kongo Kingdon of vesl-cenlraI Africa, |usl soulh of lhe
Congo River. During lhe sixleenlh cenlury, lhe innenseIy profilalIe
sugar pIanlalions of So Tone vere copied in BraziI and lhe Carillean,
crealing a voracious denand for sIave Ialor. The AlIanlic sIave lrade
reached ils zenilh in lhe eighleenlh cenlury vhen over 6 niIIion
Africans arrived in lhe Anericas. Luropeans aIso carried sIaves lo lheir
coIonies in Soulh Africa and lhe Mascarene IsIands (Maurilius and
Reunion) in lhe Indian cean.
SIavery exisled in Africa lefore lhe arrivaI of Luropean lraders on lhe
coasl. In nosl sul-Saharan African socielies veaIlh vas neasured in
persons. A veaIlhy Iineage or slale had Iarge nunlers of dependenl
peopIe. In exchange for a share of lheir produclion and proleclion in lines
of fanine or var, dependenls provided Ialor. In addilion lo dependenls,
15
Lesson One
Iineages and slales usuaIIy conlroIIed lhe Ialor of sIaves caplured in var or
ensIaved as a penaIly for a crine. SIaves did nol share in lhe righls and
priviIeges accorded lo free nenlers of lhe Iineage or slale.
In lhe iniliaI years of AlIanlic lrade~lefore lhe crealion of sugar
pIanlalions~Luropeans vere nore inleresled in goId lhan sIaves. As lhe
denand for Ialor grev, hovever, Luropeans increasingIy soughl sIaves.
African lraders and poIilicaI Ieaders agreed lo lrade sIaves in exchange
for presligious Luropean goods such as cIolh and aIcohoI. Wilh lhese
preslige goods lhe Africans allracled grealer nunlers of dependenls.
IronicaIIy, as pover cane increasingIy lo depend on access lo Luropean
goods, and as il lecane nore difficuIl lo caplure sIaves fron neighloring
peopIes, nany African lraders sacrificed lhe dependenls lhal lroughl
lhen preslige. Wesl Africans vere increasingIy caughl up in a vioIenl
cycIe of sIave raiding in order lhal eIiles nighl allain presligious
Luropean goods lo nainlain lheir pover.
The sIave lrade increased lhe nunler of IocaIIy heId sIaves, as socielies
kepl sone of lhen for doneslic Ialor. Mosl of lhe sIaves lhal renained in
Africa vere vonen, as nen nade up lvo-lhirds of sIaves lraded across
lhe AlIanlic. The denographic inpacl of lhe sIave lrade is difficuIl lo
assess. In lhe areas vhere sIaving vas nosl inlense, popuIalions decIined
in reaI lerns, in nosl olher areas, popuIalion grovlh vas sIoved lul
overaII nunlers of peopIe did nol decrease.
CaIcuIaling lhe exacl nunler of sIaves lraded in lhe AlIanlic region is
difficuIl oving lo ils lreadlh across line and space. The firsl
conprehensive eslinale of lhe lrade vas IhiIIip Curlins T|c A||an|ic
S|atc Trac. A Ccnsus, pulIished in 1969. Curlin used acluaI porl and
shipping records lo eslinale lhe nunler of Africans Ianded (aIive) on
Anerican shores as approxinaleIy 9.5 niIIion. Curlins palh lreaking
research slinuIaled furlher vork. In 1982 IauI Love|oy, using Curlins
figures as a slarling pIace, eslinaled a Iarger figure. Today Love|oys
eslinale is generaIIy accepled as lhe lesl eslinale avaiIalIe. The
eslinales ly cenlury of lolh hislorians are on lhe foIIoving page.
The slalislics poinl lo lvo inporlanl lrends. Iirsl, lhe eighleenlh cenlury
sav lhe heighl of lhe AlIanlic sIave lrade. Second, lhe lrade olviousIy
conlinued even afler lhe Brilish aloIished il in 18O7. Lven vilh navaI
palroIs off lhe African coasls lhe Brilish couId nol slop lhe lrade as Iong
as sIavery conlinued in lhe Anericas. The sIave lrade did nol finaIIy end
unliI lhe aloIilion of sIavery in lhe Anericas, leginning vilh lhe Brilish
coIonies in 1834, lhe Irench coIonies in 1848, lhe Iniled Slales in 1865,
and in BraziI in and Cula ly 1888.
16
C. Lessnn ActIvItIes
1. Ask sludenls lo define sIavery. Wrile lheir expIanalions on lhe
loard. Have sludenls read 5tudent Handnut 1. Ask sludenls again
lo define sIavery. Wrile lheir expIanalions on lhe loard nexl lo
lheir earIier expIanalions. n lhe loard creale lvo coIunns, under
one ask sludenls lo vrile characlerislics of lhe sIave lrade lo lhe
MiddIe Lasl, and under lhe second ask for characlerislics of lhe
sIave lrade lo lhe Anericas. Discuss in vhal vays sIavery as
pracliced in Africa and lhe MiddIe Lasl differed fron sIavery in lhe
Anericas and in vhal vays il vas siniIar.
2. Ask sludenls lo fiII in sIave origins and deslinalions on lhe lIank
nap, Map 2. Discuss lhe origins and deslinalions of sIaves. Ising
Graph 2 poinl oul lo sludenls lhe dislrilulion of sIave inporls lo
lhe Anericas.
3. Break sludenls inlo five groups and ask each one lo caIcuIale an
average yearIy nunler of sIave inporls lo lhe Anericas lased on
lhe nunlers given in Craph 2. Assign Croup 1 lo caIcuIale lhe
years 145O-16OO, Croup 2 lo caIcuIale 16O1-17OO, Croup 3 lo
caIcuIale 17O1-18OO, Croup 4 lo caIcuIale 18O1-19OO, and Croup 5
lo caIcuIale lhe enlire average 145O-19OO.
4. Have sludenls read 5tudent Handnut 2. Ask lhen vhal lhe
aulhor neans ly Iegilinale or |usl neans of ensIavenenl.
Ask sludenls vhal lhe aulhor neans ly iIIegilinale or un-
|usl neans of ensIavenenl.
Lnvejny's EstImates
(1982)
CurtIn's Estmates
(1969)
Vn!ume
1451-16OO
16O1-17OO
17O1-181O
1811-187O
274,OOO
1,341,OOO
6,O51,7OO
1,898,4OO
TTAL 9,566,100
1451-16OO
16O1-17OO
17O1-18OO
18O1-19OO
TTAL
367,OOO
1,868,OOO
6,133,OOO
3,33O,OOO
11,698,000
PerInd PerInd Vn!ume
Sources: IhiIip D. Curlin, T|c A||an|ic S|atc Trac A Ccnsus (Madison, Wisconsin: The Iniversily
of Wisconsin Iress, 1969), p. 268, and IauI L. Love|oy, The VoIune of lhe AlIanlic SIave Trade:
A Synlhesis in ]curna| cf African His|crq 23 (1982), pp. 494-5OO.
Lesson One
17
Discussion Queslions:
a. Why~if al aII~vere dislinclions lelveen IegaI and iIIe-
gaI neans of ensIavenenl vere inporlanl during lhe four
cenluries of lhe AlIanlic SIave Trade?
l. Whal inpacl did lhe groving denand for Ialor in lhe Aneri-
cas have on |uslificalions for sIavery?
Lesson One
18
Student Handout 1 Lesson One
5!avery DefIned
To legin our discussion il is necessary lo define sIavery. Coning fron a
Weslern and parlicuIarIy Norlh Anerican perspeclive, ve usuaIIy lhink of
pIanlalion-slyIe raciaI sIavery connon in lhe Anericas. To equale lhe sIavery
lhal exisled in nosl African and MusIin socielies vilh Anerican sIavery
dislorls sone significanl differences. f course, sIavery differed in praclice
fron one sociely lo lhe olher, even vilhin lhe Iniled Slales sIaves experienced
differenl vork regines depending upon a nunler of varialIes incIuding lhe
alliludes of lheir nasler, lhe kind of vork lhey perforned, and vhere lhey
Iived. Whalever lhe differences, il is possilIe lo agree on a definilion lo appIy
lo sIavery in aII of ils forns:
SIavery vas one forn of expIoilalion. Ils speciaI characlerislics
incIuded lhe idea lhal sIaves vere properly, lhal lhey vere
oulsiders vho vere aIien ly origin or vho had leen denied lheir
herilage lhrough |udiciaI or olher sanclions, lhal coercion couId le
used al viII, lhal lheir Ialor pover vas al lhe conpIele disposaI of
a nasler, lhal lhey did nol have lhe righl lo lheir ovn sexuaIily
and, ly exlension, lo lheir ovn reproduclive capacilies, and lhal
lhe sIave slalus vas inheriled unIess provision vas nade lo
aneIiorale lhal slalus.
Source: IauI L. Love|oy, Transfcrna|icns in S|atcrq A His|crq cf S|atcrq in Africa
(Canlridge: Canlridge Iniversily Iress 1983), p. 1.
SIavery~in ils various forns~is ancienl. Il goes lack lhousands of years, il
exisled in ancienl Creece, Rone, and Lgypl. SIaves have cone fron various
pIaces al differenl lines in hislory. ne source of sIaves vas sul-Saharan Africa.
The exporl of sIaves fron sul-Saharan Africa vas Iinked lo lhe expansion of lhe
MusIin Aral enpire across Norlh Africa in lhe cenluries afler lhe dealh of lhe
Irophel Muhannad in 632 C.L. MusIins used lheir reIigion (IsIan) lo |uslify
lhe ensIavenenl of nonleIieving (i.e., non-MusIin) Africans. Mosl of lhese
African sIaves crossed lhe Sahara Deserl in caravans, or cane via lhe Red Sea
and Lasl African coasl in loals. They ended up in lhe counlries of Norlh Africa
or in lhe MiddIe Lasl.
The na|orily of African sIaves vere deslined for doneslic service. Wonen and
chiIdren vere vanled in grealer nunlers lhan nen. They vere IikeIy lo le
incorporaled inlo MusIin sociely. Boys vere lrained for niIilary or doneslic
service. IenaIes lecane doneslics, and lhe prelliesl vere pIaced in harens.
SIavery in lhe MiddIe Lasl vas nol a seIf-perpelualing inslilulion, and lhose
lorn inlo sIavery forned a reIaliveIy snaII proporlion of lhe sIave popuIalion.
19
Student Handout 1 Lesson One
Mosl chiIdren of sIaves vere assiniIaled inlo MusIin sociely. This expIains lhe
alsence loday of an easiIy recognizalIe, sociaIIy dislincl lIack popuIalion in lhe
MiddIe Lasl.
n lhe African side a nunler of condilions produced sIaves for exporl: varfare,
crininaI conviclions, kidnaping, dell, and droughl. African nerchanls galhered
sIaves for shipnenl ly loal and caravan lo lhe narkels of lhe norlh. The exporl
lrade vas reIaliveIy nodesl for nany cenluries lefore lhe fifleenlh cenlury C.L
and indeed did nol reaIIy expand consideralIy unliI lhe nineleenlh cenlury.
Lxporls anounled lo a fev lhousand sIaves per year al nosl lines, and lecause
lhe affecled areas vere oflen very exlensive, lhe inpacl vas usuaIIy nininized.
The sIave lrade lhal is ly far lhe lesl docunenled is lhe AlIanlic sIave lrade. ne
reason is lhal lhis lrade lransporled a Iarge nunler of peopIe~approxinaleIy
11 niIIion arrived aIive in lhe Anericas~lelveen lhe nid-fifleenlh and nid-
nineleenlh cenluries. Second, lhe AlIanlic sIave lrade and lhe lype of sIavery
pracliced in lhe Anericas crealed a Iarge popuIalion of African descenl. The
peak of lhe lrade occurred in lhe eighleenlh cenlury (see Graph 1) during vhich
approxinaleIy 6 niIIion sIaves arrived aIive in lhe Anericas.
The AlIanlic sIave lrade differed in sone inporlanl respecls fron lhe lrade lo
lhe MiddIe Lasl. Iirsl, aloul lvo-lhirds of sIaves lraded lo lhe Anericas vere
nen. Second, lhe sIavery pracliced in Anerica differed fron sIavery in lhe
MiddIe Lasl and Africa. The na|or difference lelveen sIavery in Africa and lhe
Anericas had lo do vilh lhe vay sIaves vere used. In Luropean socielies, and
in lhe coIonies lhey conlroIIed, sIaves vere enpIoyed in vork for vhich no
hired Ialorer or lenanl couId le found or al Ieasl viIIing lo underlake under
condilions lhal lhe Iandovner vished. ConsequenlIy, sIaves lypicaIIy had
difficuIl, denanding, and degrading vork, and lhey vere oflen nislrealed ly
expIoilalive naslers vho vere anxious lo naxinize profils. Wilh lhe nearIy
insalialIe denand for Ialor lhal grev vilh Luropean conquesl of lhe Anericas
and lhe deveIopnenl of slapIe agricuIluraI crops, sugar for exanpIe, Luropeans
lurned lo Africa lo provide Iarge nunlers of sIaves. Luropeans vanled lo nake
noney oul of lheir Anerican coIonies, and lhey used sIaves Iike nachines.
SIavery lecane a pernanenl, raciaIIy excIusive casle. SIave slalus vas passed
on lo lhe nexl generalion. SIaves had very fev righls and vere generaIIy al lhe
nercy of lheir ovners. Ierhaps no slalislic expIains lhe lrulaIily of Anerican
sIavery leller lhan lhe denography of sIave innigranls as conpared lo
Luropean innigranls. By 182O, sone 1O niIIion Africans had nigraled lo lhe
Nev WorId as conpared lo sone 2 niIIion Luropeans. Bul in 182O, lhe Nev
WorId vhile popuIalion of sone 12 niIIion vas roughIy lvice as greal as lhe
lIack. (Ialrick Manning, S|atcrq an African |ifc (Canlridge: Canlridge
Iniversily Iress, 199O), p. 37.)
2O
This kind of challeI sIavery in lhe Anericas differed fron vhal sone hislorians
caII sociaI or Iineage sIavery lhal exisled in Africa prior lo oulside denand for
sIaves. In lhe preexisling African forns of sIavery, sIaves shared vilh lheir
Anerican counlerparls an alsence of freedon. African sIavery differed fron
Anerican sIavery, hovever, in lvo inporlanl respecls. Iirsl, sIave slalus vas nol
pernanenl. A graduaI process of incorporalion evenluaIIy resuIled in lhe
eIininalion of sIave slalus, so lhal I nighl le a sIave, lul ny chiIdren, and
especiaIIy ny grandchiIdren, vouId nol share lhal slalus. Second, sociely vas nol
arranged prinariIy around lhe crealion of connerciaI veaIlh lased on nass
exporl of connodilies Iike sugar lo dislanl narkels. SIaves nighl perforn lasks
disdained ly free persons, lul lhey vere nol vorked lo dealh on pIanlalions
geared around naxinizing profil. Civen lhe nalure of African sIavery (al Ieasl up
unliI lhe nineleenlh-cenlury), sone hislorians queslion lhe appIicaliIily of lhe
lern s|atc. Ierhaps lhe eighleenlh-cenlury sIave lrader lurned aloIilionisl }ohn
Nevlon lesl expIained lhe dislinclion lelveen African and Anerican sIavery:
The slale of sIavery, anong lhese viId larlarous peopIe, as ve
esleen lhen, is nuch niIder lhan in our coIonies. Ior as, on lhe
olher hand, lhey have no Iand in high cuIlivalion, Iike our Wesl
India pIanlalions, and lherefore no caII for lhal excessive,
uninlernilled Ialour, vhich exhausls our sIaves, so, on lhe olher
hand, no nan is pernilled lo drav lIood even fron a sIave. If he
does, he is IialIe lo a slricl inquisilion. . . . A nan nay seII his
sIave, if he pIeases, lul he nay nol vanlonIy aluse hin. The
Iavs, Iikevise, punish sone species of lhefl vilh sIavery, and in
cases of aduIlery, vhich are very connon, as poIygany is lhe
cuslon of lhe counlry, lolh lhe vonan, and lhe nan vho
offends vilh her, are IialIe lo le soId for sIaves, unIess lhey can
salisfy lhe husland, or unIess lhey are redeened ly lheir friends.
Source: }ohn Nevlon, T|cug||s upcn ||c African S|atc Trac (London, 1788), p. 1O6.
There is no such lhing as good sIavery and lad sIavery. As our definilion
nakes cIear, sIavery vas a forn of expIoilalion lhal varied in ils condilions.
ver lhe course of lhe AlIanlic sIave lrade pIanlalion-slyIe produclion vas
inlroduced lo parls of Africa. As in lhe Anericas, lhese African-ovned
pIanlalions produced for nass exporl, and sIaves faced condilions very nuch
akin lo lhose in lhe Anericas.
The figures leIov are for sIaves Ianded aIive in lhe Anericas. These figures are
eslinales lased on exlensive research in shipping and porl records. An exacl
figure for nunlers of Africans invoIved in lhe AlIanlic sIave lrade is inpossilIe
due lo lhe sheer enornily of lhe lrade across line and space, norlaIily al sea and
Student Handout 1 Lesson One
21
en roule lo lhe coasl, and a Iack of conprehensive records. ver lhe Ienglh of lhe
lrade~fron lhe nid-fifleenlh lo lhe nid-nineleenlh cenluries~lhe average
norlaIily rale on lhe MiddIe Iassage (lhe |ourney across lhe AlIanlic cean
fron lhe porl of enlarkalion in Africa lo porl of delarkalion in lhe Anericas)
vas aloul 2O%. The norlaIily lelveen lhe poinl of caplure in Africa and
enlarkalion for lhe Anericas vas anolher 2O%. Thus, lhe lolaI figure for
Africans caplured inlo sIavery vas prolalIy cIoser lo 15 niIIion.
SIaves cane prinariIy fron Wesl and Wesl-CenlraI Africa incIuding lhese
regions: Seneganlia, Ipper Cuinea, CoId Coasl, Bighl of Benin, Bighl of
Biafra, Loango, and AngoIa. In lhe nineleenlh cenlury significanl nunlers of
sIaves cane aII lhe vay fron Mozanlique in Soulh-Lasl Africa (See Map 1, p.
13). The lvo na|or deslinalions for sIaves lransporled across lhe AlIanlic vere
BraziI (aloul 4O%) and lhe Carillean (aloul 35%). The Norlh Anerican
nainIand received onIy aloul 5%. Spanish Anerica received aloul 15% and
Lurope and isIands off lhe coasl of Africa incIuding So Tone and Calo Verde
received aloul 2% (see Graph 1).
Student Handout 1 Lesson One
2
2
M
a
p

2
L
e
s
s
o
n

O
n
e
Slave Origins and Destinations Slave Origins and Destinations Slave Origins and Destinations Slave Origins and Destinations Slave Origins and Destinations
23
Graph 1 Lesson One
Based on slalislics fron IauI L. Love|oy, The VoIune of lhe AlIanlic SIave Trade: A Synlhesis
in ]curna| cf African His|crq 23 (1982), pp. 494-5OO.
The Vn!ume nf the At!antIc 5!ave Trade
ILRID
V

L
I
M
L
24
Graph 2 Lesson One
DestInatInns nf 5!aves Brnught tn the AmerIcas
5panIsh AmerIca
15%
Nnrth AmerIca 5%
Eurnpe/At!antIc
Is!ands 2%
Other 3%
CarIbbean 35%
BrazI! 40%
25
"Prnpnsa! tn Ynur Majesty abnut 5!avery In
Lands Cnnquered by Pnrtuga!"
Anonynous, 1612
(Irinary Source)
The foIIoving seIeclion cones fron a Ieller lo King IhiIip
III of Spain (IhiIip II of IorlugaI), in aloul 1612. The Ieller
argues lhal lhe IegaI grounds on vhich lhe sevenleenlh-
cenlury Ilerian kingdons (Spain and IorlugaI) had lased
lheir ensIavenenl of Africans vere leing alused. These
IegaI grounds incIuded: lhe concepl of a |usl var in
vhich infideIs nighl le ensIaved, lhe righl of a IocaI
ruIer lo ensIave his deIinquenl sul|ecls, lhe individuaIs
righl lo seII hinseIf inlo sIavery, and a needy falhers
priviIege of seIIing his ovn chiIdren. Civen lhe groving
denand for Ialor in lhe Anericas, nev |uslificalions for
sIavery had leen invenled, incIuding kidnaping. The
Ieller nay have cone fron a priesl lecause lhe vriler
expresses concern aloul lhe in|uslice of lhe ensIavenenl
process and lhe sluIlifying effecl il has on lhe spread of
Chrislianily.
Modern lheoIogians in pulIished looks connonIy reporl on, and condenn as
In|usl, lhe acls of ensIavenenl vhich lake pIace in lhe Irovinces of lhis RoyaI
Lnpire, enpIoying for lhis purpose lhe sane principIes ly vhich lhe ancienl
lheoIogians, doclors of canon Iav, and |urisls have reguIaled Iegilinale and |usl
acls of ensIavenenl. According lo lhese principIes, onIy infideIs vho are
caplured in |usl vars, or vho lecause of serious crines have leen condenned
ly lheir RuIers nay le heId as Iegilinale sIaves, or if lhey seII lhenseIves, or if
lhey are soId ly lheir ovn falhers vho have Iegilinale need. And lecause, ly
lhe use of lhese four principIes, greal in|uslices are connilled in lhe luying and
seIIing of sIaves in our Lnpire, as viII Iale le seen, il is aIso cerlain lhal nosl of
lhe sIaves of lhis Lnpire are nade so upon olher prelexls, of vhich sone are
noloriousIy un|usl, and olhers vilh greal IikeIihood nay le presuned lo le so
as veII. Because on lhe enlire Cuinea Coasl and al Cape Verde lhose persons
caIIed |angcsn4cs and olher deaIers in lhis nerchandise, nen of Ioose noraIs
vilh no concern olher lhan lheir ovn inleresls, connonIy carry oul lheir
raiding expedilions up lhe rivers and in lhe renole inlerior far fron lhese areas
lhal are frequenled ly lhe Iorluguese, ly His Ma|eslys officiaIs, and ly lhe
priesls of lhose regions. They coIIecl as nany pieces (pea, or in olher vords
persons) as lhey can, sonelines lhrough deceplion, al olher lines lhrough
Student Handout 2 Lesson One
26
vioIence, capluring lhen in anlushes vhen our ships arrive lhe nalives
lhenseIves go oul lo hunl each olher, as if lhey vere slags, vilh lhe inlenlion of
seIIing lhen lo us.
Al olher lines our ovn peopIe ensIave nany free persons as sulslilules for lhe
sIaves vho fIee fron lhen, nereIy lecause lhey are lrolhers or reIalives of lhe
runavays. And lhis vickedness is carried lo lhe poinl lhal even lhe aulhorilies
seize lhe chiIdren and reIalives of lhose vho give lhen reasons lo do so.
AIso lhe lIacks lhenseIves faIseIy asserl lhal lhe persons vhon lhey lring lo le
soId are caplured in a |usl var, or lhey say lhal lhey viII lulcher and eal lhen
if lhey are nol purchased. So lhal, of every lhousand sIaves vho are caplured,
scarceIy one-lenlh viII le |uslIy ensIaved, vhich is a nolorious facl confirned ly
aII Cod-fearing nen vho reside or have resided in lhose pIaces.
Nol even lhe nerchanls lhenseIves deny lhal lhey coIIecl lhese sIaves in lhe
vays descriled, lul lhey defend lhenseIves saying lhal lhey lransporl lhen so
lhal lhey nay lecone Chrislians, and so lhal lhey nay vear cIolhes and have
nore lo eal, faiIing lo recognize lhal none of lhis is sufficienl lo |uslify so nuch
lhefl and lyranny, lecause as Sl. IauI says, lhose vho perforn eviI acls in order
lo lring aloul sone good are |uslIy condenned lefore Cod. Hov nuch nore is
lhis lrue in a naller as serious as lhe freedon of hunan leings.
IinaIIy, aII lhese nelhods of ensIavenenl are noloriousIy un|usl, as are any
olhers lhal are nol lhose referred lo alove. And in lhose pIaces even lhese nay
le connonIy presuned lo le un|usl in lhe foIIoving vays:
Concerning lhe principIe of |usl var, il is knovn lhal, since lhey are
infideIs and larlarians, lhe Kings and privale Lords of lhe enlire
Conquesl |Iorluguese coIoniaI conquesls in Africa, Asia, and Anericaj
are nol nornaIIy nolivaled ly reason vhen lhey nake var, lul ralher
ly passion, nor do lhey exanine or consuIl olhers aloul lheir righl lo do
so. Therefore nosl of lheir vars are un|usl vars carried on nereIy for
greed, anlilion, and olher un|usl causes. flen lhe sane nay le
presuned aloul lhe vars carried on ly individuaI Iorluguese caplains,
lecause, greedy as lhey are lo caplure sIaves and olher prizes, lhey
oflen do so vilhoul any concern for lheir consciences.
The principIe of condenning persons lo perpeluaI sIavery nusl le
Iooked upon as a very queslionalIe principIe in lhe sane pIaces, and
especiaIIy in Cuinea and lhe Iand of lhe Kaffirs |soulhern and easlern
Africaj, lecause of an infinile nunler of persons are un|uslIy condenned
lo servilude for very lrifIing reasons, or lecause of sone passion of lheir
naslers. Because, |usl as vhen anong us soneone dispIeases a King he is
casl oul of Courl or Ioses his favored slalus, anong lhen, his freedon is
Student Handout 2 Lesson One
27
allacked, and he and his vhoIe faniIy are ensIaved, and aII loo oflen vilh
a lhousand lricks and nuch faIse leslinony. . . .
Concerning lhe olher lvo principIes: lhe need lo seII oneseIf lo seek reIease fron
an un|usl dealh or sone olher greal nisery, or leing soId ly ones falher vho is in
dire need~lhese are lhe causes of nany un|usl acls of ensIavenenl in lhose
pIaces. Because in sone pIaces, as has leen said, sone persons nake a prelense of
vanling lo eal olhers, or of vishing lo sIaughler lhen, so lhal lhey can le soId.
Many falhers seII lheir sons for aInosl nolhing, vilhoul leing in dire need vhich
nighl |uslify such a saIe, vhich is invaIid and vilhoul any force in Iav, lecause lhe
pover is nol given lo a falher lo seII his ninor son, excepl in dire need, according
lo connon schoIarIy doclrine. And aIso in pIace of lheir chiIdren lhey seII olher
reIalives vho are cIose al hand, and olher slrangers using lricks vhich lhey invenl
for lhe purpose, saying, or naking lhen say, lhal lhey are lheir sons . . . lhis iII-
lrealnenl and ensIavenenl is scandaIous lo everylody, and especiaIIy lo lhose
sane healhens, lecause lhey alandon our reIigion, seeing lhal lhose vho are
supposed lo converl lhen are lhe sane persons vho ensIave lhen in such un|usl
vays, as is vilnessed every day.
Source: Iroposla a Sua Mageslade solre a escravaria das lerras da Conquisla de IorlugaI, |A
IroposaI lo Your Ma|esly aloul sIavery in lhe Iorluguese Doninionsj, Docunenl 7, 3, 1, No. 8,
Seo de Manuscrilos, BilIioleca NacionaI, Rio de }aneiro, cones fron Rolerl Ldgar Conrad,
C|i|rcn cf Gcs |irc A Dccuncn|arq His|crq cf 8|ac| S|atcrq in 8razi| (Irincelon, Nev }ersey:
Irincelon Iniversily Iress, 1983), pp. 11-15.
Student Handout 2 Lesson One
Caravans of sIaves in Africa leing laken lo lhe coasl.
Mungo Iark, Viagcns, scc. XV|||. In }oo Medina, A Rc|a cs |scratcs. Angc|a c a Rcc c Ccncrcic
Ncgrcirc (Lisloa: Cegia, 1996), p. 154.
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