Prroduccion de Pimientos 3

Guide to Commercial Greenhouse
Sweet Bell Pepper Production in

Alberta
Introduction
A greenhouse is a controllable dynamic system (Seginer 1996), managed for intensive production
of high quality, fresh market produce !reenhouse production allo"s for crop production under
very diverse conditions (!authier 199#) $o"ever, there are a number of variables that
greenhouse gro"ers have to manage in order to obtain ma%imum sustainable production from
their crops &hese variables include' air temperature, root (one temperature, vapour pressure
deficit, fertili(er feed, carbon dio%ide enrichment, selection of gro"ing media, and plant
maintenance &he task of managing these inter)related variables simultaneously can appear
over"helming, ho"ever, there are successful strategies that are used by gro"ers to do this &he
main approach is to try to optimi(e these variables to obtain ma%imum performance from the
crop over the production season
The goal of optimization can be used to determine how to control these
variables in the greenhouse for maximum yield and proft, taking into
account the costs of operation and increased value under the modifed
environment (Jones et al 11!" The greenhouse system is complex# to
simplify the decision$making process growers use indicators" %n indicator can
be thought of as a small window to a bigger world, you don&t get the entire
picture, but you do gain an understanding of what is happening" %nother way
to look at it is to understand the basic rules of thumb which can be used to
obtain insights on the direction and dynamics of the crop$environment
interaction"
'ndicators provide information concerning complex systems in order to make
them more easily understandable ((iradin et al 1!" They )uickly reveal
changes in the greenhouse which may re)uire alterations in management
strategies" 'ndicators also help identify the specifc changes in crop
management that need to be made" The purpose of this manual is to provide
information regarding the greenhouse management, and the resultant
response of the sweet bell pepper plant as individuals within the larger crop"
*asic indicators used to evaluate the plant$environment interaction to move
towards optimization of the environment and crop performance are
presented" +ver time, and with experience, growers will be able to build on
these basic indicators to improve their ability to respond to changes in the
crop and to anticipate the needs of the crop"
Important
&his guide is intended for commercial gro"ers in Alberta, and is based on the most recent
recommendations for greenhouse s"eet pepper production As each greenhouse is unique,
gro"ers should adapt the information to their operations Specific climate recommendations are
to be used only as a guide
Acknowledgements
Sweet bell peppers
Concepts involved in the optimization of the greenhouse environment for crop
production
Components of the greenhouse system for environmental control
&he greenhouse structure
&he header house
&he plant nursery
*roviding heat
*roviding heat to the air, the plant canopy
*roviding heat to the root (one
*roviding heat to the heads of the plants
+entilation and air circulation
+entilation systems
Air circulation, hori(ontal air flo" ($A,) fans
-ooling and humidification
*ad and fan evaporative cooling
.ist systems
!reenhouse floors
-arbon dio%ide supplementation
-arbon dio%ide supplementation via combustion
/atural gas -0# generators
1oiler stack recovery systems
2iquid -0# supplementation
3rrigation and fertili(er feed systems
-omputeri(ed environmental control systems
Management of the greenhouse environment
2ight
*roperties of light and its measurement
&he light use efficiency of plants
.a%imi(ing the crop4s access to available light
&emperature management
.anaging air temperatures
*recision heat in the canopy
.anaging root (one temperatures
.anagement of relative humidity using vapour pressure deficits
-arbon dio%ide supplementation
Air pollution in the greenhouse
!ro"ing media
.edia for seeding and propagation
!ro"ing media for the production greenhouse
.anagement of irrigation and fertili(er feed
5ater quality
6lectrical conductivity of "ater
p$
&he mineral nutrition of plants
,ertili(er feed programs
7esigning a fertili(er feed program
Accounting for the nutrients present in the ra" "ater
Accounting for the nutrients provided by the p$ ad8ustment of the
"ater
7etermining the required amounts of the various fertili(ers
necessary to meet the feed targets
9ules for mi%ing fertili(ers
Application of fertili(er and "ater
Production of sweet bell peppers
3ntroduction
-ultivars
*epper plant propagation
Seeding
,irst transplanting: 3nto the rock"ool blocks
!ro"ing media in the production greenhouse
*lanting density
&ransplanting into the production greenhouse ;house)set;
*runing and plant training
,lo"er and fruit set
3rrigation
$arvesting and grading
!reenhouse production costs and returns for peppers
&he <en of !reenhouse *eppers
End of season cleanup
Steam sterili(ation of rock"ool slabs
Pest and disease management
-rop monitoring
-ultural control
9esistant cultivars
1iological control
-hemical control
Pests of greenhouse sweet peppers and their biological control
Assessment of the quality of biological control agents
Aphids
&"o)spotted spider mite
&hrips
2oopers and caterpillars
5hitefly
,ungus gnats
2ygus bugs
6ar"igs
Diseases of sweet pepper
,ungal diseases
7amping)off
*ythium cro"n and root rot
,usarium stem and fruit rot
!ray mold
*o"dery milde"
+irus diseases
*epper mild mottle virus
&obacco mosaic virus
&omato spotted "ilt virus
&omato mosaic virus
*hysiological 7isorders
1lossom end rot
Sunscald
,ruit cracks
,ruit splitting
,ruit spots
.isshapen fruit
3nternal gro"ths in the fruit
Appendices
Appendi% 3 6ffect of *esticides on 1iological -ontrol Agents=
Appendi% 33 *lant nutrient deficiency symptoms
ibliography
This information is maintained by James Calpas
Last Reised!Reiewed "arch #$ %&&'
Sweet Bell Peppers
Guide to Commercial Greenhouse Sweet Bell Pepper Production in Alberta
1ell peppers (Capsicum annum L.) originate from central and south America "here numerous
species "ere used centuries before -olumbus landed on the continent (.anrique 199>) &he
cultivation of peppers spread throughout 6urope and Asia after the 1?@@4s Although perennials,
they gro" as annuals in temperate climates &hey are sensitive to lo" temperatures and are
relatively slo" to establish As there is little field production of bell peppers in Alberta,
greenhouse production provides most of the local source of this product !reenhouse production
of peppers is based on indeterminate cultivars in "hich the plants continually develop and gro"
from ne" meristems that produce ne" stems, leaves, flo"ers and fruit 3n comparison, field
pepper cultivars are determinate, the plant gro"s to a certain si(e, produces fruit and stops
gro"ing and eventually dies 3ndeterminate cultivars require constant pruning to manage their
gro"th 3n order to optimi(e yield, a balance bet"een vegetative (leaves and stems) and
generative (flo"ers and fruit) gro"th must be established and maintained
Figure 1. Canopy of a healthy greenhouse sweet bell pepper crop.
(reenhouse pepper production is based on a year long production cycle"
Typically, seeding occurs in early to mid +ctober, plants are moved from the
nursery into the production greenhouses six weeks later, ,ust before
-hristmas" .arvest begins in late /arch and continues through to the
following 0ovember" 't takes roughly four months from seeding to frst pick"
Figure 2. Basket of red sweet bell peppers ready for market.
Concepts Inoled in the
(ptimi)ation of the Greenhouse
*nironment for Crop Production
!reenhouse vegetable crop production is based on control of the environment in such a "ay as to
provide the conditions that are most favorable for ma%imum yield A plant4s ability to gro" and
develop is dependent on the photosynthetic process 3n the presence of light, the plant combines
carbon dio%ide and "ater to form sugars "hich are then utili(ed for gro"th and fruit production
*hotosynthesis is practically the only mechanism of energy input into the living "orld (Salisbury
and 9oss, 19AB) 0ptimi(ation of the greenhouse environment is directed at optimi(ing the
photosynthetic process in the plants, the plant4s ability to utili(e light at ma%imum efficiency
Tied closely to the photosynthetic process is the process of transpiration"
Transpiration can be defned as the evaporation of water from plants
(1alisbury and 2oss 134!" Transpiration occurs through pores in the leaf
surface called stomata (1alisbury and 2oss 134, 5apadakis et al 16!" %s
water is lost from the leaf, a pressure is built up that drives the roots to fnd
additional water to compensate for the loss" The evaporation of the water
from the leaf serves to cool the leaf ensuring that optimum leaf temperatures
are maintained" %s the roots bring additional water into the plant, they also
bring in nutrients which are sent throughout the rest of the plant with the
water" 7ater is a key component of photosynthesis, as is carbon dioxide (-+8!
which is often the limiting component of the process" The plant&s source of
carbon dioxide is the atmosphere as carbon dioxide exists as a gas at
temperatures in the growing environment" -arbon dioxide enters the plant
through the stomata in the leaves, and this is where it can be seen why
transpiration represents a compromise to photosynthesis for the plant"
Figure 3. Cross section of a leaf showing stomata.
5lants have control over whether the stomata are open or closed" They are
closed at night and open in response to the increasing light intensity that
comes with the morning sun" The plant begins to photosynthesize and the
stomata open in order to allow more carbon dioxide into the leaf" %s light
intensity increases, so does leaf temperature, and water vapour is lost from
the leaf which serves to cool the leaf" The compromise with photosynthesis
occurs when the heat stress in the environment causes such a loss of water
vapour through the stomata that the movement of carbon dioxide into the
leaf is reduced" The other factor involved with this process is the relative
humidity in the environment" The transpiration stress on a leaf, and the plant
at any given temperature, is greater at a lower relative humidity than a
higher relative humidity" There also comes a point where the transpiration
stress on the plant is so great that the stomata close and photosynthesis
stops completely"
Photosynthesis
! C"# $ %# &" ' (ight energy ') C!&%#"# $
! "# $ ! &#"
5hotosynthesis is the plant
process by which carbon
dioxide and water with the
input of light energy yields
sugars, oxygen and water"
5hotosynthesis is one of the
most signifcant life
processes, all the organic
matter in living things comes
9espiration is another process tied closely to
photosynthesis All living cells respire continuously
(Salisbury and 9oss 19AB), and the overall process
involves the breakdo"n of sugars "ithin the cells,
resulting in the release of energy "hich is then used for
gro"th (5ilson and 2oomis 196A, Salisbury and 9oss
19AB, &ootil and 1lackmore 19BC) &hrough
photosynthesis plants utili(e light energy to form sugars,
"hich are then broken do"n by the respiration process,
releasing the energy required by plant cells for gro"th
and development
5hotosynthesis responds instantaneously to
changes in light (1eginer 19! as light
about through photosynthesis"
The above formula is not )uite
complete, as photosynthesis
will only take place in the
presence of chlorophyll,
certain enzymes and
cofactors" 7ithout discussing
all these re)uirements in
detail, let it be enough to say
that these cofactors,
enzymes, and chlorophyll will
be present if the plant
receives ade)uate nutrition"
+ne other point to clarify is
that it takes 93:,;;; calories
of light energy to drive the
e)uation (7ilsone and
<oomis, 193!"
5hotosynthesis re)uires
certain inputs to get the
desired outputs" -arbon
dioxide and water are
combined and modifed to
produce sugar" The sugars are
further used to form more
complex carbohydrates and
oils and so on" 2unning along
side of the photosynthetic
process are many more
processes in the plant which
help ensure that the plant
does whit it is designed for"
=rom the grower&s point of
view, the results of
photosynthesis is the
production of fruit" This serves
to remind that the
management decisions made
in growing crops a>ect the
outcome of how well the plant
is able to run its
photosynthetic engines to
manufacture those products
which are shipped to market"
(rowers provide the nutrition
energy is the driving force behind the process
(1alisbury and 2oss 134!" (enerally, light is
a given, with greenhouse growers relying on
natural light to grow their crops" +ptimization
of photosynthesis can occur through
providing supplemental lighting when natural
light is limiting" This strategy is not common
with the economics involved in supplemental
lighting being the determining factor" The
common strategy for optimizing
photosynthesis comes about through
optimizing transpiration" 'f, under any given
level of light, transpiration is optimized such
that the maximum amount of carbon dioxide
is able to enter the stomata, then
photosynthesis is also optimized" The beneft
of optimizing photosynthesis through
controlling transpiration is that the
optimization can occur over both low and high
light levels, although photosynthesis is
naturally lower under lower light levels"
1upplemental lighting is only useful in
optimizing photosynthesis at low light levels"
'nherent to high yielding greenhouse crop
production are the concepts of plant balance
and directed growth" % plant that is growing
in the optimum environment for maximum
photosynthetic e?ciency may not be
allocating the resultant production of sugars
and starches for maximum fruit production"
(reenhouse vegetable plants respond to a
number of environmental triggers or cues,
and can alter their growth habits as a result"
The simplest example is whether they have a
vegetative focus or a generative focus" %
plant with a vegetative focus is primarily
growing roots, stems and leaves, a plant with
a generative focus is concentrating on @owers
and fruit production" Aegetative and
generative plant growth can be thought of
two ends of a continuum, the point where
maximum sustained fruit production takes
place is where vegetative growth is
and environment which direct
the plant to optimize
photosynthesis and fruit
development" -rop
management decisions
re)uire a knowledge of how to
keep the plants in balance so
that yield and productive life
of the crop is maximized"
balanced with generative growth" -omplete optimization of the growing
environment for crop production also includes providing the correct
environmental cues to direct the growth of plants to maintain a plant balance
for proftable production"
The critical environmental parameters a>ecting plant growth that growers
can control in the greenhouse are temperature, relative humidity, carbon
dioxide, nutrition, availability of water, and the growing media" The way
environment a>ects plant growth is not necessarily straightforward and the
e>ect of one parameter is moderated by the others (1tanghellini and Aan
/eurs 18!" The presence of the crop canopy also exerts considerable
in@uence on the greenhouse environment (.anan 1;!" The ability of
growers to provide the optimal environment for their crops improves over
time with experience" There is a conviction that environmental control of
greenhouses is an art which expert growers bring to perfection (1eginer
19!" This being said, there are basic rules, and environmental setpoints
that beginner growers can follow as a blueprint to grow a successful crop"
%s the plants develop from the seedling phase to maturity, the conditions
which determine the optimum environment for the crop also change (1eginer
and /c-lendon 18!" =urther, even when the crop is into full production,
modifcations of the environment may be necessary to ensure that maximum
production is maintained" =or example, the plants may start to move out$of$
balance to become too vegetative or too generative" Through all stages of
the crop cycle, growers must train themselves to recognize the indicators
displayed by the crop to determine what ad,ustments in the environment are
necessary, if any"
Components of the Greenhouse
System for *nironmental
Control
Introduction
!reenhouse production is a year round proposition 3n Alberta this means providing an optimal
indoor gro"ing environment "hen the outside environment can be "armer and drier, or colder
than "hat the crop plants require, and in the case of our "inters, can even survive *eriods during
the "inters can drop to ) >@ to ) C@ D-, the temperature differential bet"een the greenhouse
environment and the outdoors can range from ?@ to 6@ D- -onversely, during the summers the
outdoor temperatures can rise to E>? D- under the intense Alberta sunlight' this is especially true
in southern Alberta !reenhouse temperatures rise under intense sunlight &his rise in
temperature is referred to as ;solar gain; &o enter the greenhouse, light has to travel through the
greenhouse covering, in doing so the light loses some of its energy "hich is converted to heat
5ithout a cooling system, the temperature "ithin the greenhouse can rise to over E C? D- &o
successfully optimi(e the environment "ithin the greenhouse means countering the adverse
effects of the e%ternal environment as it varies over the normal seasons of the year
The e>ectiveness of greenhouses to allow for environmental control is
dependent on the component parts" This section describes the component
parts of a typical %lberta vegetable production greenhouse, recognizing that
specifc systems for environmental control can vary and change from one
greenhouse to the next as well as over time as new technology is developed
and commercialized" There are basic re)uirements for environmental control
that all greenhouses must meet to be able to produce a successful crop" The
simplest example is that a structure is re)uired" *eyond this, there are a
number of options that can be included" The most precise control of an
environment invariably comes with the inclusion of more technology and
e)uipment and the associated higher cost" The driving force for inclusion of
newer or more complex systems is the e>ect on the fnancial bottom line and
the availability of capital"
The Greenhouse Structure
Figure 4. Typical gutter connect, doubly poly, vegetable production greenhouse.
The greenhouse structure represents both the barrier to direct contact to the
external environment and the containment of the internal environment to be
controlled" The covering material by design allows for maximum light
penetration for growing crops" There are a number of commercial greenhouse
manufacturers and a number of greenhouse designs that are suitable for
greenhouse vegetable crop production" The basic greenhouse design use for
pepper production and vegetable production in general is a gutter connect
greenhouse"
% gutter connect greenhouse by design allows for relatively easy expansion
of the greenhouse when additions are planned" (utter connect greenhouses
are composed of a number of BbaysB or compartments running side by side
along the length of the greenhouse" Typically these compartments are
approximately :3 meters (18; feet! long by 9"C to 3"C meters ( 81 to 8C feet!
wide" The production area is completely open between the bays inside the
greenhouse, the roof of the entire structure consists of a number of arches,
with each arch covering one bay, the arches are connected at the gutters
where one bay meets the next" The design of a gutter connect greenhouse
allows for a single bay greenhouse of 86; mD (8,C;; ft"D! to easily expand by
the addition of more bays, to cover an area of a hectare (8"C acres! or more"
7ith a gutter connect greenhouse, the lowest part of the roof are the gutters,
the points where the ad,acent arches begin and end" The trend for gutter
heights in modern greenhouses is to increase, with greenhouses getting
taller" The reason for this is two$fold# frstly, newer vegetable crops like
peppers have a re)uirement for a higher growing environment" 5eppers will
often reach :"C meters (18 feet! in height during the course of the production
cycle" Taller greenhouses allow for more options in crop handling and
training" 1econdly, taller greenhouses allow for a larger air mass to be
contained within the structure, and a larger air mass is relatively easier to
control with respect to maintaining an optimum environment than a smaller
air mass per unit growing area of greenhouse" The reason for this is, the
greenhouse environment has inertia (1eginer 19!, once a grower has
established an environment in the air mass, it is easier to maintain the
environment" Typical gutter heights for modern greenhouse structures are 6
to 6"8C meters (1: to 16 feet!, and are )uite suitable for greenhouse pepper
production" The trend for future gutter height is to increase further, with new
construction designs moving to 6" to C"C meters ( 19 to 14 feet! (Ehosla 1"
1!"
Figure 5. New greenhouse under construction.
There are a number of options for greenhouse covering materials, glass
panels, polycarbonate panels, and polyethylene skins are the prevalent
choices in %lberta" Fach of the coverings have advantages and
disadvantages, the main determining factors usually being the trade$o>
between cost and length of service" (lass is more expensive, but will
generally have a longer service life than either polycarbonate or
polyethylene" Typical %lberta vegetable production greenhouses are
constructed with double polyethylene skins" Two layers of polyethylene, with
pressurized air flling the space between the two layers to provide the rigidity
to the covering" The life expectance of a polyethylene greenhouse covering is
about 6 years" Fnergy conservation is also important, the ability of the
covering to allow light into the greenhouse and yet reduce the heat loss from
the greenhouse to the environment during the winter" 0ew coverings are
being developed which selectively exclude certain wavelengths of light and
as a result can help in reducing insect and disease problems (pers comm Gr"
/" /irza!"
The +eader +ouse
&he header house is an important component of the greenhouse design &he header house serves
as a loading dock "here produce is shipped and supplies are received 3t also serves to house the
nerve center of the environmental control system as "ell as housing boilers and the irrigation and
fertili(er tanks &he header house is kept separate from the main greenhouse "ith access gained
through doors
<unchroom and washroom facilities are also located in the header house"
These facilities should be placed so that they satisfy all food safety
re)uirements with respect to the handling of produce"
The Plant ,ursery
The -reenhouse desi-n can also include a plant nursery for those e-etable
-rowers who are interested in startin- their own plants from seed. The
alternatie is to contract another -reenhouse to -row and delier youn-
plants ready to -o into the main production area. Pepper plants are
transplanted in the main -reenhouse at about si/ wee0s of a-e. Growers
startin- their plants from seed hae to hae a nursery area in which to do
this. It is important to hae a nursery of ade1uate si)e to supply enou-h
transplants for the entire area of the production -reenhouse. Generally
spea0in-$ the nursery area is built to obtain a hi-her de-ree of speci2c
control than the main production area of the -reenhouse as youn- plants
are more sensitie to the enironment. The nursery area can be used for
production once the seedlin-s hae been moed out. +eated benches or
3oors are a must as is supplemental li-htin-. The re1uirements for
pepper seedlin- production is discussed in detail in 4Pepper plant
propa-ation4 section
Proidin- +eat
An adequately si(ed heating system is a must for greenhouse production in Alberta &he output of
the system must be able to maintain optimal temperatures on the coldest days of the year 1eyond
the actual si(ing of the system, and deciding "hat form of heating to use, ie forced air, boiler
heat, or both there are special considerations in "here the heat is applied, specifically heat
applied to the air directed at influencing the plant canopy, and heat applied to the floor to
influence the root system &he basic premise behind this concept is that it is difficult to provide
optimum root (one temperatures during the cold period of the year by only heating the air
1esides the difficulty in driving "arm air do"n to the greenhouse floor, there is also the
associated problem of having to provide too much heat to the canopy in order to try to optimi(e
root (one temperatures -onversely, floor heat, ie hot "ater, steam, oil or glycol systems can
easily be used to maintain root (one temperatures, they cannot be used to optimi(e air
temperatures "ithout providing e%cessive root temperatures 3t is also important to note that
heating systems, in addition to providing the optimum temperatures for crop gro"th and yield,
also can be employed in combination "ith controlled venting to dehumidify the greenhouse
Proidin- heat to the air$ the plant canopy
,orced air systems are standard in Alberta greenhouses 0verhead natural gas burning furnaces
are normally located at one end of the greenhouse "hich move the heated air do"n the length of
the greenhouse to the far end &here are a number of types of forced air systems and all try to
ensure that the heat is adequately distributed throughout the greenhouse to maintain the
environmental air temperature setpoints 1oilers and pipe and fin systems can also be used to
provide heat to the air &he main consideration for heating the air is uniform distribution of the
heat throughout the entire greenhouse so that the entire plant canopy is equally affected
Proidin- heat to the root )one
&he most common system to provide heat to the floor or root
(one is the ;pipe and rail; system A ? centimeter (# inch)
diameter steel pipe is placed on the floor bet"een the ro"s of
the crop so that the pipe runs do"n and returns along the same
ro" appro%imately C? centimeters (1B inches) apart 1oilers
deliver hot "ater through this heating pipe &he delivery and
return pipe run parallel to one another, forming a ;rail; that can
be used by carts to run up and do"n the ro"s (,igure C) &he
carts are useful "hen "orking "ith the plants during pruning
and harvest 3n this "ay the heating pipes serve a multiple use
Proidin- heat to the 4heads4 of the plants
&he term ;plant head; is not likely to found in any botany
te%tbook, it is a term used by greenhouse vegetable gro"ers to
refer to the tops of the plant "here the gro"ing points are
actively developing ne" shoot, leaves, flo"ers and young fruit
(*ortree 1996) Some gro"ers run hot "ater fin pipe 1?
centimeters (6 inches) above the head in order to obtain a more
precise control of temperatures &his optimi(es pollination of
the flo"ers as "ell as early stages of fruit and leaf development
&his pipe is raised as the crop gro"s -urrently this system is
not commonly employed by Alberta greenhouse vegetable
gro"ers
Figure 6. Pipe and rail floor heat and
electric cart.
5entilation and Air Circulation
5entilation Systems
&he ventilation system provides the means by "hich the greenhouse air is circulated, mi%ed and
e%changed 3t allo"s for a more uniform climate and helps to distribute heat from the heating
system (Fackson and 7arby 199@) as "ell as removing heat from the greenhouse "hen cooling is
required 3n combination "ith the heating system, ventilation also provides a means for
dehumidifying the greenhouse environment +entilation is required throughout the year, ho"ever
the ventilation required varies "ith the outside environment 7uring the "inter months
ventilation is required primarily for dehumidification, as "arm, humid air is e%hausted, cool, dry
air is brought in &he important consideration "hen bringing in cold air is proper mi%ing "ith the
main mass of greenhouse air in order to minimi(e the negative effects of the cold air contacting
the plants .a%imum "inter ventilation rates usually do not e%ceed fifteen air changes per hour
(Fackson and 7arby 199@)
Figure 7. idge vent.
Gnder Alberta conditions summer ventilation
primarily serves to aid in cooling the crop, venting
for dehumidification is usually not the goal 3n
fact, in southern Alberta, maintaining humid air is
often the concern Summer ventilation is triggered
primarily by temperature setpoints, and as air is
moved through the greenhouse to remove heat,
humidity is also lost So much so, it is difficult to
maintain optimum relative humidity levels "ithout
also having mist systems or other cooling systems
in place .a%imum summer air e%change rates are
in the range of 1 complete air e%change per
minute
Aentilation systems can be primarily mechanical# relying on exhaust fans or,
natural# relying on the natural upward movement of hot air to exit the
greenhouse through ridge or gutter vents" The mechanical or forced air
ventilation can be costly, both for the purchase, and for the operation of the
e)uipment (Jackson and Garby 1;!" .owever, forced ventilation is re)uired
in order for some evaporative cooling systems to function"
Air Circulation$ +ori)ontal Air 6low 7+A68 6ans
Additional air circulation within the -reenhouse can proide for more uniform
distribution ofcarbon dio/ide$ humidity and temperature$ especially
durin- the winter 7Bru--er et al. '9:#8. ;sed in combination with the
entilation system$ recirculatin- fan systems ensure the cold air brou-ht
in by the entilation system mi/es uniformly with the warm inside air
7Jac0son and <arby '99&8. The fans are relatiely ine/pensie to operate$
and are located to moe air alon- the len-th of the -reenhouse$ with the
direction of moement alternatin- between ad=acent bays 7Blom et al
'99'8. The fans must be ade1uately si)ed to ensure that proper mi/in- of
the air occurs 7Jac0son and <arby '99&8$ without the fans bein- oer>
si)ed which can cause e/cessie air moement reducin- yield 7Bru--er et
al. '9:#8. The -eneral recommendation for si)in- is a fan capacity of &.9
to '.' cubic meters per minute per s1uare meter of 3oor area with a
elocity no -reater that ' meter per second across the plants 7Bru--er et
al. '9:#$ Jac0son and <arby '99&8.
Coolin- and +umidi2cation
7uring periods of high light intensity, air temperatures rise inside the greenhouse and cooling is
required 3ncreasing ventilation rates serves to bring cooler, outside air into the greenhouse, but
during the typical Alberta summer months, ventilation alone is often not enough to maintain
optimum greenhouse air temperatures Alberta gro"ers depend on cooling systems to ensure
optimum gro"ing temperatures are maintained &hese cooling systems also serve to humidify the
greenhouse 9equirements for cooling and humidification vary depending on location "ithin the
province Southern Alberta gro"ers generally contend "ith harsher summer gro"ing conditions,
higher outside temperatures and lo"er outside relative humidity, than gro"ers in central Alberta
3n areas of the province "here cooling is required, evaporative cooling systems are being used
6vaporative cooling is most effective in areas "here the outside relative humidity is less than
6@H (Fackson and 7arby 199@)
Pad and 6an *aporatie Coolin-
Figure !. "vaporative pad.
As the name implies, evaporative cooling pads are used in
con8unction "ith mechanical ventilation systems to reduce the
temperatures "ithin the greenhouse &he principle of the system
is the outside air is cooled by dra"ing it through continually
"etted pads *ad systems "ork best in tightly built greenhouses
because they require the air entering the greenhouse to first pass
through the pad rather than holes or gaps in the "alls (Fackson
and 7arby 199@) 3f the greenhouse is not tight, the incoming air
"ill bypass the evaporative pads as the pads provide more
resistance to air movement 6%haust fans at the opposite end of
the greenhouse provide the necessary energy to dra" the outside
air through the pads As the air passes through the pad and is
cooled, the air also takes up "ater vapour and adds humidity to
the greenhouse
"ist systems
1oth high and lo")pressure mist systems are used for cooling
and adding humidity to the greenhouse (Fackson and 7arby
199@) .ist systems can be employed in both mechanically and
naturally ventilated greenhouses .ist systems "ork by forcing
"ater through no((les "hich break up the "ater into fine
droplets &his process allo"s the droplets to evaporate fairly
quickly into the air As the evaporation of "ater requires heat
from the environment, the air is cooled .isting systems must be
carefully controlled to provide the required cooling "ithout
increasing the relative humidity beyond optimum levels for plant
performance, or allo"ing free "ater to form on the plants "hich
can encourage the development of disease
'f the )uality of the water used for misting is poor,
there is the possibility of mineral salts being
deposited on the leaves and fruit, which could
result in reduced fruit )uality and yield loss"
Figure #. $igh pressure mist no%%le.
Greenhouse 6loors
*reparation of the greenhouse floor for greenhouse vegetable production is important to the
overall operation of the greenhouse &he floor is contoured so that lo" spots, "hich "ould allo"
for the pooling of "ater, are eliminated Small channels are placed in association "ith the crop
ro"s "ith one channel running the length of the single or double ro" &hese channels allo" for
any drainage from irrigation to the plants to be carried to one end of the greenhouse to the
holding tanks for recirculation &hese channels are appro%imately 1? centimeters "ide by 1?
centimeters deep (6 inches by 6 inches) &he depth varies slightly from one end of the channel to
the other so the "ater is intended to drain to"ards a common end of the greenhouse "here
another channel carries the "ater to"ards a reservoir in the floor located in one corner of the
greenhouse
The @oor is covered with white plastic flm to seal$o> the soil from the
greenhouse environment, reducing the problems associated with soil$borne
plant diseases and weed problems" The plants are rooted in bags or slabs of
growing media placed on top of the plastic @oor" The white plastic also serves
to re@ect any light reaching the @oor back up into the plant canopy"
Fstimations place the amount of light re@ected back into the crop by white
plastic @oors to be about 1:H of the light reaching the @oor, and can increase
crop yield (7ilson et al 18!"
Gue to the large area under production, concrete @oors are generally too
expensive" % concrete walk$way is a practical necessity, usually running the
width of the greenhouse along one end wall" This walkway allows for the
e?cient, high tra?c movement of sta> within the greenhouse and produce
out of the greenhouse"
Carbon <io/ide Supplementation
-arbon dio%ide (-0#) plays an important role in increasing crop productivity (9i8kdi8k and
$outer 199>) An actively photosynthesi(ing crop "ill quickly deplete the -0# from the
greenhouse environment (9i8kdi8k and $outer 199>) 3n summer, even "ith ma%imum
ventilation, -0# levels "ithin the typical Alberta vegetable production greenhouse typically fall
belo" ambient levels of -0# Ibelo" >?@ parts per million (>?@ ppm)J 3t has been estimated that
if the amount of -0# in the atmosphere doubled to A@@ ppm, the yield of field crops should
increase by >>H (&remblay and !osselin 199B) 0ptimum -0# targets in the greenhouse
atmosphere are generally accepted to be appro%imately A@@ to B@@ ppm (*ortree 1996)
Carbon <io/ide Supplementation ia Combustion
As carbon dio%ide is one of the products of combustion, this process can be used to introduce
-0# into the greenhouse &he ma8or concern "ith using combustion is -0# is only one of the
products of combustion 0ther gases "hich can be produced by the combustion process, are
detrimental to crop production (see section ??, Air pollution in the greenhouse) &he production
of pollutant gases from combustion is dependent on the type and quality of the fuel used for
combustion and "hether complete combustion occurs (faulty burners) (1lom 199B)
,atural Gas C(% Generators
+ne method of -+8 supplementation in %lberta greenhouses is the use
natural gas burning -+8 generators placed throughout the greenhouse above
the crop canopy" Inder lower light, low ventilation conditions, these
generators can e>ectively maintain optimum -+8 levels" .owever, the
experience with these generators during periods of intense summer sunlight,
it is that it is still di?cult to maintain ambient -+8 levels in the crop" %lso,
since the combustion process takes place in the greenhouse, the heat of
combustion contributes to driving the greenhouse temperatures higher,
increasing the need for cooling" Fven distribution of the -+8 throughout the
crop is also di?cult to obtain as the -+8 originates from point sources above
the canopy" % fresh air intake should be provided when using these
Figure 1. Natural gas C!2 generators.
Boiler Stac0 Recoery Systems
1tack recovery systems are receiving more attention by %lberta growers" This
system re)uires a clean burning high output boiler and a system to recover
the -+8 from the exhaust stack for distribution to the crop" The -+8 is
directed through pipes placed within the rows of the crop, this way the -+8
distribution is improved by introducing the -+8 right to the plant canopy"
-arbon monoxide can also be present in the exhaust gas and sensors are
used to regulate the delivery of exhaust gas into the greenhouse and ensure
that carbon monoxide levels do not rise to unsafe levels"
Li1uid C(% Supplementation
2iquid -0# is another alternative for supplementation &he advantage "ith liquid -0# is that it is
a clean source of -0# for the greenhouse, as the other byproducts of combustion are not present
,or this reason liquid -0# is especially advantageous for use on sensitive seedling plants early in
the crop season (*ortree 1996) 7istribution to the crop can be accomplished through a system of
delivery pipes to the crop canopy as "ith the stack recovery systems &he dra")back to the use of
liquid -0# has been the cost 3t has historically been less e%pensive to obtain -0# through the
combustion of natural gas than by buying liquid carbon dio%ide 9ecent "ork at -7- South in
1rooks has developed a cost effective method for liquid -0# supplementation under Alberta
greenhouse gro"ing conditions
Figure 11. "i#uid C!2 tank.
Irri-ation and 6ertili)er 6eed Systems
&he fertili(er and irrigation systems provide control on the delivery of "ater and nutrients to the
plants &he t"o systems complement each other to deliver precise amounts of "ater and fertili(er
to the plants as frequently as required &here are a number of variations on the theme, ho"ever
the basic requirements are incoming "ater is in8ected or amended "ith precise amounts of
fertili(er before it is delivered to the plants 0ne key point to keep in mind is that every time a
plant is "atered, it also receives fertili(er *umps deliver the fertili(er and "ater through hoses
running the length of each of ro" Small diameter tubing, spaghetti tubes, come off the hose "ith
one tube generally feeding one plant &he systems are designed so the amount of fertili(er and
"ater delivered to the plants is equal throughout the greenhouse 2arger greenhouses are often
partitioned into a number of (ones for "atering, "ith each (one "atered sequentially in)turn once
a "atering event is required, and "ith the "atering modified independently in each (one as
required
2ecirculating systems add another level of complexity to the process" 'n most
modern vegetable greenhouses, a certain percentage of the water delivered
to the plants on a daily basis is allowed to @ow past the root system" The
water that @ows past the plant roots is referred to as the BleachateB" The
principles of leaching as well as how to fertilize and water the crop, is
explained in more detail in section C"3"C %pplication of fertilizer and water"
2ecirculating systems are designed to collect the leachate for reuse in the
crop" 2eusing the leachate minimizes the loss of fertilizer and water from the
greenhouse to the environment" *efore the leachate can be reused, it must
frst be treated to kill any disease organisms which may have accumulated in
the system" % number of methods for treatment are available and include IA
light (7eiler and 1ailus 19!, ozone treatment (7eiler and 1ailus 19!,
heat pasteurization (5ortree 19, 7eiler and 1ailus 19! and biofltration
(0g and van der (ulik 1!"
Computeri)ed *nironmental Control Systems
-omputeri(ed environmental control systems allo" gro"ers the ability to integrate the control of
all the systems involved in manipulating the greenhouse environment &he effect is to turn the
entire greenhouse and its component systems into a single instrument for control, "here optimum
environmental parameters are defined, and control is the result of the on)going input of the
component systems acting in concert
Figure &'. Computeri%ed environmental control system.
+irtually all computer programs
for controlling the greenhouse
environment provide for optimal
plant gro"th (2ange and &antau
1996) &here are a "ide variety of
computeri(ed control systems
"hich are on the market
!enerally, the higher the degree
of integration of control of the
various component systems ie
heating, cooling, ventilation and
irrigation systems, the higher the
cost of the computer system
+ptimization of the
environment for maximum
crop production re)uires
timely responses to
changes in the
environment and the
changing re)uirements of
the crop"
The greenhouse environment changes as the crop responds to its
environment, and the environment changes in response to the activity of the
crop" =ast crop processes, such as photosynthesis are considered to respond
instantaneously to the changing environment (1eginer 19!" Gue to the
dynamics of the greenhouse, the inertia of the environment, it takes longer to
implement changes to the environment, upwards of 1C minutes (1eginer
19!" /uch of the disturbance to the greenhouse environment is due to the
outside environment, the normal cycle of the day $ night periods, outside
temperatures, the e>ects of scattered clouds on an otherwise sunny day
(1eginer 19!" The environmental control system has to continually work to
modify the environment to optimize crop performance in response to on$
going change of the dynamic environment"
The ability of a computer system to control the environment is only as good
as the information it receives from the environment" The computer&s contact
with the environment occurs through various sensors recording temperature,
relative humidity, light levels and -+8 levels" 't is important that )uality
sensors are used and routinely maintained to ensure that they are operating
properly" 1ensor placement is also important to ensure accurate readings of
the crop environment, for example, a temperature sensor placed in direct
sunlight is going to give a di>erent set of readings than a temperature sensor
placed within the crop canopy"
Figure 13. $n%ironmental sensor bo&.
"ana-ement of the Greenhouse
*nironment
&his section looks at ho" the tools that gro"ers have at their disposal to control the environment,
are manipulated "ith respect to the important environmental influences on plant gro"th and
development, for the actual optimi(ation of the greenhouse environment As stated in ;-oncepts
3nvolved in the 0ptimi(ation of the !reenhouse 6nvironment for -rop *roduction,; the primary
goal of optimi(ation of the greenhouse environment is to ma%imi(e the photosynthetic process in
the crop &he strategy used to ma%imi(e photosynthesis is through the management of
transpiration &herefore, on)going modifications are made to the greenhouse environment to
manage the transpiration of the crop to match the ma%imum rate of photosynthesis
(rowth can be defned as an increase in biomass (5apadopoulos and
5arara,asingham 13!" The increase in size of a plant or other organism can
also be considered as the fundamental defnition of growth (1alisbury and
2oss 134!" The growth of plants is associated with changes in the numbers
of plant organs occurring through the initiation of new leaves, stems and
fruit, abortion of leaves and fruit, and physiological development of numbers
from one age class to the next (Jones et al 14!" /anaging growth and
development of an entire crop for maximum production involves the
manipulation of temperature and humidity to obtain not only the maximum
rate of photosynthesis under the given light conditions, but also the optimum
balance of vegetative and generative growth of plants for sustained
production and high yields (5ortree 19!" This implies that growers can
direct the results of photosynthesis, the production of assimilates, sugars and
starches, towards both vegetative and generative in a balance"
(enerative growth is the growth associated with fruit production" =or
maximum fruit production to occur, the plant has to be provided both with
the appropriate cues to trigger the setting of fruit and the cues to maintain
ade)uate levels of stem and leaf development" The balance is achieved when
the assimilates from photosynthesis are directed towards maintaining the
production of the new leaves and stems re)uired to support the continued
production of fruit" The appropriate cues are provided through the
manipulation of the environment, and are sub,ect to change depending on
the behavior of the crop" -areful attention must be paid to the signals given
by the plant, the indicators of which direction the plant is primarily headed,
vegetative or generative, and how corrective action is applied through further
manipulation of the environment to maintain high production"
Li-ht
2ight limits the photosynthetic productivity of all crops (5ilson et al 199#) and is the most
important variable affecting productivity in the greenhouse (5ilson et al 199#, *apadopoulos and
*arara8asingham 199A) &he transpiration rate of any greenhouse crop is the function of three
variables' ambient temperature, humidity and light (Stanghellini and +an .eurs 199#, +an .eurs
and Stanghellini 199#) 0f these three, it is light "hich is usually out of our control as it is
received from the sun (Stanghellini and +an .eurs 199#, +an .eurs and Stanghellini 199#)
Supplementary lighting does offer opportunity to increase yield during lo" light periods, but is
generally considered commercially unprofitable (5arren et al 199#, *apadopoulos and
*arara8asingham 199A) &he other means for manipulating light are limited to screening or
shading (Stanghellini and +an .eurs 199#) and are employed "hen light intensities are too high
$o"ever, there are also general strategies to help ma%imi(e the crop4s access to the available light
in the greenhouse
Properties of Li-ht and its "easurement
3n order to understand ho" to control the environment to make the ma%imum use of the available
light in the greenhouse, it is important to kno" about the properties of light and ho" light is
measured -onsiderable confusion has e%isted regarding the measurement of light (23)-09 3nc),
ho"ever it is "orth"hile for gro"ers to approach the sub8ect
2ight has both "ave properties and
properties of particles or photons (&illey
19A9) 7epending on ho" light is
considered, the measurement of light can
reflect either its "ave or particle properties
7ifferent companies provide a number of
different types of light sensors for use "ith
computeri(ed environmental control
systems As long as the sensors measure the
light available to plants, for practical
purposes it is not as important ho" light is
measured, as it is for gro"ers to be able to
relate these measurements to ho" the crop
is performing
<ight is a form of radiation
produced by the sun,
electromagnetic
Figure &4. The visible spectrum.
radiation" % narrow range of this electromagnetic radiation falls within the
range of 6;; to 3;; nanometers (nm! of wavelength" +ne nanometer being
e)ual to ;";;;;;;;;1 meters" The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
which falls between 6;; to 3;; nm is referred to as the spectrum of visible
light, this is essentially the range of the electromagnetic spectrum that can
be seen" 5lants respond to light in the visible spectrum and use this light to
drive photosynthesis"
Figure &(. The photosynthetic action spectrum.
*hotosynthetically Active 9adiation (*A9) is
defined as radiation in the C@@ to A@@ nm
"aveband *A9 is the general term "hich covers
both photon terms and energy terms ( 23)-09
3nc) &he rate of flo" of radiant (light) energy in
the form of an electromagnetic "ave is called the
radiant flu%, and the unit used to measure this is
the 5att (5) &he units of 5atts per square meter
(5KmL) are used by some light meters and is an
e%ample of an ;instantaneous; measurement of
*A9 (23)-09 3nc) 0ther meters commonly
seen in greenhouses take ;integrated;
measurements reporting in units of 8oules per
square centimeter (8KcmL) (23)-09 3nc)
Although the units seem fairly similar, there is no
direct conversion bet"een the t"o
*hotosynthetic *hoton ,lu% 7ensity (**,7) is
another term associated "ith *A9, but refers to
the measurement of
light in terms of photons or particles" 't is also sometimes referred to as
Juantum =lux Gensity (<'$-+2 'nc"!" 5hotosynthetic 5hoton =lux Gensity is
defned as the number of photons in the 6;; $ 3;; nm waveband reaching a
unit surface per unit of time (<'$-+2 'nc"!" The units of 55=G are micromoles
per second per s)uare meter (micromolKmD!"
%s the scientifc community begins to agree on how best to measure light
there may be more standardization in light sensors and the units used to
describe the light radiation reaching a unit area" (reenhouse growers will still
be left with the task of making day$to$day meaning of the light readings with
respect to control of the overall environment" (enerally speaking, the more
intense the light, the higher the rate of photosynthesis and transpiration
(increased humidity!, as well as solar heat gain in the greenhouse" +f these,
it is heat gain which usually calls for modifcation of the environment as
temperatures rise on the high end of the optimum range for photosynthesis,
and ventilation and cooling begins" 5lants also re)uire more water under
increasing light levels"
The Li-ht ;se *?ciency of Plants
*lants use the light in the C@@ to A@@ nm range for photosynthesis, but they make better use of
some "avelengths than others ,igure 1? presents the photosynthetic action spectrum of plants,
the relative rate of photosynthesis of plants over the range of *A9, photosynthetically available
light All plants sho" a peak of light use in the red region, appro%imately 6?@ nm and a smaller
peak in the blue region at appro%imately C?@ nm (Salisbury and 9oss 19AB) *lants are relatively
inefficient at using light and are only able to use about a ma%imum of ##H of the light absorbed
in the C@@ to A@@ nm region (Salisbury and 9oss 19AB) 2ight use efficiency by plants depends
not only on the photosynthetic efficiency of plants, but also on the efficiency of the interception
of light (5ilson et al 199#)
"a/imi)in- the Crop@s Access to Aailable Li-ht
&he high cost of greenhouse production requires gro"ers to ma%imi(e the use of light falling on
the greenhouse area ( 5ilson et al 199#) 1efore the crops are able to use the light, it first has to
pass through the greenhouse covering, "hich does not transmit light perfectly &he greenhouse
intercepts a percentage of light falling on it allo"ing a ma%imum of B@H of the light to reach the
crop at around noon, "ith an overall average of 6BH over the day (5ilson et al 199#) $o"ever,
the greenhouse covering also partially diffuses or scatters the light coming into the greenhouse so
that it is not all moving in one direction (5ilson et al 199#) &he implication of this is scattered
light tends to reach more leaves in the canopy than directional light "hich thro"s more shado"s
't is important that the crop be orientated in such a way that the light
transmitted through the structure is optimized to allow for e?cient
distribution to the canopy" (reenhouse vegetable crops have a vertical
structure in the greenhouse, so light flters down through BlayersB of leaves
before a smaller percentage actually reaches the @oor" <eaf area index (<%'!
is widely used to indicate the ratio of the area of leaves over the area of
ground which the leaves cover (1alisbury and 2oss 134!" <eaf area indexes
of up to 4 are common for many mature crop communities, depending on
species and planting density (1alisbury and 2oss 134!" /ature canopies of
greenhouse sweet peppers have a relatively high leaf area index of
approximately 9": when compared to greenhouse cucumbers and tomatoes
at :"6 to 8": respectively (.and et al 1:!"
The optimum leaf area index varies with the amount of sunlight reaching the
crop" Inder full sun, the optimum <%' is 3, at 9;H of full sun the optimum is
C, at 8:H full sunlight, the optimum is only 1"C (1alisbury and 2oss 134!"
This point has application to a growing and developing crop" 'n %lberta,
vegetable crops are seeded in 0ovember to Gecember, the low light period of
the year" Loung crops have lower leaf area indexes which increase as the crop
ages" Inder this crop cycle, the plants are growing and increasing their <%' as
the light conditions improve" -rop productivity increases with <%' up to a
certain point because of more e?cient light interception, as <%' increases
beyond this point no further e?ciency increases are realized, and in some
cases decreases occur (1alisbury and 2oss 134!"
There is also a suggestion that an e?cient crop canopy must allow some
penetration of 5%2 below the uppermost leaves, and the sharing of light by
many leaves is a prere)uisite of high productivity (5apadopoulos and
5arara,asingham 13!" <eaves can be divided into two groups# sun leaves
that intercept direct radiation and shade leaves, that receive scattered
radiation (7ilson and <oomis 193, 5apadopoulos and 5arara,asingham
13!" The structures of these leaves are distinctly di>erent (7ilson and
<oomis 193!"
The ma,or greenhouse vegetable crops (tomatoes, cucumbers and peppers!
are arranged in either single or double rows (7ilson et al 18, .and et al
1:!" This arrangement of the plants and subse)uent canopy represents an
e>ective compromise between accessibility to work the crop, and light
interception by the crop (.and et al 1:!" =or a greenhouse pepper crop,
this canopy provides for light interception exceeding ;H under overcast
skies and 6H for much of the day under clear skies (.and et al 1:!" There
is a dramatic decrease in interception that occurs around noon, and lasts for
about an hour when the sun aligns along the axis of north $ south aligned
crop rows" 'nterception falls to C;H at the gap centers where the remaining
light reaches the ground, and the overall interception of the canopy drops to
4;H (.and et al 1:!"
The strategies to reduce this light loss would be to align the rows east$west
instead of north$south, reduced light interception occurring when the sun
aligns with the rows would take place early and late in the day when the light
intensities are already )uite low (.and et al 1:!" The use of white plastic
ground cover can re@ect back light that has penetrated the canopy and can
result in an overall increase of H over crops without white plastic ground
cover (7ilson et al 18, .and et al 1:!"
The e>ect of row orientation varies with time of the day, season, latitude and
canopy geometry (5apadopoulos and 5arara,asingham 13!" 't has been
demonstrated that at :6M latitude, north$south orientated rows of tall crops,
such as tomatoes, cucumbers and peppers, intercepted more radiation over
the growing season than those orientated east$west (5apadopoulos and
5arara,asingham 13!" This fnding was the opposite for crops grown at
C1":M latitude (5apadopoulos and 5arara,asingham 13!" The ma,ority of
greenhouse vegetable crop production in %lberta occurs between C;M
(2edcli>! and C:M (Fdmonton! 0orth" This would suggest that the optimum
row alignment of tall crops for maximum light interception over the entire
season, would be east$west" .owever, in %lberta, high yielding greenhouse
vegetable crops are grown in greenhouses with north$south aligned rows as
well as in greenhouses with east$west aligned rows"
%lberta is known for its sunshine, and the sun is not usually limiting during
the summer" 'n fact, many vegetable growers apply whitewash shading to the
greenhouses during the high light period of the year because the light
intensity and associated solar heat gain can be too high for optimal crop
performance" The strategies for increasing light interception by the canopy
should focus specifcally on the times in year when light is limiting, for
%lberta, this is early spring and late fall" 7hen light is limiting, a linear
function exists between light reduction and decreased growth, with a 1H
increase in growth occurring with a 1H increase in light (Ge Eoning 14,
7ilson et al 18! under light levels up to 8;; 7KmD"
7hen light levels are limiting, supplementary artifcial lighting will increase
plant growth and yield (5apadopoulos and 5arara,asingham 13!" The use of
supplemental lighting has its limits as well" Ising supplemental lighting to
increase the photoperiod to 19 and 8; hours increased the yield of pepper
plants while continuous light decreased yields compared to the 8; hour
photoperiod (Gemers and (osselin 14!" The economics of artifcial light
supplementation generally do not warrant the use of supplementary light on
a greenhouse vegetable crop in full production" .owever, supplementary
lighting of seedling vegetable plants prior to transplanting into the production
greenhouse is recommended for those growers growing their own plants from
seed"
<ight is generally limiting in %lberta when greenhouse vegetable seedlings
are started in 0ovember to Gecember" Ising supplemental lighting for
seedling transplant production when natural light is limiting resulted in
increased weight of tomato and pepper transplants grown under
supplemental light compared to control transplants grown under natural light
(Gemers et al 11, =ierro et al 16!" Loung plants exposed to supplemental
light also were ready for transplanting 1 to 8 weeks earlier than plants grown
under natural light (Gemers et al 11!" 7hen supplemental lighting was
combined with carbon dioxide supplementation at ;; ppm, not only did the
weight of the transplants increase, but total yield of the tomato crop was also
higher by 1;H over the control plants (=ierro et al 16!" 't is recommended
that supplementary lighting be used for production of vegetable transplant
production in %lberta during the low light period of the year" This translates to
about 6 to 3 weeks of lighting depending on the crop" (reenhouse sweet
peppers are transplanted into the production greenhouse at 9 to 3 weeks of
age" The amount of light re)uired varies with crop but ranges between
approximately 18; $ 14; 7KmD, coming from 6;; 7 lights" % typical
arrangement of lights for the seedlingKtransplant nursery would be to have
the lights in rows 1"4 m (9 ft! o> the @oor, spaced at 8"3 m ( ft"! along the
rows with :"9 m (18 ft! between the rows of lights "
Figure &6. $igh pressure sodium light.
/atural light levels vary throughout the province
"ith areas in southern Alberta at ?@D latitude
receiving 1>H more light annually than areas
around 6dmonton at ?>D latitude (.ir(a 199@)
Strategies to optimi(e the use of available light
for commercial greenhouse production involve a
number of crop management variables 9o"
orientation, plant density, plant training and
pruning, maintaining optimum gro"ing
temperatures and relative humidity levels, -0#
supplementation, and even light supplementation,
all play a role All the variables must be
optimi(ed for a given light level for a given crop,
and none of these variables are independent from
one another $o" a gro"er manipulates one
variable, affects the others
Temperature "ana-ement
7evelopment and flo"ering of plants relates to both root (one and air temperature (Mhah and
*assam 199#), and control of temperature is an important tool for the control of crop gro"th (7e
Moning 1996)
"ana-in- Air Temperatures
&he optimum temperature is determined by the processes involved in the utili(ation of assimilate
products of photosynthesis, ie distribution of dry matter to shoots, leaves, roots and fruit (7e
Moning 1996) ,or the control of crop gro"th, average temperature over one or several days is
more important than the dayKnight temperature differences (1akker 19B9, 7e Moning 1996) &his
average temperature is also referred to as the #C)hour average temperature or #C)hour mean
temperature (1akker 19B9, *ortree 1996) +arious greenhouse crops sho" a very close
relationship bet"een gro"th, yield and the #C)hour mean temperature (1akker 19B9, *ortree
1996)
7ith the goal of directing growth and maintaining optimum plant balance for
sustained high yield production, the 86$hour mean temperature can be
manipulated to direct the plant to be more generative in growth, or more
vegetative in growth" +ptimum photosynthesis occurs between 81 to 88 M-
(5ortree 19!, this temperature serves as the target for managing
temperatures during the day when photosynthesis occurs" +ptimum
temperatures for vegetative growth for greenhouse peppers is between 81 to
8: M-, with the optimum temperature for yield about 81 M- (*akker 14!"
=ruit set, however, is determined by the 86$hour mean temperature and the
di>erence in day $ night temperatures (*akker 14!, with the optimum night
temperature for @owering and fruit setting at 19 to 14 M- (5ressman 14!"
Target 86$hour mean temperatures for the main greenhouse vegetable crops
(cucumbers, tomatoes, peppers! can vary from crop to crop with di>erences
even between cultivars of the same crop"
The 86$hour mean temperature optimums for vegetable crops range between
81 to 8: M-, depending on light intensity" The general management strategy
for directing the growth of the crop is to raise the 86$hour average
temperature to push the plants in a generative direction and to lower the 86$
hour average temperature to encourage vegetative growth (5ortree 19!"
%d,ustments to the 86$hour mean temperature are made usually within 1 to
1"CN deg#- with careful attention paid to the crop response"
+ne assumption that is made when using air temperature as the guide to
directing plant growth is that it represents the actual plant temperature" The
role of temperature in the optimization of plant performance and yield is
ultimately based on the temperature of the plants" 5lant temperatures are
usually within a degree of air temperature, however during the high light
periods of the year, plant tissues exposed to high light can reach 1; to 18 M-
higher than air temperatures" 't is important to be aware of this fact and to
use strategies such as shading and evaporative cooling to reduce
overheating of the plant tissues" 'nfrared thermometers are useful for
determining actual leaf temperature"
Precision +eat in the Canopy
5recision heating of specifc areas within the crop canopy add another
dimension of air temperature control beyond maintaining optimum
temperatures of the entire greenhouse air mass" Ising heating pipes that can
be raised and lowered, heat can be applied close to @owers and developing
fruit to provide optimum temperatures for maximum development in spite of
the day $ night temperature @uctuations re)uired to signal the plant to
produce more @owers" The rate of fruit development can be enhanced with
little e>ect on overall plant development and @ower set (Ge Eoning 19!"
5recise application of heat in this manner can avoid the problem of low
temperatures to the @owers and fruit which are known to disturb @owering
and fruit set (*akker 14!" The functioning of pepper @owers are a>ected
below 16 M- , the number of pollen grains per @ower are reduced and fruit set
under low night temperatures are generally deformed (5ressman 14!"
5roblems with low night temperatures can be sporadic in the greenhouse
during the cold winter months and can occur even if the environmental
control system is apparently meeting and maintaining the set optimum
temperature targets" There can be a number of reasons for this, but the
primary reasons are 1! lags in response time between the system&s detection
of the heating setpoint temperature and when the operation of the system is
able to provide the re)uired heat throughout the greenhouse and 8! specifc
temperature variations in the greenhouse due to drafts and Bcold pocketsB"
"ana-in- Root Aone Temperatures
9oot (one temperatures are primarily managed to remain in a narro" range to ensure proper root
functioning &arget temperatures for the root (one are 1B to #1 D- -ontrol of the root (one
temperature is primarily a concern for Alberta gro"ers in "inter, and is obtained through the use
of bottom heat systems such as pipe and rail systems -ontrol is maintained by monitoring the
temperature at the roots and maintaining the pipe at a temperature that ensures optimum root (one
temperatures
The use of tempered irrigation water is also a strategy employed by some
growers" /aintaining warm irrigation water (8; M- is optimum! minimizes the
shock to the root system associated with the delivery of cold irrigation water"
'n cases during the winter months, in the absence of a pipe and rail system,
root zone temperatures can drop to 1C M- or lower" The performance of most
greenhouse vegetable crops is sub optimal at this low root zone temperature"
Ising tempered irrigation water alone is not usually successful in raising and
maintaining root zone temperatures to optimum levels" The reasons for this
are two fold# frstly, the volume of water re)uired for irrigation over the
course of the day during the winter months is too small to allow for the
ade)uate sustained warming of the root zone, and secondly, the temperature
of the irrigation water would have to be almost hot in order to e>ect any
immediate change in root zone temperature" 2oot in,ury can begin to occur
at temperatures in excess of 8: M- in direct contact with the roots" The
recommendation for irrigation water temperature is not to exceed 86 $ 8C M-"
The purpose of the irrigation system is to optimize the delivery of water and
nutrients to the root systems of the plants, using it for any other purpose
generally compromises the main function of the irrigation system"
1ystems for controlling root zone temperatures are primarily confned to
providing heat during the winter months" Guring the hot summer months
temperatures in the root zone can climb to over 8C M- if the plants are grown
in sawdust bags or rockwool slabs, and if the bags are exposed to prolonged
direct sunlight" %voiding high root zone temperatures is accomplished
primarily by ensuring an ade)uate crop canopy to shade the root system"
%lso, since larger volumes of water are applied to the plants during the
summer, ensuring that the irrigation water is relatively cool, approximately
14 M-, (if possible! will help in preventing excessive root zone temperatures"
+ne important point to keep in mind with respect to irrigation water
temperatures during the summer months is irrigation pipe exposed to the
direct sun can cause the standing water in the pipe to reach very high
temperatures, in excess of :C M-O 'rrigation pipe is often black to prevent
light penetration into the line which can result in the development of algae
and the associated problems with clogged drippers" 't is important to monitor
irrigation water temperatures at the plant dripline, especially during the frst
part of the irrigation cycle, to ensure that the temperatures are not too high"
%ll exposed irrigation pipe should be shaded with white plastic or moved out
of the direct sunlight if a problem is detected"
"ana-ement of Relatie +umidity ;sin-
5apour Pressure <e2cits
*lants e%change energy "ith the environment primarily through the evaporation of "ater, through
the process of transpiration (*apadakis et al 199C) &ranspiration is the only type of transfer
process in the greenhouse that has both a physical and biological basis (*apadakis et al 199C)
&his plant process is almost e%clusively responsible for the subtropical climate in the greenhouse
(*apadakis et al 199C) Seventy percent of the light energy falling on a greenhouse crop goes
to"ards transpiration, the changing of liquid "ater to "ater vapour ($anan 199@), and most of
the irrigation "ater applied to the crop is lost through transpiration (*apadakis et al 199C)
2elative humidity (2.! is a measure of the water vapour content of the air"
The use of relative humidity to measure the amount of water in the air is
based on the fact that the ability of the air to hold water vapour is dependent
on the temperature of the air" 2elative humidity is defned as the amount of
water vapour in the air compared to the maximum amount of water vapour
the air is able to hold at that temperature (Tilley 13, 5ortree 19!" The
implication of this is that a given reading of relative humidity re@ects
di>erent amounts of water vapour in the air at di>erent temperatures" =or
example air at a temperature of 86 M- at a 2. of 4;H is actually holding
more water vapour than air at a temperature of 8; M- at a 2. of 4;H"
The use of relative humidity for control of the water content of the
greenhouse air mass has commonly been approached by maintaining the
relative humidity below threshold values, one for the day and one for the
night (1tanghellini and Aan /eurs 18!" This type of humidity control was
directed at preserving low humidity (1tanghellini and Aan /eurs 18!, and
although humidity levels high enough to favour disease organisms must be
avoided (1tanghellini and Aan /eurs 18!, there are more optimal
approaches to control the humidity levels in the greenhouse environment"
The sole use of relative humidity as the basis of controlling greenhouse air
water content does not allow for optimization of the growing environment, as
it does not provide a frm basis for dealing with plant processes such as
transpiration in a direct manner" (.anan 1;!" The common purpose of
humidity control is to sustain a minimal rate of transpiration (1tanghellini and
Aan /eurs 18!"
The transpiration rate of a given greenhouse crop is a function of three in$
house variablesP temperature, humidity and light (1tanghellini and Aan /eurs
18, Aan /eurs and 1tanghellini 18!" <ight is the one variable usually
outside the control of most greenhouse growers" 'f the existing natural light
levels are accepted, then crop transpiration is primarily determined by the
temperature and humidity in the greenhouse (1tanghellini and Aan /eurs
18!" %chievement of the optimum Btranspiration setpointB depends on the
management of temperature and humidity within the greenhouse" /ore
specifcally, at each level of natural light received into the greenhouse, a
transpiration setpoint should allow for the determination of optimal
temperature and humidity setpoints (1tanghellini and Aan /eurs 18!"
The relationship between transpiration and humidity is awkward to describe,
as it is largely related to the reaction of the stomata to the di>erence in
vapour pressure between the leaves and the air (1tanghellini and Aan /eurs
18!" The most certain piece of knowledge about how stomata behave
under increasing vapour pressure di>erence is it is dependent on the plant
species in )uestion (1tanghellini and Aan /eurs 18!" .owever, even with
the current uncertainties with understanding the relationships and
determining mechanisms involved, the main point to remember about
environmental control of transpiration is that it is possible (1tanghellini and
Aan /eurs 18, Aan /eurs and 1tanghellini 18!"
The concept of vapour pressure di>erence or vapour pressure defcit (A5G!
can be used to establish setpoints for temperature and relative humidity in
combination to optimize transpiration under any given light level" A5G is one
of the important environmental factors in@uencing the growth and
development of greenhouse crops (Qabri and *urrage 13!, and o>ers a
more accurate characteristic for describing water saturation of the air than
relative humidity because A5G is not temperature dependent (2odov et al
1C!" Aapour pressure can be thought of as the concentration, or level of
saturation of water existing as a gas, in the air (Tilley 13!" %s warm air can
hold more water vapour than cool air, so the vapour pressures of water in
warm air can reach higher values than in cool air" There is a natural
movement from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration"
Just as heat naturally @ows from warm areas to cool areas, so does water
vapour move from areas of high vapour pressure, or high concentration, to
areas of low vapour pressure, or low concentration" This is true for any given
air temperature" The vapour pressure defcit is used to describe the
di>erence in water vapour concentration between two areas" The size of the
di>erence also indicates the natural BdrawB or force driving the water vapour
to move from the area of high concentration to low concentration" The rate of
transpiration, or water vapour loss from a leaf into the air around the leaf,
can be thought of, and managed using the concept of vapour pressure defcit
(A5G!" 5lants maintained under low A5G had lower transpiration rates while
plants under high A5G can experience higher transpiration rates and greater
water stress (Qabri and *urrage 13!"
% key point when considering the concept of A5G as it applies to controlling
plant transpiration is the vapour pressure of water vapour is always higher
inside the leaf than outside the leaf" /eaning the concentration of water
vapour is always greater within the leaf than in the greenhouse environment,
with the possible exception of having a very undesirable 1;;H relative
humidity in the greenhouse environment" This means the natural tendency of
movement of water vapour is from within the leaf into the greenhouse
environment" The rate of movement of water from within the leaf into the
greenhouse air, or transpiration, is governed largely by the di>erence in the
vapour pressure of water in the greenhouse air and the vapour pressure
within the leaf" The relative humidity of the air within the leaf can be
considered to always be 1;;H (5apadakis et al 16!, so by optimizing
temperature and relative humidity of the greenhouse air, growers can
establish and maintain a certain rate of water loss from the leaf, a certain
transpiration rate" The ultimate goal is to establish and maintain the optimum
transpiration rate for maximum yield" -rop yield is linked to the relative
increase or decrease in transpiration, a simplifed relationship relates
increase in yield to increase in A5G (Jolliet et al 1:!
Transpiration is a key plant process for cooling the plant, bringing nutrients in
from the root system and for the allocation of resources within the plant"
Transpiration rate can determine the maximum e?ciency by which
photosynthesis occurs, how e?ciently nutrients are brought into the plant
and combined with the products of photosynthesis, and how these resources
for growth are distributed throughout the plant" 1ince the principles of A5G
can be used to control the transpiration rate, there is a range of optimum
A5Gs corresponding to optimum transpiration rates for maximum sustained
yield (5ortree 19!"
The measurement of A5G is done in terms of pressure, using units such as
millibars (mb! or kilopascals (k5a! or units of concentration, grams per cubic
meter (gKm
:
!" The units of measurement can vary from sensor to sensor, or
between the various systems used to control A5G" The optimum range of A5G
is between : to 3 gramsKm
:
(5ortree 19!, and regardless of how A5G is
measured, maintaining A5G in the optimum range can be obtained by
meeting specifc corresponding relative humidity and temperature targets"
Table 1 presents the temperature $ relative humidity combinations re)uired to
maintain the range of optimal A5G inthe greenhouse environment" 't is
important to remember that this table only displays the temperature and
humidity targets to obtain the range of optimum A5Gs, it does not consider
the temperature targets that are optimal for specifc crops" There is a range
of optimal growing temperatures for each crop that will determine a narrower
band of temperature $ humidity targets for optimizing A5G"
Table '. Relatie +umidity and Temperature Tar-ets to (btain
(ptimal 5apour Pressure <e2citss
Gram!m
B
C and millibars 7mb8
Relatie +umidity
9?H 9@ H B? H B@ H A? H A@ H 6? H 6@ H ?? H
mb gmKm
>
mb gmKm
>
mb gmKm
>
mb gmKm
>
mb gmKm
>
mb gmKm
>
mb gmKm
>
mb gmKm
>
mb gmKm
>
@? @6 11 1C 1A ## ## #9 #B >A >> C> >9 ?1 CC ?B ?@ 66
@6 @B 1# 16 1B #C #> >@ #9 >B >? C6 C1 ?C CA 6# ?> A@
@6 @B 1> 1A 19 #? #? >> >1 C1 >A C9 C> ?6 ?@ 66 ?6 AC
@A @9 1> 1A #@ #6 #A >6 >> C> C@ ?> C6 61 ?> A@ ?9 AB
@A @9 1C 1B #1 #B #9 >B >6 CA C> ?6 ?@ 66 ?A A? 6C BC
@B 1@ 1? #@ ## #9 >@ >9 >B ?@ C? ?9 ?> A@ 61 B@ 6B B9
@B 1@ 16 #1 #C ># >> C> C1 ?C C9 6C ?A A? 6? B6 A> 96
@9 1# 1A ## #6 >C >? C6 C> ?A ?# 6B 6@ A9 6B B9 AA 1@1
@9 1# 1B #C #A >6 >A C9 C6 61 ?? A# 6C BC AC 9A B> 1@9
1@ 1> #@ #6 >@ >9 >9 ?1 C9 6C ?B A6 6B B9 AB 1@> BB 116
1@ 1> #@ #6 >@ >9 C1 ?C ?# 6B 6# B1 A# 9? B# 1@A 9# 1#1
11 1C ## #9 >> C> CC ?B ?? A# 66 BA AA 1@1 BB 116 99 1>@
1# 16 #C ># >6 CA CA 6# ?9 AB A1 9> B> 1@9 9C 1#> 1@6 1>9
1> 1A #? >> >A C9 ?@ 66 6> B> A? 99 BA 11C 99 1>@ 11# 1CA
1C 1B #A >6 C1 ?C ?> A@ 6A BB B@ 1@1 9> 1## 1@B 1C# 119 1?6
1C 1B #B >A C# ?? ?A A? A1 9> B? 11# 99 1>@ 11> 1CB 1#A 16A
R+ptimum range :$3 gramsKm
:
, :"$"8 mb
The plants themselves exert tremendous in@uence on the greenhouse
climate (<ange and Tantau 19!, transpiration not only serves to add
moisture to the environment, but is also the mechanism by which plants cool
themselves and add heat to the environment (5apadakis et al 16!"
+ptimization of transpiration rates through management of air temperature
and relative humidity can change over the course of the season" Farly in the
season, when plants are young and the outside temperatures are cold, both
heat and humidity (from mist systems! can be applied to maintain
temperature and humidity targets" %s the season progresses and the crop
matures, increasing light intensity increases the transpiration rate and the
moisture content of the air" To maintain optimum rates of transpiration,
venting is employed to reduce the relative humidity in the air" .owever,
under typical summer conditions in %lberta, particularly in the south,
ventilation is almost exclusively triggered by high temperature setpoints
calling for cooling" Inder these conditions, ventilation can occur continuously
throughout the daylight period and results in very low relative humidity in the
greenhouse" %s the hot, moist air is vented, it is replaced by still warm, dry
air" 1outhern %lberta is a dry environment with the relative humidity of the air
in summer routinely falling below :;H" Inder these conditions some form of
additional cooling, mist systems or pad and fan evaporative cooling, is
re)uired to both reduce the amount of ventilation for cooling as well as to
add moisture to the air"
Carbon <io/ide Supplementation
-arbon dio%ide (-0#) is one of the inputs of photosynthesis and as such -0# plays an important
role in increasing crop productivity ($and 199>, 9i8kd8ik and $outer 199>) 0ptimal -0#
concentrations for the greenhouse atmosphere fall "ith the range of bet"een A@@ to 9@@ ppm
(parts per million) (9omero)Aranda et al 199?, &remblay and !osselin 199B) -rop productivity
depends not only on efficiency of interception of light but also on the efficiency "ith "hich light
is converted to chemical energy in photosynthesis -arbon dio%ide enrichment to 1#@@ ppm
increases the ma%imum conversion efficiency by a substantial amount (bet"een #B to ?9H)
(5ilson et al 199#) *hotosynthetic efficiencies appear never to e%ceed about ## H of the
absorbed light energy in the C@@ to A@@ nm range, the ma%imum efficiency is obtained at relative
lo" light intensities, not in brightest sunlight (Salisbury and 9oss 19AB) -onsidering the supply
of light to available land area on "hich a crop is gro"ing, the overall yield efficiencies are
al"ays much belo" ##H (Salisbury and 9oss 19AB) &he use of -0# in greenhouses can give
light use efficiencies e%ceeding those of field crops (5ilson et al 199#) !lasshouse crops "ith
-0# enrichment achieve ma%imum efficiency of light energy utili(ation bet"een 1#)1>H (5ilson
et al 199#) &he ability of plants to utili(e -0# is dependent upon the presence of light, for this
reason it is only useful to supplement -0# during the daylight hours (Styer and Moranski 199A)
The key enzyme for -+8 fxation is rubisco (Tremblay and (osselin 14!" The
activity of rubisco depends on the ratio of the +8 and -+8 concentration in the
atmosphere (Tremblay and (osselin 14!" The ma,or e>ect of -+8
enrichment is the shift in balance in the +8 and -+8 ratio which improves the
activity of rubisco (Tremblay and (osselin 14!" The e>ect is ,ust as
important at low as at high light levels since the percentage e>ect on relative
growth rate is about the same over a range of light levels (Tremblay and
(osselin 14!" Transpiration rates are reduced under -+8 enrichment
conditions by :6H" 'ncreased net leaf photosynthesis rate and decreased
transpiration rate under -+8 enrichment is well documented" +ne of the most
important e>ects of -+8 enrichment is the increased water use e?ciency
(Tremblay and (osselin 14!"
The techni)ue of enriching the greenhouse atmosphere with -+8 to maximize
yield is standard practice (1lack et al 144, 0ederhof et al 18, 2i,kdi,k and
.outer 1:!" The largest increase in growth rate achieved with -+8
enrichment is obtained with high light intensities" % high -+8 concentration
may partially compensate for low light levels (=ierro et al 16!" There is
obviously a potential for synergism between -+8 and light, however the
relationship between -+8 and light conditions may be relatively loose
(Tremblay and (osselin 14!"
7hen greenhouse ventilation rates are high, the cost of -+8 supplementation
can rise steeply" This is particularly so with a ventilation regime where
ventilation is triggered at temperatures between 1 $ 81 M- (1lack et al
144!" 'nvestigations into delaying ventilation to increase the cost
e>ectiveness of -+8 supplementation have shown that the amounts of -+8
supplied to the greenhouse could be reduced by 8: to :CH while still
maintaining the -+8 content of the greenhouse atmosphere above ambient
-+8 concentrations (1lack et al 144!" Gelaying ventilation to conserve -+8
resulted in higher greenhouse temperatures with fruit temperatures
exceeding :; M-" .owever, total marketable yield fell by 11H and the
proportion of fruit graded as -lass 1 was reduced by 8;H on average (1lack
et al 144!"
The best advice for -+8 supplementation under high ventilation rates is to
maintain the -+8 concentration at or ,ust above the normal ambient level of
approximately :C; ppm (1lack et al 144!" This is a highly e?cient way of
using -+8 supplementation" /aintaining the -+8 concentration at the same
level as ambient, there can be no net exchange of -+8 with the outside air
through leakage or ventilation (1lack et al 144!" =or practical purposes, the
input of -+8 is therefore e)ual to that being assimilated by the crop during
photosynthesis, i"e" the utilization of supplementary -+8 is totally e?cient
(1lack et al 144!" The main point being that ventilation and economical -+8
enrichment may be applied simultaneously" (1hina and 1eginer 14
Tremblay and (osselin 14!"
%t higher temperatures, 8C M-, net photosynthesis begins to decline and the
supplementation of -+8 above this temperature is not considered cost
e>ective (5ortree 19!" Guring longer periods of elevated -+8 the stomata
remain partially closed and the reduction of transpiration may cause
insu?cient cooling, hence, heat damage to the leaves under conditions of
intense light (0ederho> et al 18!" .owever, the increased A5G associated
with the higher temperatures has been shown to counteract the e>ect of
stomatal closure due to -+8 supplementation (0ederho> et al 18!"
1ince young plants grow nearly exponentially, they can beneft more from
optimal growing conditions than mature plants (Tremblay and (osselin 14!"
-arbon dioxide enrichment results in heavier transplants and can be used to
accelerate the growth, as well as improving the )uality of the transplants
(Tremblay and (osselin 14!" -arbon dioxide may increase sugar
translocation in the roots as well as facilitating the movement of nitrogen and
carbon compounds directed towards the development of new roots (Tremblay
and (osselin 14!" 'n short, -+8 supplementation shortens the nursery
period and results in sturdier, higher )uality plants (Tremblay and (osselin
14!"
Air Pollution in the Greenhouse
Air pollutants can be a concern for greenhouse production &he incidence of air pollutant in8ury
to plants is increasing as more gro"ers use double plastic greenhouses, or other forms of
greenhouse sealing to reduce energy loss (1lom 199B) Air pollutants can cause visible in8ury to
the leaves, can reduce gro"th rates or both (1lom 199B) &omatoes and cucumbers are
particularly sensitive to air pollutant in8ury (*ortree 1996) 5hen considering the effects of
greenhouse air pollutants ,it is important to remember that these pollutants pose significant health
risks for people "orking the crops
-ommon pollutants are often by$products of combustion" %lthough sources of
pollutants can be outside the greenhouse, a number of sources of pollutants
can be found within the greenhouse" 5ollutants can be produced by direct$
fred heating units, gas supply lines or carbon dioxide generators that burn
hydrocarbon fuels such as natural gas (*lom 14!" 1ignifcant sources of
pollutants outside the greenhouse can include industrial plants or vehicle
exhaust (*lom 14!"
*able #+ Ma,imum acceptable concentration -ppm.
of some no,ious gases for humans and plants
/as &umans Plants
-arbon 7i%oide (-0#) ?,@@@ C,?@@
-arbon mono%ide (-0) CA 1@@
Sulfur dio%ide (S0#) >? @1
$yfrogen sulfide ($#S) 1@? @@1
6thylene (-#$C) ?@ @@1
/itrous o%ide (/0) ?@ @@1 to @1
/itrogen dio%ide (/0#) ?@ @# to #@
)dapted from Portree &##6
%ir pollution from sources within the greenhouse commonly arise through
cracked heat exchangers on furnaces or incomplete combustion in the
furnace or -+8 generators" .eaters and generators should be checked at the
beginning of the cropping season to ensure they are operating properly and
complete combustion is occurring" The most common air pollutants resulting
from incomplete combustion include nitrogen oxides, nitric oxide (0+! and
nitrogen dioxide (0+8!, sulfur dioxide (1+8!, ethylene (-8.6!, propylene (-:.9!,
ozone (+:!, carbon monoxide (-+! and hydrogen sulfde (.81! (5ortree 19,
*lom 14!"
1ymptoms of air pollutant in,ury vary with the specifc gases involved" The
common symptoms of sulfur dioxide in,ury is characterized by severe leaf
burn appearing withing 86 to :9 hours of exposure to high levels of the gas
(*lom 14!" There is a distinct line between the a>ected and una>ected
areas on the leaves and young leaves are more susceptible to in,ury than
mature leaves (*lom 14!" 1ymptoms of 0+8 in,ury include darker than
normal green leaves with downward curling leaf margins and dead areas on
the leaves in severe cases (*lom 14!" Fthylene functions as a plant growth
regulator, involved in seed germination, root development, @ower
development and leaf abscission (1alisbury and 2oss 134, *lom 14!"
Fthylene in,ury can include a reduction in growth, shortening and thickening
of stems and twisting of stems, as well as premature leaf and @ower drop
(*lom 14!" 5ropylene in,ury is similar to ethylene but usually occurs at
concentrations 1;; times higher than those for ethylene (*lom 14!" +zone
in,ury is characterized by mottling, necrotic @ecking or bronzing necrosis of
leaves, premature leaf drop and decreased growth (*lom 14!"
Growin- "edia
.ost commercial vegetable production greenhouses in Alberta use some form of ;hydroponic
culture; &he term hydroponics essentially translates as 4"ater culture4 3t is an advanced form of
crop culture "hich allo"s for specific control of the delivery of nutrients to the plants (Salisbury
and 9oss 19AB, 5eiler and Sailus 1996) &he term hydroponics can bring to mind a number of
variations on the same theme $ydroponic gro"ing systems can include: substrate culture "here
the roots are allo"ed to gro" in an inert or semi)inert media' solution culture "here the roots are
immersed in ponds of nutrient solution' /,& culture (nutrient film technique) "here the roots are
contained such that a thin film of nutrient solution constantly runs by the roots' and aeroponics
"here the root systems are suspended "ithin an enclosed area and are misted "ith nutrient
solution (5eiler and Sailus 1996) A general "orking definition of hydroponic culture that "ould
include all of the above systems, is plant culture "here the plants receive fertili(er nutrients every
time they receive "ater
Ising this working defnition of hydroponics also leaves room for the inclusion
of soil as a growing medium" .owever, soil culture is not widely practiced in
commercial vegetable greenhouses in %lberta" The main reason for moving
out of soil, into soilless culture, is to escape problems due to soil borne
diseases (/aree 16, 5ortree 19! that can build$up in the soil used year
after year" 1oilless media such as rockwool and sawdust o>er an initially
disease$free growing medium" There are other advantages of moving the root
system out of the soil and into confned spaces such as sawdust bags or
rockwool slabs" The main advantages are realized in the improved
management of watering and nutrition, topics which are discussed in more
detail in following sections"
"edia for Seedin- and Propa-ation
9ock"ool plugs are the most common media used for seeding 9ock"ool is manufactured by
sub8ecting rock mineral materials to very high temperatures and then spinning the materials into a
fibre (*ortree 1996) &he plugs can be square (# cm % # cm by C cm deep) and can come 8oined
together as a rock"ool ;flat; that fit into standard #B cm % ?C cm plastic seeding flats As the
seed germinates and the seedlings are ready for their first transplanting, the plugs easily separate
from each other "hen the seedlings are transplanted into rock"ool blocks
2ock wool blocks are typically around 1; cm x 1; cm by 4 cm deep, with a
depression cut into the upper surface to receive the rockwool plug at the frst
transplanting" %s the seedling continues to grow, the root system develops
from the rockwool plug into the confnes of the block" 7hen the seedling is
ready for transplanting into the main production greenhouse at Bhouse setB,
the bottom of the rockwool block is placed in direct contact with the larger
volume of growing media used in the production house"
Growin- "edia for the Production Greenhouse
&he ma8ority of Alberta4s commercial greenhouse vegetable production is based on substrate
culture "here the plants are gro"n in sa"dust or rock"ool &hese substrates contain practically
nothing in the "ay of plant nutrients and serve as a substrate for the root system to anchor the
plant &he gro"ing media plays a significant role in defining the environment of the root system
and allo"s for the transfer of "ater and nutrients to the plant &ypically, for sa"dust culture, # or
> plants are gro"n in #@ to #? litre "hite plastic bags ("hite reflects more light) filled "ith
spruce andKor pine sa"dust 9ock"ool culture uses appro%imately 16 litres of rock"ool substrate
for every # to > plants (*ortree 1996) &he sa"dust bags or rock"ool slabs are placed directly on
the "hite plastic floor of the greenhouse
1awdust is less expensive than rockwool in initial cost, however standard
density rockwool slabs can be pasteurized and reused for up to three years
(/aree 16, 5ortree 19!" 1awdust is a waste product of the lumber milling
process which is usually burned, so the use of sawdust as a growing media is
an environmentally sound practice" =or sawdust culture it is important to use
a moderately fne sawdust, lumber mills in %lberta understand the sawdust
re)uirements for plant production and will supply Bhorticultural gradeB
sawdust if they are made aware that the sawdust is to be used for plant
culture" Ising sawdust that is too fne will break down over the production
season with resulting loss of airspace around the roots which can lead to root
death (*enoit and -eustermans 16, 5ortree 19!"
There is always some decomposition of the sawdust during the growing
season (*enoit and -eustermans 16! which makes the product useful for
further composting or adding to mineral soils to improve soil )uality" Through
the continued action of soil microbes the sawdust residue at the end of the
cropping season is returned to the environment in an ecologically sound
manner" The waste from sawdust culture is confned to the plastic bags
themselves which are recovered when the sawdust bags are dumped and can
be recycled where facilities exist"
"ana-ement of Irri-ation and 6ertili)er 6eed
'n hydroponic crop production systems the application of water is integrated
with the application of the fertilizer feed" The management of fertilizer
application to the plants is therefore integrated with the management of
watering" The management of watering and nutrition is focused on the
optimal delivery of water and nutrients over the various growth stages of the
plant, through the changing growing environment over the production year,
in order to maximize yield"
> Dater Euality
*lants are comprised of B@ to 9@H "ater (Salisbury and 9oss 19AB) and the availability of
adequate quality "ater is very important to successful crop production (*ortree 1996, Styer and
Moranski 199A) &he quality of "ater is determined by "hat is contained in the "ater at the
source' "ell, dugout, to"n or city "ater supply, and the acidity or alkalinity of the "ater 5ater is
a solvent, and as such, it can contain or hold a certain quantity of soluble salts in solution
,ertili(ers, by their nature, are soluble salts, and gro"ers dissolve fertili(ers in "ater to obtain
nutrient solutions in order to provide the plants "ith adequate nutrition *rior to using any source
of "ater for crop production it is important to have it tested for quality 5ater quality tests
determine the amount of various salts commonly associated "ith "ater quality concerns &he
ma%imum desirable concentrations, in parts per million (ppm), for specific salt ions in "ater for
greenhouse crop production are presented in table > *arts per million are one unit of
measurement of the amount of dissolved ions, or salt in "ater, and are also used to measure the
level of dissolved fertili(er salts in nutrient solutions &he level of nutrients as dissolved ions in
"ater can also be reported in milligramsK2itre of solution &here is a direct relationship bet"een
milligramsK2itre (mgK2) and ppm, "here 1 mgK2 N 1 ppm Another common unit of measure for
dissolved fertili(er salts is the millimole (m.), the concept of millimoles and the relationship
bet"een millimoles and ppm is e%plained in the special topic section
0igure %12 *he relationship between common units of
measurement for electrical conductivity -E2C2.
1 mmhoKcm N 1 mSKcm N 1@@@ microsiemensKcm
*able 3+ *he ma,imum desirable
concentrations4 in parts per million -ppm.4 for
specific salt ions in water for greenhouse crop
production2
Element
Ma,imum desirable
-ppm.
/itrogen (/0> ) /) ?
*hosphorus ($#*0C ) *) ?
*otassium (M
E
) ?
-alcium (-a
EE
) 1#@
.agnesium (.g
EE
) #?
-hloride (-l
)
) 1@@
Sulphate (S0C
))
) #@@
1icarbonate ($-0>
)
) 6@
Sodium (/a
EE
) >@
3ron (,e
EEE
) ?
1oron (1) @?
<inc (<n
EE
) @?
.anganese (.n
EE
) 1@
-opper (-u
EE
) @#
.olybdenum (.o) @@#
,luoride (,
)
) 1
p$ A?
6- 1
7ater )uality tests will also report the p., the acidity or alkalinity of the
water" +nce the source of water has been determined as suitable for
greenhouse crop production it is also important to have the water tested
routinely to ensure that any @uctuations in )uality that may occur does not
compromise crop production"
*lectrical Conductiity of Dater
7ater )uality analyses also report the electrical conductivity or F"-" of the
water" The ability of water to conduct an electrical current is dependent of
the amount of ions or salts dissolved in the water" The greater the amount of
dissolved salts in the water, the more readily the water will conduct
electricity" Flectrical conductivity is an indirect measurement of the level of
salts in the water and can be a useful tool for both determining the general
suitability of water for crop production, and for the ongoing monitoring of the
fertilizer feed solution" Ising electrical conductivity as a measure to maintain
F"-" targets in the nutrient solution and the root zone can be used as a
management tool for making decisions regarding the delivery of fertilizer
solution to the plants"
Flectrical conductivity is measured and reported using a number of
measurement units including millimhos per centimeter (mmhosKcm!,
millisiemens per centimeter (m1Kcm! or microsiemens per centimeter" 7ater
suitable for greenhouse crop production should not have a F"-" in excess of
1"; mmhosKcm"
p+
The relative acidity and alkalinity of the water is expressed as p. (1tyer and
Eoranski 13!, and is measured on a scale from ; to 16" The lower the
number, the more acidic the water or solution, the higher the number the
more alkaline (*oikess and Fdelson 141!" The p. scale is a logarithmic
scale, meaning that every increase of one number ie" 6 to C, represents a ten
times increase in alkalinity" -onversely, every single number decrease, ie" C
to 6, represents a ten times increase in acidity"
/ost water supplies in %lberta are alkaline, with typical p. levels of 3"; to
3"C" %lkalinity of the water increases with increasing levels of bicarbonate"
The p. measurement re@ects the chemistry of the water and nutrient
solution" The p. of a fertilizer solution has a dramatic determining e>ect on
the solubility of nutrients, how available the nutrients are to the plant
(5ortree 19, 1tyer and Eornaski 13!"
The optimum p. of a feed solution, with respect to the availability of
nutrients to plants, falls within the range of C"C to 9"; (5ortree 19!" The p.
of a solution can be ad,usted through the use of acids such as phosphoric or
nitric acid, or potassium bicarbonate, depending on which direction the feed
solution needs to be ad,usted" 7hen acids or bases are used to ad,ust the p.
of the feed solution, the nutrients added by the acid# nitrogen, phosphorus,
must be accounted for when the feed solution is calculated" /ost water
supplies in %lberta are basic in p. and re)uire the use of acid for p.
correction"
The amount of acid re)uired to ad,ust the p. is usually dependent on the
bicarbonate (.-+:
$
! level in the water" The amount of bicarbonate in the
water supply can be determined by a water analysis, and is reported in ppms"
% good target p. for nutrient feed solution is C"4, and as a general rule this
p. corresponds to a bicarbonate level of about 9; ppm" 'f the incoming water
has, for example, a p. of 4"1 and a bicarbonate level reported at 8;3 ppm,
8;3 ppm $ 9; ppm S 163 ppm that needs to be neutralized by acid to reduce
the p. from 4"1 to C"4"
'n order to neutralize 91 ppm, or 1 millie)uivalent, of bicarbonate it takes
about 3; ml of 4CH phosphoric acid, or about 46 ml of 93H nitric acid per
1;;; litres of water" 'n order to neutralize 163 ppm of bicarbonateP
5sing 678 phosphoric acid2
16; K 91 S 8": millie)uivalents of bicarbonate to be neutralized
8": millie)uivalents x 3; ml of 4CH phosphoric acid for each
millie)uivalent
S 8": x 3; ml S 'F' mls of 4CH phosphoric acid for every 1;;;
litres of water"
5sing !18 nitric acid2
8": millie)uivalents of bicarbonate to be neutralized"
8": millie)uivalents x 39 ml per millie)uivalent
S 8": x 39 ml S '#G mls of 93H nitric acid for every 1;;; litres
of water
These calculations have to be made for each water sample based on the
results of water a analysis reporting the level of bicarbonates" 'n addition to
phosphoric and nitric acid, sulfuric and hydrochloric acids can also be used to
ad,ust the p. of the water down"
%cids are corrosive" 1pecial care and attention must be used when handling
them for p. correction" The common acids used to lower the p. are
phosphoric acid (4CH! and nitric acid (93H!, of these two, nitric acid is the
most corrosive (1tyer and Eoranski 13! and must be handled very carefully"
%cid resistant safety glasses, rubber gloves and a rubber apron should be the
minimum safety e)uipment used when handling acids"
> The "ineral ,utrition of Plants
3n order to support optimum gro"th, development and yield of the crop, the fertili(er feed
solution has to continually meet the nutritional requirements of the plants Although the mineral
nutrition of plants is comple%, e%perience in crop culture has determined basic requirements for
the successful hydroponic culture of plants &here are 1> mineral elements that are considered
essential for plant gro"th 5ater ($#0) and carbon dio%ide (-0#) are also necessary for plant
gro"th and supply hydrogen, carbon and o%ygen to the plants bringing the total to 16 essential
elements (Salisbury and 9oss 19AB)
*able 9+ *he essential mineral elements for plants
Element Symbol *ype
Mobility in
Plant
Symptoms of Deficiency
/itrogen / macronutrient mobile *lant light green, lo"er (older) leaves yello"
*hosphorus * macronutrient mobile *lant dark green turning to purple
*otassium M macronutrient mobile Oello"ish green margins on older leaves
.agnesium .g macronutrient mobile -hlorosis bet"een the veins on older leaves
first, turning to necrotic spots, flecked
appearance at first
-alcium -a macronutrient immobile Ooung leaves of terminal bud dying back at
tips and margins 1lossom end rot of fruit
(tomato and pepper)
Sulfur S macronutrient immobile 2eaves light green in color
3ron ,e micronutrient immobile Oello"ing bet"een veins on young leaves
(interveinal chlorosis), netted pattern
.anganese .n micronutrient immobile interveinal chlorosis, netted pattern
1oron 1 micronutrient immobile 2eaves of terminal bud becoming light green
at bases, eventually dying *lants ;brittle;
-opper -u micronutrient immobile Ooung leaves dropping, "ilted appearance
<inc <n micronutrient immobile interveinal chlorosis of older leaves
.olybdenum .o micronutrient immobile
2o"er leaves pale, developing a scorched
appearance
% criterion to determine whether an element is essential to plants is if the
plant cannot complete its life cycle in the complete absence of the element
(1alisbury and 2oss 134!" 'n addition to the essential elements there are
other elements, although not necessarily considered universally essential,
which can a>ect the growth of plants" 1odium (0a!, chloride (-l! and silicon
(1i! are in this category, all three of these nutrients either enhance the
growth of plants, or are considered essential nutrients for some plant species
(7ilson and <oomis 193, 1alisbury and 2oss 134, 1tyer and Eoranski 13!"
The essential nutrients can be grouped into two categories re@ecting the
)uantities of the nutrients re)uired by plants" /acronutrients or ma,or
elements, are re)uired by plants in larger )uantities, when compared to the
amounts of micronutrients, or trace elements re)uired for growth (1alisbury
and 2oss 134!" %nother useful grouping of the mineral nutrients is based on
the relative ability of the plant to translocate the nutrients from older leaves
to younger leaves (1alisbury and 2oss 134!" /obile nutrients are those
which can readily be moved by the plant from older leaves to younger leaves,
nitrogen is an example of a mobile nutrient (1alisbury and 2oss 134!"
-alcium is an example of an immobile nutrient, one which the plant is not
able to move after it has initially been translocated to a specifc location
(1alisbury and 2oss 134!"
The discussion of plant nutrients as elements does not allow for a more
complete discussion of how plants access the elements from the root
environment, and how hydroponic growers ensure that their crop plants are
ade)uately supplied with nutrients" The term BelementB can be defned as a
substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical
means, the basic unit of an element is the atom (*oikess and Fdelson 141!"
7ith the simplest, or purest form of plant nutrients being the atom, nutrients
are not often available to plants in their purest form" 5ure nitrogen is an
example of a nutrient element represented by its atom" 7hen the atoms of
di>erent elements combine, they can form other substances which are based
on a particular combination of atoms, substances based on molecules"
0itrate (0+:
$
!, is a molecule based on nitrogen and oxygen atoms, nitrate is
absorbed by plant roots as a source of nitrogen" 0itrate is an BavailableB form
of nitrogen" The nitrate molecule has an overall negative charge, which
causes the molecule to be fairly reactive chemically, and therefore more
available"
The availability of nutrient elements to plants is generally based on the
existence of the nutrient element as a charged particle, either a charged
atom or charged molecule" %n atom or molecule that carries an electric
charge is called an ion, and positively charged ions are called cations, while
negatively charged ions are called anions" The nitrate molecule (0+:
$
! is an
anion, the iron atom can exist as the =e
T8
(ferrous! or =e
T:
(ferric! cations
(*oikess and Fdelson 141!" 5lants are able to ac)uire the essential mineral
elements via the root system utilizing the chemical properties of ions,
particularly that to ac)uire negatively charged anions, the plant roots have
sites that are positively charged" The plant is also able to attract positively
charged cations to negatively charged sites on the root"
7ater is a very important component in the ac)uisition of nutrient elements
by the plants as the nutrient ions only exist when they are in solution, when
they are dissolved in water" %s solids, the ions generally exist as salts, a salt
can be defned as any compound of anions and cations (*oikess and Fdelson
141!" 'n the absence of water, the nutrient ions form compounds with ions
of the opposite charge" %nions combine with cations to form a stable solid
compound" =or example, the nitrate anion (0+:
$
! commonly combines with
the calcium (-a
T8
! or potassium (E
T
! cations forming the larger calcium nitrate
-a(0+:!8 potassium nitrate (E0+:! salt molecules" %s salts are added to
water, they dissolve, or dissociate into their respective anion and cation
components" +nce in solution they become available to plants"
%n important point to remember is that di>erent salts have di>erent
solubilities, that is, some salts readily dissolve in water (highly soluble!, and
some salts do not" -alcium sulfate (-a1+6! is a relatively insoluble salt and
would be a poor choice as a fertilizer because very little of the calcium would
go into solution as the calcium cation (-a
TT
! and be available to plants"
=ertilizer salts, by their very nature, are useful because they go into solution
readily" 'n hydroponic culture, greenhouse growers formulate and make a
water based nutrient solution by dissolving fertilizer salts"
'n addition to existing as salts, some of the micronutrients# iron, zinc,
manganese and copper, exist in chelates" % chelate is a soluble product
formed when certain atoms combine with certain organic molecules" The
sulphate salts of iron, zinc, manganese and copper are relatively insoluble
and chelates function to make these mineral nutrients more readily available
in )uantity to the plants (*oikess and Fdelson 141!"
> 6ertili)er 6eed Pro-rams
,ertili(er nutrient solutions are formulated to meet the needs of the plants using a combination of
component fertili(er salts &he amounts of the various fertili(ers used are dependent on target
levels "hich have been determined to be optimal for the crop in question Although there is
considerable similarity bet"een fertili(er programs for the various vegetable crops, there can be
some differences reflecting the different requirements of the crop 3n any event, "hen mi%ing
fertili(er solutions, only high quality "ater)soluble fertili(ers should be used
*able 7+ 0orms of mineral nutrient elements that are commonly available to plants
Element Symbol Available as Symbol
Macronutrients
/itrogen / /itrate ion
Ammonium ion
/0>
)
/$C
E
*hosphorus * .onovalent phosphate ion
7ivalent phosphate ion
$#*0C
)
$*0C
)#
*otassium M *otassium M
E
-alcium -a -alcium ion -a
E#
.agnesium .g .agnesium ion .g
E#
Sulfur S 7ivalent sulfate ion S0C
)#
-hlorine -l -hloride ion -l
)
Micronutrients
3ron ,e ,errous ion
,erric ion
,e
)#
,e
)>
.anganese .n .anganous ion .n
E#
1oron 1 1oric acid $>10C
-opper -u -upric ion chelate
-uprous ion chelate
-u
E#
-u
E
<inc <n <inc ion <n
E#
.olybdenum .o .olybdate ion .o0C
)
The re)uired nutrient levels, or target nutrient levels of the various essential
elements are often expressed as the desired parts per million (ppm! in the
fnal nutrient solution" The recommended nutrient fertilizer feed targets for
greenhouse peppers are listed in table 9" Fven though all thirteen mineral
elements are essential for plant growth and development, nutrient targets for
sulfur and chlorine are not listed" The reason for this is ade)uate amounts of
sulfur are obtained from the use of sulfate fertilizers, potassium sulfate or
magnesium sulfate" -hloride is assumed to be present in ade)uate amounts
as a contaminant in a number of fertilizers" %s the purity of fertilizers has
improved, growers will have to pay more attention to ensuring these other
elements, particularly chloride, are present in ade)uate amounts" +nce the
recommended nutrient targets are known, calculations are made to
determine how much of each fertilizer is re)uired in order to meet them"
'n order to make these calculations some other basic information is re)uiredP
1 &he volume of "ater that "ill be used to make the feed solution
# &he types of fertili(ers that are available, and the relative amounts of each
nutrient present in the fertili(er
7hen considering what volume of water to use for the nutrient solution it is
frst important to understand the delivery of the nutrient solution to the
plants as discussed earlier in B'rrigation and fertilizer feed systems"B
Fvery greenhouse must be able to supply water and nutrients on an ongoing
basis" Guring hot, dry %lberta summers, mature pepper plants can use
approximately :"C to 6"; litres of water per plant per day, cucumbers can
re)uire over 9 litres, tomatoes up to : litres" This water always contains
fertilizer which is added as the water comes into the greenhouse and before
it is pumped to the plants" There are a number of variations on the theme,
but some form of fertilizer in,ection system is used in all commercial scale
greenhouses"
*able !+ :utrient feed targets -ppm.
for greenhouse sweet peppers grown
in sawdust2
:utrient *arget -ppm.
/itrogen #@@
*hosphorus ??
*otassium >1B
-alcium #@@
.agnesium ??
3ron >@@
.anganese @?@
-opper @1#
.olybdenum @1#
<inc @#@
1oron @9@
0eed *argets and Plant alance
The frst approach to altering the feed solution in response to a crop that is
overly vegetative is to increase the feed F"-" to direct the plants to become
more generative and set and fll more fruit" The feed F- can be increased
from 8"C mmhos to approximately :"; mmhos over the course of a few days"
Gialing up the feed F"-" increases the absolute amounts of fertilizer nutrients
in the feed but does not a>ect the ratio of the nutrient levels with respect to
one another" 'ncreasing the feed F"-" increases the level of fertilizer salts in
the root zone, increasing the stress on the plant as it becomes more di?cult
for the plant to take up water" The plant responds to the stress by putting
more emphasis on fruit production, a stressed plant begins preparations for
the end, by trying to ensure that the next generation will carry forward" The
fruit holds the seed, and in plant terms, developing fruit means that the next
generation will survive and carry on" 0ow plants don&t think these things out,
but stressing the plant does direct the plant to set more fruit" There is a limit
to how far growers can go with this as a successful crop re)uires having
enough vegetative growth to continually fll a high volume of fruit
consistently throughout the season"
There is another option available for a>ecting the vegetativeKgenerative
balance of the plants, through manipulation of the nutrient ratios, particularly
the nitrogen$potassium ratio"
*ypical absolute value4 and relative ratio
targets for :4 ; and Ca in vegetable feed
programs -E2C2 of #27 mmhos. for Southern
Alberta production conditions
Crop
:utrient
*argets
-ppm.
:utrient <atio
: ; Ca : ; Ca
cucumber #@
@
>@
@
1A> 1@@ 1?1 @B6
pepper #1
C
>1
B
#@@ 1@@ 1CB @9>
The ,HI ratios presented in the table, are all about 'H'.G, increasing the
level of potassium, with respect to nitrogen, and increasing the ration to
'H'.# will direct the plant to be more generative" The reason for this is that
nitrogen promotes vegetative growth while potassium promotes mature
growth, generative growth" -alcium is also important for promoting strong
tissues, fruit, and mature growth" 1hifting the feed program to favor
potassium over nitrogen will direct the plant to be generative" -alcium is
important in the e)uation in that it should always be approximately e)ual to
the amount of nitrogen" % ,HCa ration of 'H', works for both tomatoes and
peppers, while a ,HCa ratio of 'H&.:G has shown to work well for cucumbers"
-hanges to the 0PE ratio should be made carefully, the above ratios come
from the feed programs of successful %lberta growers and can serve as a
guide" The place to start is to determine the ratios in the current feed
program and examine the performance of he crop" 'f it is determined that
there is room for improving the balance of the plants, alterations in the
nutrient ratios can be undertaken"
%lways be aware that many factors in@uence plant balanceP dayKnight
temperature split, 86 hour average temperature, relative humidity and
watering" These factors should be optimized before feed ratios are changed"
Lou have to know where the crop is in order to make sound decisions on
where it should be, and how to get there"
Gue to the large volumes of fertilizer feed solution that can be re)uired daily,
it is impractical to make the fertilizer feed on a day to day basis" 'nstead, the
re)uired fertilizers can be mixed in a concentrated form, usually 1;; to 8;;
times the strength that is delivered to the plants" 'n,ectors or ratio feeders
are then used to Bmeter$outB the correct amount of fertilizer into the water
which make up the nutrient solution going to the plants" *y using
concentrated volumes of the fertilizer feed held in Bstock tanksB growers are
able to reduce the number of fertilizer batches they have to make"
Gepending on the number of plants in the crop, the size of the stock tanks,
and the strength of the concentrate, growers may only have to mix fertilizer
once every 8 to 6 weeks"
<esi-nin- a fertili)er feed pro-ram
&he design of a fertili(er feed program is a relatively straight for"ard process once the nutrient
target levels are decided and basic information about the "ater quality, feed delivery system, and
component fertili(ers are kno"n ,ertili(er targets and the component fertili(ers used to make the
fertili(er solution can change over the course of the year depending on the crop and the
kno"ledge of the gro"er 0ften the changes are slight ad8ustments in the relative proportion of
the macronutrients to one another, particularly the nitrogen:phosphorus:potassium (/:*:M) ratio
-hanges can also include the addition of alternate forms of a nutrient in question, a common
e%ample is the use of ammonium nitrogen (/$C ) /) in addition to nitrate nitrogen (/0> ) /)
during the summer months Ammonium nitrate is the common source of ammonium nitrogen,
"hich is a more readily available form of nitrogen that "orks to promote vegetative gro"th
7uring the summer months a target of appro%imately 1A ppm of ammonium nitrogen is
recommended to help optimi(e plant balance and crop production
"oles and millimoles in the -reenhouseJ Just another couple of
rodentsKK
Just when you thought you had all your rodent problems under control, some
greenhouse vegetable growers have been concerned about millimoles and
moles" 0ot to worry, these growers are not referring to four legged moles"
2ather they are using another unit of measure to discuss fertilizer feed
targets and root zone targets"
1o, what exactly is a millimoleU % millimole is one thousandth of a mole, and
a mole is defned as the amount of a substance of a system which contains
as many elementary entities as there are atoms in exactly 18 grams of 18 -
(-arbon 18!" 0ow, you were probably expecting that a defnition would help
clarify the situation, isn&t that what defnitions are supposed to doU The
concept of the mole has come out of stoichiometry, that branch of chemistry
which studies the )uantities of reactants and products in chemical reactions"
0ow a lot of chemists and physicists have argued for a long time over how to
measure the masses of individual elements (some of those same elements
that growers feed their crops in fertilizer feed solutions! and in 191 they
settled on using the mole" % good way to understand what a mole is and why
to use it is to related it to the concept of a dozen" 7e understand that a
dozen is twelve of something, be it cucumbers, eggs or whatever" % mole is
9";8 x 1;
8:
of some entity, and chemists usually refer to actual molecules of a
substance when they talk about moles, although you could have a mole of
eggs or a mole of cucumbers" Lou would be )uite the grower to grow a mole
of cucumbers, tomatoes or peppers" The number 9";8 x 1;
8:
, which in long
hand is 9;8 ;;; ;;; ;;; ;;; ;;; ;;; ;;;, is called %vogadro&s number after
the nineteenth century chemist who did some pioneering work on gases and
was largely ignored for his trouble" The lesson here is that if you do
something great and are not feeling appreciated for the greatness, someone,
far into the future may name a big number after you"
/oles do relate to parts per million (ppm!, they are both ways to measure
how much of a given nutrient we are dealing with in a fertilizer feed sample,
leachate or tissue sample" The di>erence is that ppm is a measure of mass
(e"g" 1 ppm S 1 milligramKlitre! and moles measure amounts" +ne mole of
any substance contains %vogadro&s number of entities or basic units" Those
entities, as mentioned earlier, can be atoms or molecules or whatever you
want" 7hen we talk about one mole of nitrate nitrogen, 0+:, we are referring
to 9";8 x 1;
8:
molecules of 0+:, because the basic 0+: entity is made up of
one atom of nitrogen (0! and three atoms of oxygen (+!" 'f we are talking
about a mole of iron, =e, we are talking about atoms, because the basic entity
of iron is the iron atom"
%ll atoms and molecules have di>erent basic weights, some being heavier
than other" 'f we talk about 1 ppm of 0+: versus 1 ppm of =e, we are talking
about the same mass of each, i"e", 1 milligramKlitre" .owever, there will be a
di>erent number of basic entities or moles of 0+: and =e in a solution which
contains 1 ppm each of 0+: and =e"
0ow, we are getting close to being able to convert ppm to moles or
millimoles, but we will frst consider the concept of atomic and molecular
weights" The atomic weights of all the elements can be found on the periodic
table, that handy chart that we carried with us throughout all our chemistry
classes" The atomic weights of the elements are given in grams per mole"
The molecular weight of oxygen is 19 gramsKmole, this means that 9";8 x
1;
8:
atoms of oxygen weights 19 grams" +ne mole of nitrogen weighs 16
grams" *y combining all the atoms which make up molecules we can arrive at
the molecular weights" Therefore, the molecular weight of 0+: would e)ual
16 T :(19! gramsKmole or 98 gramsKmole" +ne last thing to remember is that
moles are related to millimoles the same way that grams are related to
milligrams" 1o if moles are related in the range of grams, millimoles are in
the range of milligrams"
7e know that 1 ppm is e)ual to 1 milligramKlitre, so to convert ppm to
millimoles you divide ppm by the molecular weight of the element you are
working with" =or exampleP
1 ppm of /0> N 1 mgKlitre
1 mgK litre of 0+: K 98 mgKmole S ;";19 millimoles of 0+: in one litre
1 ppm of ,e N 1 mgKlitre
1 mgKlitre of =e K C9 mgKmillimole S ;";14 millimoles of =e in one litre"
1 ppm of magnesium (.g) N 1 mgKlitre
1 mgKlitre of /g K 86 mgKmillimole S ;";61 millimoles of /g in one litre"
%s these examples show, a solution containing 1 ppm of various elements or
molecules will contain di>erent mole or millimole amounts of these same
elements"
&o convert millimoles to ppm:
ppm S millimolesKlitre x molecular weight (mgKmillimole!
FxampleP
ppm 0+: S ;";19 millimoles of 0+: in one litre x 98 mgKmillimole
S 1 ppm 0+:
+nce you can work back and forth between ppms and millimoles, you might
be asking if there is any beneft to working in millimoles rather than ppm" 'f
you are comfortable working with ppms and you are comfortable with
designing and managing your fertilizer feed programs in ppms, stick to what
you know" .owever, if you want to be working with actual amounts of atoms
and molecules of the nutrients you are feeding then you may want to work
with millimoles" 7hatever the case, with a little practice you can work with
either unit"
ReferenceH
*oikess, 2"1" and F" Fdelson, 141" -hemical 5rinciples, 1econd Fdition"
.arper and 2ow, 0ew Lork"
-alculating the re)uired amounts of the various fertilizers is dependent on
the volume of water to be used" This is determined by the volume of the
stock tank (e"g" 8;; litres! multiplied by the in,ection ratio (e"g" 1;;P1 or
8;;P1!" =or example, using a 8;; litre fertilizer concentrate stock tank, and a
8;;P1 in,ection ratio, the volume of water that will be used to calculate the
amount of fertilizer to add will beP
#@@ litres (stock tank volume) % #@@ (in8ector ratio) N C@,@@@ litres
The following calculations will be based on 8;; litre stock tanks and a 1P8;;
in,ection ratio"
Accountin- for the nutrients present in the raw water
%ssuming the water )uality analysis has determined that the water is suitable
for greenhouse crop production, the frst step is to account for the nutrients
that are already contained in the water" This information comes directly from
the water analysis report"
Accountin- for the nutrients proided by the p+ ad=ustment
of the water
/e%t determine if the p$ needs ad8usting, and if so, the amount of acid (or base) required to meet
the target p$ of ?B 0nce the amount of acid to be added has been determined, the levels of
nutrients present in the acid have to be accounted for Gsing the e%ample in the previous section,
"here it "as determined that 161 ml of B?H phosphoric acid "ould be required to ad8ust the p$
from B1 to ?B for every 1,@@@ litres of "ater, the amount of acid required for C@,@@@ litres "ould
be (161 mlK1,@@@ litres % C@,@@@ litres N) 6,CC@ mls Mno"ing the volume of acid required, and
the specific gravity of the acid, it is possible to calculate the "eight of acid that "ill be used
*able 1+ *he specific gravity of 678 phosphoric and !18 nitric acid2
*hosphoric acid (B?H) 1C1 gramsKml
/itric acid (6AH) 1#B gramsKml
6,CC@ mls (B?H phosphoric acid) % 1C1 gramsKml N 9,@B@ grams of phosphoric acid
.aving the weight of the acid, it is now possible to determine the amount of
phosphorus contributed to the p.$ad,usted water by 4CH phosphoric acid"
+ne more piece of information is re)uired, phosphoric acid contains :8 H
available phosphorus" This is also referred to as the fertilizer grade of the
acid" 0ow, using the following formulaP
(,ormula 1) = from *ir%a and +ounus, &##4
ppm N grams of acid % grade of acid % 1@
litres of "ater
the amount of phosphorus (in ppm) contributed by A,B?A grams of B?H
phosphoric acid
N 9,@B@ grams % >#H % 1@
C@,@@@
N A> ppm of phosphorus, actual ;*;
This same se)uence of calculations can be used to determine the amount of
nitrogen contributed if 93H nitric acid was used" 'n this example 6 ppm of
nitrogen would be contributed if 93H nitric acid was used"
<eterminin- the re1uired amounts of the arious fertili)ers
necessary to meet the feed tar-ets
,or the purposes of this discussion of designing a fertili(er program, only component fertili(ers
"ill be considered, a list of the common component fertili(ers for greenhouse crop production is
presented in table 9 &he fertili(ers are identified by their chemical name, and their fertili(er
number designation, ie @)?>)>? for monopotassium phosphate &he ;grade; of the fertili(er "ith
respect to the different nutrients supplied by the fertili(er, is also provided 3t is important to
kno" that the three number designation of the fertili(er represents the percentages or grade of
nitrogen (/), phosphorus (*) and potassium (M), in that order, that is present in the fertili(er
$o"ever, it is very important to note "hen the percentages for phosphorus and potassium are
used, the number on the bag represents the percentages of phosphate (*#0?) and potash (M#0) and
not actual phosphorus and potassium *hosphate is only C>H actual phosphorus and potash is
only B>H actual potassium ,or this reason, monopotassium phosphate, @)?>)>?, is listed as
containing #>H phosphorus (?>H % @C> N #>H), and #9H potassium (>?H % @B> N #9H)
*able 6+ 0ertilizer =upgrades= of phosphoric and nitric acid
*hosphoric acid >#H available phosphorus
(*0C)*)
/itric acid ##H available nitrogen
(/0>)/)
*lended, or premixed fertilizers are also used by some growers" % common
premixed fertilizer is 8;$8;$8;" 'f these fertilizers are used it is important to
account for all the nutrients provided in the fertilizer, both macro and
micronutrients" %s well, although the fertilizer 8;$8;$8; contains 8;H
nitrogen, for the purposes of calculating actual phosphorus (5! and actual
potassium (E!, 8;$8;$8; should actually be considered as 8;$4"9$19"9"
'n determining the amount of fertilizer to add, it is important to remember
that as salts, fertilizers often contain more than ,ust one plant nutrient" =or
example, calcium nitrate (-a(0+:!8! provides both calcium and nitrogen"
-alcium nitrate is commonly used in commercial vegetable greenhouses as
the only source of calcium" The amount of calcium nitrate added depends on
how much is re)uired to meet the calcium target" .owever since nitrogen is
also present in calcium nitrate, it is important to keep track of how much
nitrogen is contributed" %fter all, there is also an optimum target for nitrogen"
-alcium nitrate is 1 H calcium and 1C"C H nitrogen so for every 1;; grams
of calcium nitrate there will be 1 grams of calcium and 1C"C grams of
nitrogen" The percentage of the relative nutrient components of a fertilizer is
also sometimes referred to as the Bgrade"B %s the fertilizer calculations are
made, an ongoing tally is kept on what nutrients are being supplied by the
various fertilizers until all the feed targets have been met"
7ith the information of stock tank size, in,ector ratio, and the nutrients
contributed by each fertilizer, the same relatively simple formula V=ormula 1
(/irza and Lounus, 16!W can be used to determine the amount of each
fertilizer re)uired to meet the parts per million (ppm! feed targets of the
essential nutrients"
grams of fertili(er required N ppm desired % litres of "ater
grade of fertili(er % 1@
This formula can be rearranged to calculate ppm if the amount of fertilizer
added is known"
(,ormula #) = from *ir%a and +ounus, &##4
ppm N grams of fertili(er % grade of fertili(er % 1@
litres of "ater
-ontinuing with the example, using 8;; <itre stock tanks, a 8;;P1 in,ector
ratio, meeting a calcium target in the nutrient solution of 14; ppm, and
obtaining all the calcium from calcium nitrate" The formula can be used to
determine the amount of calcium nitrate re)uired to meet the calcium target,
as well as determining the levels of nitrogen (in ppm! contributed by the
calcium nitrate"
-alcium required N 1B@ ppm, from calcium nitrate, 19 H calcium, 1?? H
nitrogen
grams of calcium nitrate required N 1B@ ppm % (#@@ % #@@) litres of "ater
19H % 1@
N1B@ ppm % C@,@@@ litres of "ater
19@
N>A,B9C grams
N>A9 kilograms
&he amount of nitrogen contributed:
ppm of nitrogen N >A,B9C grams % 1??H % 1@
C@,@@@ litres
N1C6B N 1CA ppm of nitrogen
*y repeating this type of calculation using the various component fertilizers,
including the micronutrient chelates, all the individual nutrients coming from
each fertilizer can be accounted for, until all the nutrient targets are met and
balanced in the fnal feed program"
*able >2 Some component fertilizers for formulating
nutrient feed programs for hydroponic greenhouse
vegetable crops2
Macronutrients 0ertilizer :utrients
/itrogen
-alcium nitrate
1??)@)@
1??H nitrogen
(/0>)/)
19H calcium
*otassium nitrate
1>)@)CC
1>H nitrogen
(/0>)/)
>AH potassium
Ammonium nitrate
>C)@)@
1AH nitrogen
(/0>)/)
1AH nitrogen
(/$C)/)
*hosphorus .onopotassium
phosphate
@)?>)CC
#>H phosphorus
#9H potassium
*otassium
*otassium nitrate
1>)@)CC
>AHpotassium
1>H nitrogen
(/0>)/)
*otassium sulfate
@)@)?@
C1?H potassium
1AH sulfur
.onopotassium
phosphate
@)?>)CC
#>H phosphorus
#9H potassium
*otassium chloride
@)@)6@
C9H potassium
#6H chlorine
-alcium -alcium nitrate
1??)@)@
19H calcium
1??H (/0>)/)
-alcium chloride
-a-l#)#$#0
#AH calcium
CBH chlorine
.agnesium .agnesium sulfate
.gS0C)A$#0
1@H magnesium
1>H sulfur
.agnesium nitrate
.g(/0>)#)6$#
1@H magnesium
11H nitrogen
(/0>)/)
Sulfur .agnesium sulfate
.gS0C)A$#0
1@H magnesium
1>H sulfur
*otassium sulfate
@)@)?@
C1?H potassium
1AH sulfur
-hlorine -alcium chloride
-a-l#)#$#0
#AH calcium
CBH chlorine
*otassium chloride
@)@)6@
C9H potassium
#6H chlorine
Micronutrients
3ron 3ron chelate 1>H iron
.anganese .anganese chelate 1>H manganese
-opper -opper chelate 1CH copper
.olybdenum Sodium molybdate >9H molybdenum
1oron 1ora% 1?H boron
> Rules for mi/in- fertili)ers
0nce the amounts of the various fertili(ers have been determined, the ne%t step is to mi% the
fertili(ers in the stock tanks .ost commercial vegetable greenhouses use a t"o stock tank
system for mi%ing fertili(ers, although some systems involve three stock tanks "ith the third tank
containing the acid or bicarbonate for p$ ad8ustment
*efore mixing fertilizers ensure that a dust mask and gloves are worn to
avoid inhaling the fertilizer dusts or contacting the fertilizer concentrates"
The frst rule in mixing fertilizers is to always use high )uality, water soluble
Bgreenhouse gradeB fertilizers" 1econd, when working with stock tank
concentrates, never mix calcium containing fertilizers (e"g" calcium nitrate!
with any fertilizers containing phosphates (e"g" monopotassium phosphate!
or sulfates (e"g" potassium sulfate, magnesium sulfate!" 7hen fertilizers
containing calcium, phosphates or sulfates are mixed together as
concentrates the result is insoluble precipitates of calcium phosphates and
calcium sulfates" Fssentially the calcium combines with the phosphate or
sulfate in the solution and comes out of the solution as a solid" This solid
forms a BsludgeB at the bottom of the fertilizer tank which can plug the
irrigation lines" This reaction between calcium, phosphate and sulfate can be
avoid if a 1$times strength fertilizer is being mixed, as it is considerably more
dilute" .owever, mixing fertilizers to make a 1$times strength fertilizer
solution is impractical for a commercial greenhouse operation as it would
necessitate that someone be mixing fertilizers almost continuously"
The third rule for mixing fertilizers is to dissolve the fertilizers for each tank
together in hot water" The components of tank 1 are dissolved togther as are
the components of tank 8" The micronutrients are added to the tanks when
the solution is warm, not hot" =ourth, is to continually agitate the solution in
the stock tanks as the fertilizers are being added"
Ising the two$tank stock tank system, the fertilizers should be mixed as
follows
*ank A *ank
calcium nitrate potassium nitrate (one half the total amount)
potassium nitrate (one half the total amount) magnesium sulfate
iron chelate monopotassium phosphate
potassium sulfate
manganese chelate
(inc chelate
copper chelate
sodium molybdate
boric acid
'f other fertilizers are used, ensure that mixing calcium containing fertilizers
with phosphate or sulfate containing fertilizers is avoided" (enerally other
nitrate fertilizers can be added to the B%B tank, while with all others mixed in
the B*B tank" 0ote that iron is always added to the B%B tank to avoid mixing it
with phosphate fertilizers, which can cause the precipitation of iron
phosphates (7ieler and 1ailus 19!, resulting in iron defciency in the
plants" 'f acids are used for p. correction, they are generally added to either
the B%B or B*B tank or can be added to a third stock tank a B-B tank" 'f
potassium bicarbonate is re)uired for p. correction, it should be added to a
third tank, the B-B tank to avoid the risk of raising the p. in the other stock
tanks which could result in the other fertilizers coming out of solution"
The fertilizer feed program is designed to supply specifc )uantities of the
nutrient elements to the plants per every unit volume of nutrient feed
delivered to the plant" The absolute )uantities of these nutrients is measured
by the parts per million (ppm! targets" 'n addition to the absolute )uantities
of the nutrients in the feed, the relative ratios of one nutrient to another
(particularly the 0P5PE ratio! is also an important component of the feed
program" Girect measurement of the various component nutrients contained
in the feed solution, and the determination of the relative ratio of the
nutrients comes from a lab analysis of the feed solution" 't is useful to have
the feed solution tested regularly in order to monitor the actual nutrient
levels being delivered to the plants" <ab analysis of the feed solution takes
time and it is also important to be able to monitor the feed on a ongoing
basis throughout the day" /easuring the electrical conductivity (F"-"! of the
feed solution is a very useful tool in the day$to$day management of the
fertilizer feed solution"
/easurement of the F"-" of the fertilizer feed solution delivered to the plants
can be used as an indirect measure of the level of nutrients reaching the
plants" The feed program contains the appropriate )uantities of dissolved
fertilizer salts re)uired to meet the nutrient re)uirements of the plants, and
this solution has a corresponding F"-" 'n fact, the corresponding F"-" of most
feed solutions delivered to the plants, when based on a nitrogen target of
8;; ppm, is about 8"C mmhos" +f course the other nutrients are present in
their relative amounts with respect to nitrogen" +nce the feed solution has
been mixed to meet the targets, measuring the F"-" of the 1$times strength
solution can serve as the point of reference for delivering the nutrients to the
plants"
The day$to$day management of the delivery of feed to the crop can vary and
is based on the salt level of the feed solution" The feed solution can be used
as a management tool to direct the development of the crop towards a
vegetative or generative direction" The basis for this is the higher the level of
salts delivered to the root zone, the more stress that is placed on the plants"
The more stress that the plant is under, the more emphasis the plant puts on
producing fruit and the less emphasis on stems and leaves" There are limits
to the salt stresses that can be placed on the plants while still maintaining
optimum production, as a high sustained yield is obtained through a balance
of leaves and fruit throughout the season" .owever, using the feed solution
to help optimize plant balance is a management tool" +n cloudy days, plants
can make use of higher fertilizer levels, than on sunny days where the plant
has greater demands for water" 2aising the feed F"-" on a cloudy day will
provide more nutrients to the plants, lowering the fertilizer F"-" on a sunny
day will provide a greater relative proportion of water to the plants" The
saltier the fertilizer solution, the harder the plant has to work to extract the
water from the root zone"
/anagement of the daily application of fertilizer to the crop is based on
varying the F"-" of the feed solution" The general rules for managing the feed
F"-" and the total amount of nutrient solution volume delivered to the crop on
a daily basis is presented in the next section"
> Application of fertili)er and water
5ater and fertili(er are delivered simultaneously to the crop via the nutrient solution, and the
amounts of "ater and fertili(er delivered varies "ith the changing requirements of the plants &he
plant4s requirements change as they develop from seedlings to mature plants and in accordance
"ith the day to day changes in the gro"ing environment 3n order to manage the delivery of
nutrients and "ater to the plant, it is important to have a "ay of determining the crop4s
requirements for fertili(er and "ater
Figure &!. Typical fertili%er feed system ,ith t,o
fertili%er
stoc- tan-s and computeri%ed control of p$ and ".C.
,eed monitoring stations are established
throughout the crop, one or t"o stations per
every @C hectare (1 acre) of greenhouse area are
usually sufficient, but having one monitoring
station for every "atering ;(one; of the
greenhouse is a good idea &he purpose of the
monitoring station is to measure the volume of
feed delivered to the individual plants, and to
determine the volume of feed solution leachate,
or ;over)drain; that is flo"ing past the plants and
out of the root (one over the course of the day
&he 6- and p$ of the feed solution is taken on
a daily basis, as is the 6- and p$ of the
leachate
Gaily monitoring the percentage of
feed solution volume @owing through
the root zone environment, the sawdust bags, or rockwool slabs etc", is used
to ad,ust the volume of feed solution delivered to the plants" The F"-" of the
leachate is used to make ad,ustments on the feed solution F"-" /onitoring
the p. of the feed and leachate helps to ensure that the correct p. is being
fed to the crop and gives an indication of what is happening in the root zone
with respect to p." +ptimum feed p. is approximately C"4, and this p.
optimum also applies to the root environment as well" (enerally the activity
of the roots tends to raise the p. in the root environment and feeding at a
lower p. can help counteract this rise in p."
Figure 1'. (eneral schematic of a fertili)er feed monitoring station.
't is not recommended to feed at a p. of lower than C"C when attempting to
lower the p. in the root zone" 'n addition to feeding at a p. of C"C, the use of
ammonium nitrate at 8 to C ppm of ammonium nitrogen (0.6 $ 0! will help to
lower the p. of the root zone due to the acidifying e>ect of this fertilizer"
% schematic of a typical feed monitoring station is presented in fgure 1" 'n
addition to monitoring the feed and leachate, recording the leachate
percentage, feed and leachate F"-" and p. can be used as a tool to chart the
performance of the crop with respect to these recorded values over time, and
in relationship to other parameters including the amount and intensity of
available light"
The amount of nutrient solution delivered to the plant on a daily basis can be
determined by the percentage over$drain or leachate that is recovered from
the plants over the course of the day" <eaching, or allowing a certain
percentage of nutrient solution applied to the crop, to pass through the root
system, allows for a @ushing of the root zone to avoid the accumulation of
salts" (enerally, when the plants are young, a percentage leachate of C to
1;H is a good target" %s the plants develop, the amount of water re)uired to
attain this over$drain target increases" %s the season progresses and the light
levels increase and the plants mature and begin to bear fruit, the over$drain
targets increase to 8; to :;H" (enerally these higher over$drain targets
apply as the high light period of the year begins, usually in June" %s the
percentage over$drain decreases, the leachate F"-" increases, that is, the
amount of salts in the root zone increases" The general rule for managing the
level of salts in the root zone is that the root zone F"-" should not be greater
than 1"; mmho above the feed F"-"
The design of the feed solution is based on delivering ade)uate nutrition to
the plants, and these feed programs usually have an F"-" 8"C mmhos (this is
largely dependent on the F"-" of the irrigation water!" 7ith the optimum feed
solution F"-" at approximately 8"C $ :"; mmhos, the salt levels in the root
zone should be maintained at around :"C $ 6"; mmhos" Farly in the crop
cycle, the salt levels in the root zone can be maintained at the proper target
fairly easily by increasing the volume of nutrient solution delivered to the
plant to ensure a C to 1;H over$drain" %s the season progresses and the
water has been increased so that the upper limit of :;H over$drain has been
reached, and the F"-" of the over$drain continues to climb above the target of
:"C $ 6"; mmhos, the F"-" of the solution can be dropped" The reduction in
feed solution F"-" is accomplished in stages with gradual, incremental
reductions in feed F"-" in the order of ;"8 mmhos every 8 to : days" 't is
never advised to apply straight water to the plants in order to lower the root
zone F"-", since the rapid reduction in root zone F"-" and increased p. can
reduce the performance of the crop and compromise the health of the roots
(/aree 16!"
Guring periods when the plants are in a rapid stage of growth, the F"-" in the
root zone can be below that of the feed solution" =or example, the feed can
be at 8"C mmhos while the leachate F"-" may be a 8"; mmhos" This is an
indicator that the plants re)uire more nutrients and the feed F"-" should be
increased in increments in the order of ;"8 mmhos until the F"-" in the root
zone begins to approach the upper target limit of 6"; mmhos"
*y varying the volume and F"-" of nutrient solution delivered to the plants, in
accordance to the leachate over$drain and F"-" targets, it is possible to
optimize the delivery of ade)uate water and nutrients to the crop without
over watering and over fertilizing" %pplying too much or too little water can
compromise the health and performance of the crop"
The delivery of water to the plants occurs over the course of the entire day"
7atering can be scheduled by using a time clock or in more sophisticated
systems the watering events can be triggered by the amount of incoming
light received by the greenhouse" 'n general, the greater the ability to control
the delivery of water, the greater the ability to maximize crop performance"
% starting point for watering the crop early in the crop cycle would be to
apply water every half hour from one half hour after sunrise to approximately
one hour before sunset" The amount of water re)uired to meet the over$drain
target is divided amongst the waterings based on the duration of the
individual waterings" =or example if a 6; second watering delivers 1;; ml of
water, then 1; watering events are re)uired to deliver one litre of water"
7hen more than a litre of water is re)uired in one day the duration of the
individual watering events can be increased, or the number of watering
events can be increased or both" (enerally, as the crop matures, it is better
to increase the fre)uency of watering events than the duration of each event"
'f the watering system allows the variation of the fre)uency and duration of
the watering events over the course of the day, then it is possible to increase
the fre)uency andKor duration of the watering events during the high light
period of the day without necessarily increasing the duration of the early
morning or late afternoon watering events"
7atering fre)uency can be used to help direct the vegetativeKgenerative
balance of the plant" =or any given volume of water that is delivered to the
plants, the more fre)uent the waterings throughout the day, the more the
plant will be directed to grow vegetatively" The longer the duration between
waterings, the stronger the generative signal sent to the plant" =re)uent
watering during the summer months in %lberta can help balance plants that
are overly generative due to the intense sunlight, high temperatures and low
relative humidity"
7hen the concept of percent over$drain is discussed, it is preferable to obtain
the ma,ority of the over$drain during the high light period of the day" The frst
of the over$drain should start to occur at 1;P;; am and the greater part of
the daily over$drain target should be reached by 8P;; to :P;; p"m" .aving the
capability of varying the duration of the watering events over the course of
the day allows for more nutrient feed being delivered to the plants between
1;P;; am and 8P;; $ :P;; p"m"
The use of over$drain targets is one way to ensure the plants are receiving
ade)uate water throughout the day" %nother strong indicator of whether or
not the plants have received ade)uate water during the previous day is
whether the growing points, or the tops of the plants have a light green color
early in the morning" +ver the course of the day when the plant is under
transpiration stress, the color of the plants will progress from a light green to
a darker blue$green" 'f the plants have received ade)uate water throughout
the previous day, the light green color will return overnight as the plant
recovers and improves its water status" 'f the plants remain a darker bluish$
green in the early morning, the amount of water delivered the previous day
was inade)uate" Isually, this means that the over$drain target for the
previous day have not been met and the amount of nutrient solution
delivered to the plants has to be increased"
Guring the summer months, under continuous periods of intense light, the
plants may not have recovered their water status overnight even when the
daily over$drain targets have been met" The plants begin the day a dark blue$
green in color, an indication that they are already under water stress, even
though the day has ,ust begun" Inder these circumstances the overdrain
targets for the day could be increased, but there is the associated risk of
over$watering and decreasing root health and performance" 'n these cases it
is advisable to consider one or two night waterings, one at approximately
1;P;; p"m" or one at 8P;; am or both" Isually the night watering events are
the same length of time as the minimum watering duration applied during
the day" 0ight watering can also help increase the rate of fruit development,
but there is an associated risk of fruit splitting if too much water is applied at
night" The night waterings should not be continued indefnitely and the
decision to use night watering events and to continue with night watering has
to be based on the assessed needs of the crop"
The management of the feed solution, and its delivery to the crop has to be
relatively @exible to meet the changing needs of the crop" 7ith experience,
growers gain more confdence and skill in meeting and anticipating the
changing needs of the crop throughout the crop cycle and through periods of
@uctuating light levels" The general information presented in this section
serves as a starting point and by following the principles of over$drain
management, F"-" and p. monitoring and correction, a successful strategy
for delivery of water and nutrients can be established"
%s with many things there is no one BrightB way to apply water and nutrients
to the crop" The use of leaching, although ensuring that salt levels do not
accumulate to high levels in the root zone, does result in some BwasteB of
fertilizer solution as runo>" There are strategies that can be employed to
minimize the waste associated with leaching" -ollection and recirculation of
the leachate, with an associated partial sterilization, or biofltration of the
nutrient solution is one approach (5ortree 19, 0g and van der (ulik 1!"
The sterilization or biofltration steps are re)uired in order to minimize the
disease risk associated with recycling nutrient solutions" 1ome estimates
place the fertilizer cost savings at between :; to 6;H when recirculation is
used (5ortree 19!" 'n addition to being economical, recycling nutrient
solutions is an environmentally sound practice (Qekki et al 19!"
There is a limit to how long nutrient solutions can be recirculated, prolonged
recycling of the same solution can negatively a>ect growth and yield" This is
primarily associated with the accumulation of sulfate ions in the solution
(Qekki et al 19!" 'n addition to sulfates, chlorides and bicarbonates also
have a tendency to accumulate and can in@uence crop growth (Qekki et al
19!" The progressive accumulation of sulfates in recirculating solutions
re)uire occasional BrefreshingB of the solution whereby the solution would
have to be allowed to leave the greenhouse as waste (Qekki et al 19!"
Production of Sweet Bell Peppers
Introduction
!reenhouse s"eet bell peppers are a high impact superior product primarily gro"n in three
colors' red, yello" and orange &he ma8ority of commercial production area is based on red
(B?H), follo"ed by yello" (1@H) and orange (?H), ho"ever these percentages are sub8ect to
change to meet shifts in consumer demand /o matter "hat the final color of the pepper, all s"eet
Figure '.. ipening red s,eet bell
pepper.
peppers start out green in color and the final color develops as
the fruit ripens &he color of the mature pepper is determined by
the cultivar gro"n $arvesting the fully si(ed peppers "hen they
are still green is not profitable as the mature colored peppers
command a better price
(reenhouse pepper production is based on a full
year cycle (=igure 88!" The transplants go into the
production greenhouse in approximately mid to
late Gecember at 9 weeks of age, the frst pick of
fruit begins in about late /arch, early %pril and
continues to the following Gecember" The
greenhouses are empty for only 8 or : weeks
during the year to allow for the removal of the old
crop, the thorough cleaning of the greenhouse and
to set up the greenhouse for the new crop" +ne
crop a year is grown, that is, production for the
entire year is based on the same set of plants" %s it
takes approximately 8; weeks (6 months!, from
seeding the crop, to frst pick, as a result growing
more than one crop a year is not considered
proftable"
5hen the cropping cycle is considered, it is not recommended to
carry a fully producing crop over the month of 7ecember &he
reason for this is that the lo"er "inter light levels do not support
profitable crop production &his is also the reason "hy 7ecember
is usually the month "hen crops are pulled and the ne" crop
goes in &he use of supplementary lights are also generally not
cost effective for trying to carry a producing crop over the "inter
months, through 7ecember, Fanuary and ,ebruary &he prices
received for the crop in the "inter months are al"ays higher than
in summer "hen the greenhouse produce competes "ith the field
produce 5inter production "ould offer considerable price
advantage for produce if the yield and quality of the fruit "ere
maintained As crop production techniques improve, running a
producing crop over the "inter months may prove profitable, and
staggered crop schedules and inter)cropping (planting young
seedlings amongst an already producing crop) may allo" for full
year production $o"ever, this manual "ill discuss pepper crop
production follo"ing the single crop cycle outlined in ,igure ##
An appro%imate target yield for introductory gro"ers "ould be
#> kgKmL
Figure '&. +ello, s,eet bell pepper.
Figure 22. *ypical sweet bell pepper production cycle.
Figure '/. 0range s,eet bell pepper.
S"eet bell peppers are gro"n as a tall crop, and provisions for
"orking a tall crop must be incorporated into the greenhouse in
order to gro" the crop successfully &he main structural
consideration for greenhouse s"eet pepper production is the
height of the greenhouse, the gutter height A minimum
recommended gutter height for s"eet peppers "ould be >9
meters (1> feet), and the trend in greenhouses is to build them
taller, "ith some greenhouses coming in at ? meters (1A feet) at
the gutters &he overhead support "ires that support the "eight
of the plants, are generally > meters (1 ft) belo" the gutter, and
this serves as an appro%imate limit to the crop height $aving
high gutters essentially allo"s for a level of ;forgiveness; in
pepper production 3f the plants become unbalanced during the
production cycle, and put more resources into vegetative
production, they can gro" taller in a short period of time 5ith
higher gutters gro"ers are able to bring the plants back into
balance "ithout necessarily have to "orry that the crop "ill
reach the roof too early in the crop cycle, resulting in early
termination of the crop
+ther considerations for working the pepper crop as it grows taller, are the
provisions for being able to work with the plants, pruning and harvesting" The
pipe and rail system allows for electric carts to run on pipe rails along the
length of each of the rows of the crop" These carts have ad,ustable platforms
that can be raised to allow employees to continue to work the crop as it
grows taller" 't is important that the carts be designed for maximum stability
when tall crops are worked, and as gutter heights increase in new
greenhouses, the width of the rails also have to increase to ensure the safety
of those working on the carts"
Figure 2+. ,oung sweet bell pepper de%eloping
towards full si)e and e%entual mature color.
Cultiars
Selection of -reenhouse sweet pepper cultiars is dependent on color$ disease
resistance$ performance and yield. A ariety of seed companies and
distributors oLer -reenhouse sweet pepper cultiars$ and the 4latest4
cultiars are always sub=ect to chan-e when superior cultiars are
deeloped. Before selectin- cultiars$ inesti-ate what is currently bein-
-rown by the industry in your area as the suitability of cultiars can ary
dependin- on re-ion 7Portree '99F8. It is also not recommended that
more than one color of pepper be -rown in the same -reenhouse unless
they are -rown in separate enironments. The cultural re1uirements of
the diLerent cultiars can be distinct enou-h to re1uire that the
enironments be mana-ed diLerently in order to obtain ma/imum yield.
Pepper Plant Propa-ation
Seedin-
&he seedling nursery or propagation area should be cleaned and disinfested "ith a 1@H bleach
solution or other disinfesting compounds 6nsure that fresh seed is used, seed greater than one
year old can have reduced germination and vigour
1eeding takes place approximately 0ovember 1C, although the date can vary
depending on the grower" 1eed into rockwool plugs that have been wetted
with a feed solution with an F"-" of ;"C mmhos at 8C to 89 M-" Ise a standard
pepper feed solution at approximately p. C"4, and that has been diluted from
an F"-" of 8"C to ;"C mmhos"
Fnsure that the temperature of the seeded rockwool plugs is maintained at
8C to 89 M- during germination, and maintain the relative humidity in the
nursery at 3C to 4;H ( A5G of : to C gmKcmX!" /aintain air temperatures at
8C to 89 M- day and night" Go not allow the plugs to dry out, keep them moist
using the warm (8C to 89 M-!, ;"C mmho pepper feed solution" The pepper
seedlings should begin to emerge in about 3 to 1; days, use supplemental
light to ensure approximately 16; to 19; 7KmD , 14 hours a day (5ortree
19, Gemers and (osselin 14!"
+nce the seedlings have emerged, the temperature of the rockwool plugs
should be reduced to 8: $ 86 M-" The seedlings can be misted lightly once a
day for the frst four days after emergence" =our days after the seedlings
have emerged, allow the relative humidity to drop to 9C to 3;H" Go not allow
the rockwool plugs to dry, apply light applications of the ;"C mmho feed
solution, the plugs should be moist but not sopping wet"
6irst transplantin-H Into the roc0wool bloc0s
At appro%imately # "eeks after seeding, "hen the first true leaves are visible, the seedlings are
transplanted into the larger rock"ool cubes &he rock"ool blocks are "ell "etted "ith full
strength feed solution, 6- #? mmhos at appro%imately #> D-, prior to transplanting &he
seedling rock"ool plug is rotated 9@ degrees as the seedling is placed into the rock"ool cube
(,igure #?) &his allo"s for more root development along the length of the young stem &he root)
(one temperatures should be allo"ed to drop to #1 D- 8ust after transplanting &he blocks should
be "atered from the bottom (6- N #? mmhos, #1 D-) every second day, again ensuring that the
blocks remain moist, but not sopping "et &arget root)(one temperatures of #1 D- for the ne%t #
"eeks, "hen the root)(one temperature is dropped to #@ D- .aintain air temperatures at #C D-
during the day and ## D- at night, for a #C hour average temperature of ## D- 0nce the seedlings
have established in the rock"ool cubes, monitor the 6- of the cube t"ice a "eek, the 6- "ill
rise and can reach levels of up to A@ mmhos "ithout damaging the seedlings At three "eeks
after seeding, 1 "eek after transplanting, the 6- of the feed solution should be reduce from #?
mmhos to #@ mmhos, to target a root)(one 6- of >@ ) >? mmhos in the block "hen the plants
are ready for the second transplanting directly into the production greenhouse
%s the plants establish and develop in the rockwool blocks, care must be
taken to ensure that they have ade)uate space" -rowded plants will stretch,
become tall and spindly, and result in poorer )uality transplants" The plants
should be spaced whenever their leaves begin to touch" /aintain
supplementary lighting, 14 hour days at 19; 7KmD"
Figure 25. *ransplanting the young seedlings into the rockwool blocks- the plug is rotated
'.
as it is placed into the space in the top of the block to allow for more root de%elopment
%t fve weeks after seeding the plants the target rootzone temperature
should be 8; M-" The supplemental lighting is reduced from 14 hours to 16
hours in order to help reduce the Blight shockB once the young plants are
transplanted into the production greenhouse where no supplemental lighting
is used (5ortree 19!" The air temperatures should be 8; M- day and night
(86$hour average of 8; M- !" The root$zone F"-" should now be in the range of
:"; $ :"C mmhos, never water with clear water in order to reduce rootzone
F"-"
Figure 2/. 0onitoring to ensure that the proper temperatures
are maintained.
Growin- media in the production -reenhouse
There are a number of options for the type of -rowin- media used in the
production -reenhouse$ and these are outlined in section 4Growin-
"edia.4 The remainder of this focuses on sawdust as the -rowin- media.
Plantin- <ensity
1efore the young plants are transplanted, the production greenhouse is set)up to receive the
plants A planting density of > plantsKmL is recommended &he sa"dust bags are laid do"n in
double or single ro"s in accordance "ith the requirements to meet the planting density target &o
determine the number of plants required for the greenhouse multiply the production area (in
meters) by > &he standard pepper sa"dust bag "ill hold three plants, it has a volume of
appro%imately #@ litres "ith dimensions of #> % B6 % 1@ cm (1@ % >C % 6 inches) "hen full &he
number of ro"s required is then calculated Gsing the e%ample for double ro"s, the "alk"ay, the
distance bet"een bags from ad8acent double ro"s is appro%imately A6 centimeters (>@ inches)
&he distance bet"een bags in the t"o ad8acent single ro"s of the double ro" is appro%imately #@
centimeters (B inches), "ith a total "idth of A@ centimeters (#B inches)for the full double ro"
Gsing this information allo"s for the determination of number of double ro"s that can be placed
in the greenhouse 3n actual fact, determining the number and location of the ro"s occurs very
early in the greenhouse construction phase, as the drainage ditches and the pipe and rail heating
system are ;fi%ed; and put in)place "ell in advance of the crop
Figure '7. Plants are spaced as soon as their leaves
begin
to touch, this prevents the plants from 1stretching.1
Mno"ing the number of bags required and
dividing this number by the number of ro"s
(double ro"s preferred), you "ill arrive at the
number of bags required per ro" required to
reach the target plant density &he number of
bags in a ro" are spaced out evenly along the
length of the ro"
Transplantin- into the production
-reenhouseJ 4house>set4.
&he young plants are ready to be transplanted into the production greenhouse at 6 "eeks of age
&he plants should be appro%imately #? cm (1@ inches) tall, have about C leaves on the main stem
and "ill have begun to branch &he main stem usually branches into # to > branches, the point of
branching is sometimes referred to as the ;fork; 6%amination of the underside of the rock"ool
blocks should reveal a number of roots beginning to develop through the bottom of the block
&his is another indication that the plants are ready to be transplanted onto into the greenhouse to
allo" the roots to ;knit; into the gro"ing media, eg sa"dust bags or rock"ool slabs
Figure '!. Conditioning the sa,dust bags '4 hours prior to
1house2set.1
Figure '#. 1$ouse2set31 transplanting into the production greenhouse.
The growing media should be wetted, or BconditionedB with nutrient feed
solution (F"-" 8"C $ :"; mmhos! for 86 hours before the plants are set onto the
media" The general rule is to condition the media with feed solution at the
same F"-" as exists in the rockwool block" 't is also important to ensure that
the media is at 8; M-, and that this root zone temperature is maintained
throughout the remainder of the growing season" The plants are then set
onto the media ensuring good contact between the bottom of the rockwool
block and the growing media" 'f sawdust bags are used as the growing media,
two to three plants are grown per 8; litre sawdust bag and the bags are slit
to provide drainage" The slits are approximately 6 cm (1"C inches! long, and
are made on the sides of the bags facing the drainage channel, with one slit
placed between each of two plants" The slits are made to allow for complete
drainage of the bags and to avoid BpoolingB of the feed solution at the bottom
of the bag"
=or the frst week in the greenhouse the dayKnight temperatures are
maintained at a constant 8; $ 81 M-, target a relative humidity of 3; to 4;H
( A5G of : to C gmKcmX!" /aintain -+8 levels at 4;; to 1,;;; ppm"
The primary goal at this stage of the production cycle is to establish the
young pepper plants on the media and ensure that they develop a strong
root system" (enerally speaking, if the plants do not establish strong roots
early, when they are )uite young, they will not develop a strong root system
later in the season once the focus of the plants shifts towards fruit
production" -areful attention should be paid to the application of the feed
solution, target a CH overdrain" +verwatering at this point will hinder the
development of a strong root system, resulting in a root system that will not
perform well under the intense light conditions in the coming summer
months" 'ncrease the amount of nutrient solution delivered to maintain the
CH overdrain target as the plants grow larger" /aintain a feed F"-" of 8"C $
:"C mmhos, the rootzone F"-" can be allowed to rise to about 6"; to 6"C
mmhos, as the season progresses and light levels begin to improve, the
rootzone F"-" should be brought down to :"C to 6"; mmhos"
Figure /.. +oung plants rooted ,ell into the bag, t,o
,ee-s after transplanting.
0ne "eek after house)set target day temperatures
of #1 D- and night temperatures of 16 ) 1A D- for
a #C)hour average of #@ ) #1 D- &he optimum
temperature for vegetative gro"th in peppers is
bet"een #1 and #> D- and for yield about #1 D-
(1akker 19B9) 6stablishing the difference in
dayKnight temperature, "hile maintaining the
target #C)hour average temperature, directs the
plants to set flo"ers and maintain enough
vegetative gro"th required for optimum fruit
development and yield
Prunin- and plant trainin-
*epper plants are indeterminate plants, that is, they continually gro" ne" stems and leaves ,or
this reason the plants have to be pruned and trained on a regular basis in order to ensure a
balanced gro"th for ma%imum fruit production *epper plants are managed "ith t"o main stems
per plant, resulting in a density of 6 stemsKmL from an initial planting density of > plantsKm
#

*runing also improves air circulation around the plant "hich helps to reduce disease ($orbo"ic(
and Stepo"ska 199?) *lants are generally pruned every t"o "eeks As ne" leaves and lateral
side shoots develop from the a%ils of the ne" nodes on the gro"ing stems, they have to be pruned
to maintain the t"o main)stem architecture of the plant &he pepper flo"ers also develop at the
nodes A node is defined as a point on the stem from "hich leaves arise (&ootil and 1lackmore
19BC) and the length of stem bet"een nodes is called an internode &he term ;a%il; refers to the
upper angle formed by the 8unction of a leaf (or lateral) "ith the stem (&ootil and 1lackmore
19BC)
%fter about 1 week in the greenhouse the all the plants will have developed 8
to : stem shoots at the fork" %t this point the plants should be pruned to
leave the two strongest stems" These two stems will be managed to carry the
full production of the plants throughout the year" Fach stem will grow to a
height of up to 6 meters (1: feet! and re)uire support in order to remain
upright" Twine hung from the overhead support wires is used to support each
stem" The twine is tied to the main stem about :; centimeters (18 inches! up
from the block, one length of twine per stem" Fnsure that the twine is not tied
too tightly to the stem or the stem can be damaged as it expands" +ne other
approach with the twine is to lay the twine on the sawdust bag ,ust before
transplanting the plant onto the sawdust" %s the plant roots into the sawdust
it secures the twine" Fnough slack is left in the twine so that it can be twisted
around the stem as it grows and develops throughout the year"
Farly in the season the plants are pruned to one leaf per node, that is the
main leaf at the node is allowed to develop and the lateral stem developing
from the node is removed" *eginning in %pril, a second leaf can be left to
develop at every node on the main stem" The lateral stem is allowed to
develop to its frst node, at which point a leaf develops as well as another
secondary lateral stem" The secondary lateral stem is pruned out, leaving the
frst leaf on the original lateral stem as well as the primary leaf on the main
stem" The reason for leaving this second leaf is to increase the leaf area of
the canopy to both make better use of the increasing light levels and to
provide shade for the developing fruit" 'n /ay a third leaf (two leaves on the
primary lateral! can be allowed to develop on plants that are in perimeter
rows" These plants receive more light because of their position next to the
walls and the additional leaves provide the re)uired shading to the fruit as
well as increased photosynthetic area" -are has to be taken when pruning to
ensure that the main stem is not BblindedB, that the growing point of the
main stem is not pruned out" 'f this occurs the main stem will not develop
any further" The main approach to avoid blinding the main stem is to allow
the lateral to develop 1"C to 8"; centimeters (;"C to 1"; inches! before
pinching it out" This allows the lateral to be clearly identifed an makes it
easier to be very clear on what is being removed to ensure that the main
stem growing point is left intact"
't is important to keep the pruning current with the development of the plant"
+nce pruning falls behind, there is really no catching up without sacrifcing
some yield, as too much of the plant&s resources were allowed to go into
undesirable leaf and stem production"
5runing is done using the fngers or small scissor cutters to ensure precise
removal of the laterals and avoiding any damage to the main stem or main
stem growing point" 7hen pruning the plants use a powdered milk solution to
dip hands between plants, the protein in the milk works to inactivate viruses
that could potentially spread from plant to plant" The use of milk should
continue until June (5ortree 19!"
6lower and fruit set
&he primary goal in managing the young pepper plants is to establish a strong vegetative plant on
the bags $o"ever, it is important to kno" "hen to target the first fruit set and start to establish
the balance bet"een stem and leaf production and fruit production &he presence of fruit "ill
reduce vegetative gro"th (1akker 19B9) as the balance is established *runing and training of the
leaves and stems then allo"s for matching the vegetative gro"th "ith fruit gro"th 0nce this
balance is established it is important to "ork to maintain the balance for continual, steady
production throughout the season 3f the crop goes 4out of balance4 the production of fruit can
occur in flushes interspersed "ith periods of vegetative gro"th "here gro"ers have to "ork hard
to direct the plants back into a generative, fruit producing direction 0nce the pepper crop
establishes a pattern of production ie flushes of fruit production, it is difficult to direct it a"ay
from this pattern to a more steady cycle of fruit production
=lowering, fruit set and fruit size are related to the 86 hour mean
temperature as well as to dayKnight temperature @uctuations (*akker 14,
Ehah and 5assam 18!" =ruit set is increased by low temperatures but, fruit
development may be a>ected by pollen infertility (*akker 14, Ehah and
5assam 18!" The dayKnight temperature di>erence can be used to direct
the plant to set @owers and fruit, while the 86$hour average temperature can
be used to ensure proper fruit development in the shortest time (*akker
14!"
The optimum temperature for @owering and fruit set in pepper is 19 M-
(5ressman et al 14!, while the optimum 86$hour temperature for yield is
about 81 M-" .owever, the dayKnight temperature di>erence is of minor
importance compared with the e>ect of the 86$hour mean temperature for
fruit set, fruit development and the fruit growth period of sweet pepper
(*akker 14!"
*epper flo"ers are small under high night temperatures,
"here under lo" night temperatures they are large
(*ressman et al 199B) &he formation of malformed fruit
is associated "ith problems "ith temperature during
pollination ,lattened fruit or ;buttons; indicate
insufficient pollination as it is associated "ith the
development of very fe" seeds per fruit (*ressman et al
199B) &he functioning of female flo"er organs is
inhibited at lo" night temperatures (1C D- or less) "hich
gives rise to flattened fruit &he appearance of ;button;
pepper fruit in Alberta greenhouses is limited to early
season fruit developed during the "inter &his is the time
of the year "hen providing precise heating to the ;heads;
of the plants "ould help improve flo"ering, fruit set,
fruit development and fruit quality
5ointed fruit which develop to a similar size
as normal blocky fruit, are probably a result
of an imbalance of pepper plant growth
regulators (hormones! in the developing fruit
Figure /&. Flo,er and fruit set.
(5ressman et al 14!"
%t high temperatures, :8 to :4 M-, elongation
of the style can occur with a resulting
reduction on fruit set (Ehah and 5assam
18!" =ruit set is known to be reduced at
temperatures above 83 M- and by low relative
humidity (Ehah and 5assam 18!" There is
also evidence of progressive reduction in fruit
size associated with increasing light intensity
during the high$light summer months (Ehah
and 5assam 18!" 1hading the greenhouse
can o>set some of the e>ects of high light
intensity during a the summer months, using
a 1;H shading about the beginning of June"
The hot dry %lberta summers make it nearly impossible to maintain the
optimum day$night, and 86$hour temperature targets without the use of
some form of evaporative cooling (pad and fan or mist systems!" .owever,
the plants generally do not have trouble continuing to set @owers under
these conditions" 1tressful summer conditions direct the plants to remain
generative and can push the plants to be too generative" The plants have to
be managed to maintain ade)uate leaf cover and balanced fruit load, by
leaving more leaves on the plants and targeting about 9 fruit per stem" 'f too
many fruit per stem are allowed to set, and the plant is not directing
ade)uate resources to leaf development, the plant will BstallB and will not be
able to fll the fruit, resulting in yield loss"
%s the dayK night temperature di>erence is established one week after
transplanting (while maintaining the 86$hour average temperature target of
8; $ 81 M-!, the plants will be directed to set @owers, with the frst @ower
developing at the Bfork&" The @ower developing at the fork should be
removed, with the frst @ower set and resulting fruit set targeted for the
second node above the fork" %fter this @ower sets, the @ower at the third
node is removed and the fourth node is left to develop" The @owers that
follow at the ffth node and upwards are allowed to set freely" 'f the @ower at
the second node aborts, allow the third node to set a @ower, if this @ower
sets, remove the @ower at the fourth node and then allowing all subse)uent
@owers to set"
Figure 32. (eneral scheme for targeting the 1rst 2ower and fruit set.
/aintaining the root zone temperature at 8; M- is also very important for the
establishment of the plant balance" <ower root zone temperatures
(approximately 1C M-! direct the plants to remain vegetative, and increases
@ower abortion and abortion of young fruit"
%bortion of @owers and fruit is related to the rate of production of
photosynthetic assimilates and the distribution of assimilate within the plant
(*akker 14!" The number of @owers and fruit creates a demand for plant
resources, and if the plant cannot meet the demand due to low light levels
etc" high rates of abortion of newly formed fruit can occur (*akker 14!" The
in@uence of low light levels resulting in @ower abortion is thought to result if
light levels are low between the ffth and tenth day following the visual
appearance of the @ower bud (=ierro et al 16!"
.eating close to the developing fruit has been shown to enhance fruit
development in tomato (Ge Eoning 19!, and could prove benefcial for
peppers" 5ractically, using an height ad,ustable heating pipe to maintain 8;
M- near the top of the plant or BheadB should improve @ower set and fruit
development during the cold winter months early in the season"
Gnlike tomatoes, pollination of the pepper flo"ers occurs
successfully "ithout any outside pollination assistance required
(assuming that the correct temperature targets are established)
$o"ever, additional pollination assistance, bumble bees or
;artificial; pollination has been demonstrated to improve flo"er set
and eventual yield and quality of the pepper fruit (*ortree 1996,
*ressman et al 199B) $o"ever, it has also been sho"n that the
beneficial effects of pollination appears related to the cultivar gro"n,
"ith some, but not all cultivars demonstrating this enhanced
development of fruit in response to pollination (*ortree 1996) 3f
bumblebees are used to aid pollination it is important to manage the
Figure //. +oung fruit, 4ust set.
bees to ensure that they do not visit the individual pepper flo"ers too
aggressively "hich can result in scarring of the developing pepper
fruit
Irri-ation
6ollow the -eneral recommendations outlined in 4Application of fertili)er and
water.4 Tar-et GM oerdrain early in the cycle and increase oerdrain up
B&M in summer. Increase the amount of water in accordance with the
demands of the plant. If the plants hae a li-ht -reen @halo@ at the
-rowin- point in the mornin-$ they receied ade1uate water durin- the
preious day. The root )one *.C. will rise if the olume of water is not
ade1uate. 6eed at an *.C. in the ran-e of %.G to B.& mmhos to maintain a
root )one *.C. of B.G to N.& mmhos. As the season pro-resses$ and li-ht
leels improe$ increase the number of waterin- eents durin- the day to
0eep pace with the increasin- day len-ths. ,i-ht waterin- may be
considered durin- the summer. Tar-et the 2rst waterin- within &.G hour
of sunrise and the last waterin- about ' > '.G hour of sunset. Tar-et the
2rst oerdrain at about '&H&& a.m.. Pepper plants can ta0e up to B.G to
N.& litres of water a day durin- the summer.
+arestin- and Gradin-
3t takes bet"een A and 9 "eeks from fruit set to harvest, taking longer during the lo" light
periods of the year &he fruit is harvested at B? ) 9@H color and a knife is used to make clean cuts
on the peduncle (fruit stem) and care must be taken not to cut into ad8acent fruit or stems
*able %?+ /uide to Pepper /rade
Size
-0ruit diameter in millimeters.
/rade
PB@ mm 6%tra 2arge
A@ ) A9 mm 2arge
6@ ) 69 mm .edium
?@ ) ?9 mm -hopper
=ruit are graded according to size, and the larger sized pepper usually
command a higher price" The size potential of pepper fruit is determined by
the cultivar, but the management of the crop determines whether or not the
maximum size potential is met for the greatest number of fruit picked" =ruit
size, as with total crop yield, is a function of the management of the
greenhouse environment and plant handling to establish and maintain the
optimal plant balance"
Greenhouse Production Costs and Returns for
PeppersCCC
*otal -@. @ASB2 0
/reenhouse Production Area ' %>>>4 SB2 0t 7647!?
A2 /ross <evenue 73746#9 >2%7
"perating Costs
!ro"ing .edia, SeedK-uttings C1,?AA6@ @A1
,ertili(er Q -hemicals 1B,1?>6@ @>1
!reenhouse ,uel A9,6C16@ 1>6
*o"er Q 5aterK&elephone 1B,B6B@> @>C
!reenhouse 3nsurance A,61#B@ @1>
1uilding Q .achinery 9epairs 6,CC16@ @11
Auto ,uel, Q 9epairsK3nsurance Q 9estr 1?,##?6@ @#6
*roperty Q 1usiness &a%es 1,1A1# @ @@#
Accounting, 2egal Q0ffice supplies >,?1>6@ @@6
.embership, 7onations Q Subscriptions ?,#A@C@ @@9
&ravel, Advertising Q Soil &esting #,>C#C@ @@C
.arketing -osts Q ,reight C@,C@6C@ @69
3nterest on 0perating 2oan 1,A?6B@ @@>
$ired 2abourK3nsurance Q1enefits 116,?>CC@ 199
.iscellaneous costs A,61>@@ @1>
2 *otal "perating Costs 33!4%#6263 !2#1
Cnvestment Costs
0perator4s 2abour >B,@6C@@ @6?
3nterest -osts 6@,9@#@@ 1@C
7epreciation >A,@C9@@ @6>
C2 *otal Cnvestment Costs %3!4?%72?? #23#
D2 *otal Production Costs -$C. 7?#4%992?? 6276
<eturn "ver "perating Costs -A'. %!>4!>72?? #2>?
<eturn to Management -A'D. 334!6?2?? ?271
0otesP
1 .ost of the greenhouse operations are using ;1iological -ontrol; for pests
# .iscellaneous costs include bank service charges, equipment leaseKrental, crop supplies
and construction material, etc
> 0perator4s labour is included under investment costs
C 9eturn to management is e%cess of revenue over all e%penses
RRR 0abi -haudary, 1
The Aen of Greenhouse Peppers
!reenhouse peppers can be a challenging crop to gro" 0nce the plants establish a pattern of
gro"th it can be difficult to manage them in another direction ,or e%ample, if the plants are
strongly vegetative, it can take some time to direct the plants to be more generative, and vise
versa 3t is important to establish the proper balance in the plants as early as possible in order to
set the stage for continuous, sustainable production and resulting high yields
5articular points of challenge with pepper production include setting and
holding the frst fruit" =ruit set is targeted at the second or third note above
the fork where the plant breaks into two stems" The challenge here is that the
young plant is generally strongly vegetative, a re)uirement for good
establishment in the sawdust bag and eventual flling of fruit, and such plants
tend to want to remain vegetative" *y establishing the proper 86$hour
average temperature of about 8; to 8;"C M- with a day temperature of 81 M-
and a night temperature reaching 19 $ 13 M- and holding this regime, the
plants will be directed to set and hold fruit"
The next point of challenge is to have an ade)uate fruit load established on
the stems before the frst fruit are picked" 'f the frst fruit set, and subse)uent
@owers do not set, when the frst fruit are harvested, all the energy of the
plant goes towards vegetative growth" The plants will BraceB to the wire with
a resulting signifcant loss of yield"
+nce a good balance is established in the plants, maintaining about C to 9
developing fruit per stem (1; $ 18 fruitKplant! at all times with fruit taking
approximately 3 weeks to mature, then the crop will likely stay in balance to
the end of the season" This assumes no drastic changes in the management
of the crop of course"
%s the season progresses it is important to pay close attention to the plants,
the following are a few signals that the plants may exhibit and an explanation
for what the signals indicate"
6lowers
0lowers upward facing4 weak2 &he plant is too generative, reduce night temperature to drop the
#C hour average temperature by 1 D- &his "ill direct the plant to be more vegetative 5eak
flo"ers usually occur during the summer months, although they can sho" up earlier if the
greenhouse is run too "arm
6lowers lar-e$ bullish$ thic0 peduncles$ 3owers openin- downward.
The plant is too vegetative" 2aise the night temperature to bring the 86$hour
average temperature up by 1 or 1"C M-" The fruit from these large @owers
often abort or are deformed"
6lowers openin- downward$ ri-ht>si)ed.
0ormal @owers, the Qen state"
6ruit
0ruit abortion2 .ost fruit abortion occurs "ithin 1 "eek of fruit set and is related t the
;un"illingness; of the plant to carry the fruit &he plant is either too vegetative and needs to be
directed to set and hold fruit by raising the #C)hour average temperature 1 D-, or is too generative
and is dropping young fruit because it is already carrying too much of a load, 7irect these plants
vegetatively by lo"ering the #C hour average temperature 1 or # D-
"isshapen fruit$ tails. /ost problems with fruit shape are related to poor
temperature conditions during @owering" Isually seen when air temperatures
fall below 16 M- for periods over the course of a few days", primarily during
the winter months" <ygus bugs can also cause fruit shape problems, the bugs
fed by inserting their mouthparts into the very young peppers, much like
mos)uitoes feed on people" The damage becomes apparent when the fruit
continues to develop and the damaged tissue tears open" <ygus bugs can
even BtopB he plant by killing the growing point"
Crac0in-!split fruit. =ine cracks on the skin, russeting occurs when the
relative humidity in the greenhouse rises above 4CH" =ruit splitting can occur
as a result of high root pressures when the night air temperatures are cool
and root zone temperatures are high" 't is also important not to water too late
in the day"
Si)in- but not reachin- mature color. 5eppers reach mature size, but do
not completely reach mature color over the entire fruit, even after 4 weeks"
This condition is thought to be related with lower 86$hour average
temperatures" 2aising the 86$hour average temperature ;"C M- should help to
correct this problem in the crop"
Premature fruit drop. % condition when fruit mature to size, and not yet to
color, and premature abscission, or fruit drop occurs" The problem is seen
early in the season a>ected the frst fruit to size and appears to be related to
low boron levels in the feed" (rowers in sawdust are reminded that they may
have to feed higher amounts of boron, ;" ppm, rather than the standard ;"C
ppm"
6ruit reachin- mature color but not si)in-. 1mall fruit usually indicated
a plant that is too generative, one that has put more resources into setting
fruit and nor enough resources into developing the leaf area re)uired to fll
the fruit" These plants also have very short internodes, small leaves and
appear stalled" 2educe the night temperature by 1 or 8 M- to direct the plant
to be more vegetative" Target internode lengths of approximately 9 $ 3
centimeters" 2emember hat secondary fruit produced on laterals will always
be smaller than primary fruit on the main stem"
Blossom *nd Rot. This may appear at the blossom end or on the side of the
fruit" *lossom end rot is due to a calcium defciency, or reduced translocation
of calcium to the fruit" 't can result under conditions of lower transpiration or
a shortage of water" % high F"-" in the root zone restricts the uptake of water"
/aintain an active environment so that the plants are transpiring" 'f the
problem does not rectify, apply a spray of 6;; ppm calcium chloride solution
to the plants"
Sun scald. Guring the summer months under high solar radiation any fruit
exposed to direct sunlight can develop sun scald" The symptoms of sun scald
appear similar to those due to blossom end rot" Fnsure that ade)uate leaf
cover is maintained to shade the fruit from direct sunlight"
Leaes
&urning over, underside of leaves face up &his behavior is common "hen the plants are first set
out into the production greenhouse and is also seen on established plants, usually in outside ro"s
&he condition appears to be related to high vapour pressure deficits as "hen transplant are moved
from the nursery into conditions of lo"er relative humidity in the greenhouse
Curlin-$ from the ed-es in. 1een primarily on older leaves, although some
cultivars may have more of a tendency to exhibit this characteristic, this is
not considered to be a problem" 'f excessive curling and twisting is seen on
the young growth this can be an indication that herbicides have drifted into
the greenhouse"
Intereinal chlorosis. %s the leaf ages, over : months old, the tendency of
developing interveinal chlorosis increases" % result of ageing and senescence
s these leaves are no longer as active in the development of the plant and
fruit" The plant can BmineB the leaf, removing mobile nutrients for use on
other parts of the plant" This behavior is normal"
'nterveinal chlorosis on the younger leaves can indicate a problem with the
nutrient solution or that the root zone temperatures are exceeding 8: M-" 't is
important to keep the root zone temperatures in the 1 $ 88 M- range"
Lar-e leaes. <arge leaves are a sign of a strong vegetative plant" 0ot a
problem if the fruit set is also good"
Small leaes. 'ndicates that the plant is generative , which should also be
apparent by a heavy fruit set" The plant may be too generative if the fruit is
taking too long to ripen and are undersized" %s well as lowering the 86$hour
average temperature, under summer conditions it is recommended to have
about 8; ppm of ammonium nitrogen" This will help to direct the plant to be
more vegetative
*nd of Season Cleanup
&he end of season cleanup is necessary to help ensure the success of ne%t year4s crop A thorough
cleanup is an important component of the pest and disease management program as it can prevent
or minimi(e the carry over of pest and disease problems into the ne%t season
%ll crop residue is removed from the greenhouse and disposed of" Gepending
on the area, facilities may exist to accept the crop residue for composting"
The spent sawdust from the grow$bags could also be a welcome addition to
compost sites as much decomposition of the sawdust has already occurred
during the growing season" +nce the crop has been removed, increasing the
greenhouse temperature to over 8C M- for several days can increase the
metabolic activity of any pests still in the greenhouse and can help cause
them to die of starvation in the absence of their food source (5ortree 19!"
The interior of the greenhouse should be washed with a detergent solution
using a pressure washer and then rinsed" The detergent will remove oily
residues from the greenhouse and covering material" =ollowing the rinse a
1;H bleach solution can be applied to aid in disinfecting the greenhouse
structure of any remaining pests and disease organisms" 't is not
recommended to apply detergent and bleach in the same operation in order
to avoid chemical reaction between the bleach and the detergent" 7hen
pressure washing the greenhouse ensure that all safety precautions are taken
to prevent direct exposure to the bleach solution"
%ll greenhouse e)uipment should also be washed and disinfected" Gripper
stakes, clips and truss supports (tomato greenhouses! should be soaked
overnight in a 1;H bleach solution and then rinsed"
The irrigation lines should be @ushed with nitric or phosphoric acid at a p. of
1"9 to 1"3 (1 part acid to C; parts water! (5ortree 19!" Go not allow the acid
solution to contact the p. electrode sensors or the F"-" sensors as they can
be damaged (5ortree 19!" The acid solution should be allowed to sit in the
lines for 86 hours at which time the lines should be thoroughly rinsed with
water to ensure that all the acid solution is removed from the lines"
CA;TI(,H Proide -ood entilation throu-h the -reenhouse when
3ushin- the lines with acid to aoid the build>up of fumes. *nsure
that the 3ushed water does not hae a p+ of below G as dan-erous
chlorine -as may form 7Portree '99F8.
Steam Sterili)ation of Roc0wool Slabs
3f rock"ool slabs are used instead of sa"dust bags as the gro"ing media, the rock"ool slabs can
be used again for the upcoming crop &he reuse of rock"ool slabs is both environmentally
friendly and makes economic sense (*ortree 1996) !ood quality slabs can be used for up to three
years (*ortree 1996) 7o not use slabs that have lost more than 1@H of their original height
(*ortree 1996), as this is an indication that the structure or ;profile; of the slab has changed such
that the yield of subsequent plants gro"n can be reduced significantly
1team sterilization can ensure that disease organisms do not carry over into
the next season" 1labs should be as dry as possible as dry slabs heat faster
than wet slabs (5ortree 19!" 'f the crop has had tomato mosaic virus (T/A!
or pepper mild mottle virus (5//A! the slabs should be heated to 1;; M- and
held at this temperature for 1; minutes (5ortree 19!, otherwise the slabs
should be heated to 3C M- for 8; minutes (5ortree 19!" 'f the slabs are
bagged and palette, they re)uire C hours to reach 1;; M- (5ortree 19!"
Pest and <isease "ana-ement
Successful crop production requires that crop pests and diseases be managed so that the effects of
diseases and pests on the plants are minimi(ed &he management of crop diseases is directed at
preventing the establishment of diseases and minimi(ing the development and spread of any
diseases that become established in the crop .anaging pest problems is directed at preventing
the pest populations from becoming too large and uncontrollable (*ortree 1996) &he presence of
pests and diseases are a fact of crop production and gro"ers must use all available options and
strategies to avoid serious pest and disease problems
'ntegrated pest management ('5/! is a term used to describe an evolving
process where cultural, biological, and chemical controls are included in a
holistic approach of pest and disease control (.oward et al 16!" Eey
components of e>ective pest and disease control programs includeP crop
monitoring, cultural control, resistant cultivars, biological control and
chemical control (.oward et al 16, 5ortree 19!"
Crop "onitorin-
-rop monitoring is the continually on)going surveillance to detect the presence of a pest or
disease at the very early stages of development of the disease or pest population, before economic
damage has occurred ($o"ard et al 199C) 6veryone involved in "orking the crop should be
made a"are of the common pest and disease problems and "hat to look for to detect the presence
of problems in the crop 3n addition this general surveillance of the crop, dedicated monitoring of
the crop should be included in the "eekly "ork schedule ($o"ard et al 199C, *ortree 1996) 1lue
sticky cards, placed throughout the crop, are a useful monitoring tool to help trap and detect pest
problems before they become a problem ($o"ard et al 199C) Oello" sticky cards are kno"n to
attract and catch some biological control agents eg )phidius sp (7on 6lliott, pers comm)
1iological control agents can be released "ell in advance of any pest population e%plosion thus
allo"ing for the establishment of the control agents and prevention of a serious pest problem
-rop monitoring should begin when the crop is still on the seedling table or at
the transplant stage (especially when transplants are obtained by another
greenhouse ie" purchased from a propagator! (5ortree 19!" 'f transplants
are being purchased from a propagator it is important to be in contact with
the propagator regarding any pest problems encountered during the
production of the transplants" 't is also important to know what pest control
measures were used, if any, to control the problems" 't is advisable to
establish in advance, what control measures you are willing to have applied
to the transplants at the propagator&s prior to receiving them into the
greenhouse" The concern is that any pesticides that are applied are
compatible with the pest control programs i"e" biological control programs
that will be used for the duration of the crop" 1ome growers may insist that
only biological controls be used during the production of transplants, andKor
that biological control agents be introduced preventively to the transplants
before they are received"
Cultural Control
-ultural control involves providing the conditions that favour the gro"th, development and
health of the crop, and "here ever possible, providing conditions that "ork against pest and
disease ($o"ard 199C, *ortree 1996) .any disease causing fungi and bacteria require the
presence of free "ater or condensation on the plants in order to cause disease (Farvis 199#,
$o"ard 199C, *ortree 1996) $igh relative humidity promotes the development of disease, and
maintaining the environment belo" B?H relative humidity "ill help to escape or avoid disease
problems (Farvis 199#, $o"ard 199C, *ortree 1996) 6nsuring proper ventilation and air
movement "ithin the crop canopy, as "ell as maintaining optimum plant spacing and a relatively
open canopy, "ill ensure good air circulation and minimi(e the establishment of micro)climates
that favour disease development *roper contouring of the greenhouse floor "ill avoid the
pooling of "ater "hich contributes to locali(ed high relative humidity 0ptimi(ing the
greenhouse environment to favour the development of the plant "ill ensure a strong, healthy
plant "hich is not only a prerequisite for high yields but also results in plants that are better able
to resist diseases and insect pests (Farvis 199#, $o"ard 199C, *ortree 1996)
(ood crop sanitation is another important component of successful cultural
control" The plants must be pruned and maintained on schedule, all crop
debris should be promptly removed from the vicinity of the greenhouse" %ny
weeds that happen to gain a foot hold through gaps in the @oor plastic should
be removed immediately upon discovery and the @oor repaired" 5ersonal
plants BpetB plants should not be grown in the greenhouse" *oth weeds and
BpetB plants can be as source and BhavenB for pest and disease problems"
5runing tools and other e)uipment should be cleaned and disinfected on a
regular basis" %prons or other clothing worn by the workers should be washed
fre)uently" 7hen a disease or pest problem area exists in the greenhouse,
that area of the greenhouse should be worked last, to avoid the spread of the
disease or pests by the workers" 'n this situation, special care must be taken
to disinfect tools and to clean clothing"
/aintain a 9 to 1; meter wide bu>er zone (.oward et al 16, 5ortree 19!
around the outside of the greenhouse by regularly mowing any weeds that
try to grow in this zone" The presence of plants in close proximity to the
greenhouse can serve as a reservoirs for continual introduction of pests and
diseases into the greenhouse" 1creening of the intake vents can also play an
important role in excluding pests from the greenhouse" 't is not enough ,ust
to screen$o> the intake vents as the screening restricts the air @ow into the
greenhouse, it is important to ensure that the surface area of the screening
used is large enough so that it does not restrict the @ow of air into the intake
vents (-hang 19!" This may re)uire that a screen &chamber& be constructed
over the vent"
Resistant Cultiars
Plant breeders hae had considerable
success in deelopin- cultiars that
contain -enetic resistance or tolerance to
diseases. Dhen selectin- the cultiars to
be -rown$ it is important to consider the
-enetic resistance of the cultiars to the
prealent disease problems in the re-ion
7+oward et al '99N8. The deelopment of
cultiars possessin- -enetic resistance to
pests has been relatiely unsuccessful
7+oward et al '99N8$ howeer$ the
techni1ues of -enetic en-ineerin- hae
made inroads in conferrin- pest resistance
in plants. Genetically modi2ed$ pest
resistant plants may become aailable to
-reenhouse -rowers in future. The
deelopment use of -enetically modi2ed
plants or -enetically modi2ed or-anisms
7G"(s8 is currently a contentious issue$
and may not be accepted by -rowers or
consumers. Biolo-ical Control
1iological control uses beneficial organisms, primarily predators and parasites, to control pest
populations belo" economically important levels &he goal is to establish a balance bet"een the
pest population and its parasites and predators to keep the pest population under control &he
complete eradication of the pest population is not the goal of biological control programs, as
some pest organisms are required so the parasites and predators can reproduce
The greenhouse industry has a well established reputation for using biological
pest control agents more than any other crop production industry" The reason
for this is, in part, due to the ability of greenhouse growers to manage the
environment to favour the biological control agents" %nother factor is the
relatively limited number of pest species in greenhouses, as well as a general
tolerance of greenhouse crops to leaf damage caused by these pests" The
high value of greenhouse produce is another reason why the use of biological
controls is economical in greenhouse crops" The increased use of biological
controls has led to a reduction in pesticide applications as the industry leads
in environmentally responsible, intensive crop production"
F>ective biological control of diseases is a more di?cult goal and to$date, has
rarely been achieved (.oward et al 16!" .owever, research in developing
biological controls for greenhouse crop diseases is ongoing and it is likely that
biological control products for greenhouse diseases will be available in
-anada in the near future" The primary strategy of biological control for
greenhouse plant diseases is to introduce fungal parasites to control
populations of disease causing fungi in the greenhouse environment so that
they are unable, or have a reduced ability to infect the plants" 1ome of the
promising biological control agents, for example, fungi in the (enus
*richoderma are also strong competitors of the disease causing fungi such as
Botrytis cinerea, and can be used to protect wound sites to prevent Botrytis
from colonizing the wound site"
Chemical Control
*esticides are valuable tools "hen used as a component of an integrated pest management
program ($o"ard et al 199C) 3nsecticides should be applied only in support of biological control
programs, dealing "ith locali(ed pest outbreaks in the crop that have escaped the biological
control agents 5hen insecticides are used, care must be taken to ensure that they are compatible
"ith biological control agents, that there "ill be minimal long term adverse residual effects on
biological control programs ,ungicides are used only "hen a disease problem is detected
5esticides are regarded as the controls of last resort because their misuses
creates high$profle environmental and food safety problems (.oward et al
16!" %lso, the application of some pesticides to a crop can cause stresses
that reduce the productive life of the crop and can make the plants
susceptible to other pests and diseases (.oward et al 16!" 'f the use of
biological control agents is to obtain a balance between pests and predators
that does not threaten the productive yield of the crop, the indiscriminate use
of pesticides creates imbalance and uncertainty in the crop" % list of
pesticides registered for use on greenhouse peppers in -anada is included in
%ppendix '"
Pests of Greenhouse Sweet
Peppers and Their Biolo-ical
Control
7escriptions of the common pests of greenhouse peppers are follo"ed "ith a list of the
biocontrol agents recommended for control *esticides are not discussed *esticide
recommendations can be obtained from a greenhouse crop production specialist
Assessment of the Euality of Biolo-ical Control A-ents
1iological control agents are living organisms and their ability to establish and control pest
populations depends on their fitness 5hen ordering biological control agents ask the supplier
"hat to look for to help assess the quality of the agents "hen they arrive A hand lens or
magnifying glass is very useful "hen inspecting packages of biological control agents All
packages of biological control agents should be inspected on arrival *ackages arriving during the
"inter should be checked immediately to ensure that they have not been fro(en or sub8ected to
cold temperatures &he inside of the shipping cooler should not be cold, if the ice pack contained
"ithin the cooler is fro(en solid, it is likely that the entire package fro(e and the biological
controls have been damaged or killed (*ortree 1996) *ackages received during the summer
months should be cool inside, if they are hot then the biological control agents may be damaged
or killed
%lways release the biological control agents into the greenhouse as soon as
possible after they are received" =ollow the instructions provided with the
package"
Aphids
&he green peach aphid (*y%us persicae) is the
most common aphid pest of greenhouse s"eet
peppers but there are other aphid species that can
become a problem in greenhouse peppers &hese
other aphid species include' the melon aphid
()phis gossypii), the potato aphid (*acrosiphum
euphorbiae) and the fo%glove aphid ()ulacorthum
solani) /ot all aphid biological control agents are
equally effective on all aphid species so it is
necessary to be sure of the identity of the aphid
species in question All of the species eventually
develop "inged forms
(reen peach aphids are usually light
green in color, but can be pinkish or
yellowish in color in the fall (.oward et
al 16, 5ortree 19!" The body is
about 1"8 to 8"C millimeters long and
egg shaped" The winged forms can have
black or brown colored heads and black
markings on the body"
The melon aphid adults are usually
either black or green when there are
,ust a few aphids present, but as the
population grows and the aphids
become crowded the colors can range
from olive green to yellowish green"
/elon aphids are about the same size
as green peach aphids, 1 to :
millimeters long, they can be
distinguished from the other aphid
species by the dark black cornicles and
short antennae (.oward et al 16,
5ortree 19!"
Figure /4. 5reen peach aphids.
*otato aphids are quite large, 1A to >6 millimeters long and the body is "edge)shaped and
yello"ish green to pink in color ($o"ard et al 199C) &he head has prominent antennal tubercles
that are directed out"ards ($o"ard et al 199C) *otato aphids "ill drop off the leaves "hen
disturbed ($o"ard et al 199C)
Figure /(. 6ey to the ,ingless forms of
the common aphids found in greenhouse peppers.
,o%glove aphids are smaller than potato aphids
but larger than melon and green peach aphids
&his aphid is a shiny light yello"ish green to
dark green in color "ith a pear)shaped body
$o"ard et al 199C) &he only markings on the
bodies of "ingless adults are darkish patches at
the base of the cornicles ($o"ard et al 199C)
%phids can be present in the pepper
crop very early, even while the plants
are ,ust in the seedling stage" They
can come in on the transplants as
well" %phids feed by sucking the plant
sap" 1ymptoms of aphid infestation
include the development of sticky
honeydew on the leaves and fruit" The
presence of honeydew on the fruit
re)uires that the fruit be washed prior
to going to market" 1ooty mold is
often associated with the aphid
honeydew, this mold uses the
honeydew as a food source and grows
to resemble a layer of BsootB on the
leaves and fruit" The presence of
sooty mold on the fruit also makes
washing the fruit a necessity" The
growing points, young leaves, @owers
and young leaves can be damaged
and distorted" and in severe
infestations @ower abortion can occur"
%phid control should be started in
propagation with the introduction of
parasitic wasps# 3phidius matricariae
for green peach aphid, 3phidius
colemani for the melon aphid and
green peach aphid and 3phidius er%i
for potato aphid" %nother parasitic
wasp 3phelinus abdominalis is
e>ective against the potato and
foxglove aphid" 5arasitized aphids
become silvery$brown in color with a
small exit hole at the back when the
parasite has emerged" The larvae of
the midge 3phidoletes aphidimy)a
feed on most aphid species, but will
not feed on gall forming aphids (Gon
Flliott, pers comm! %phid hot spots
and population explosions may
re)uire introductions of lady beetle
species, 4armonia a&yridis, the %sian
lady beetle and large scale
introductions of 4ippodamia
con%ergens"
'ntroductions of these predators and
parasites may have to continue
throughout the entire season" =or best
results always use a combination of
aphid predators and parasites"
-onsult your local supplier for
information and recommendations on
release rates"
Figure /6. 7hite spots on pepper fruit caused by aphid
feeding on the fruit bud ,hen it ,as still young.
Figure /7. ) lady beetle adult consuming an aphid.
Figure /!. )phidoletes midge larvae feeding on aphids.
Two>Spotted Spider "ite
&he t"o)spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) is a common pest of a
number of greenhouse crops ($o"ard et al 199C, *ortree 1996) &ypical
symptoms of t"o)spotted spider mite infestations include speckling of
leaves and fine "ebbing on the underside of affected leaves As the
spider mite population increases, the leaves become brittle and bro"n in
color, the amount of "ebbing on the leaves becomes very prominent and
the mites can be seen milling about on the "ebs 3t is very easy for the
t"o)spotted spider mites to be ;picked)up; on clothing and transported
throughout the crop by "orkers As the season progresses into fall,
female t"o)spotted spider mites develop a bright orange)reddish color as
they prepare for the "inter &he female mites seek shelter in crevices
throughout the greenhouse and a thorough end of season pressure "ash
clean)up is necessary to minimi(e the number of females that survive to
the ne%t crop
Figure /#. T,o2spotted
spider mite.
F>ective biological control of the two$spotted spider mite is obtained by
introducing the predatory mite 5hytoseiulus persimilis as soon as two$spotted
spider mites are detected in the crop" 5. persimilis does well in the pepper
canopy, and once established throughout the greenhouse it controls the
spider mite population for the remainder of the season" The mites
3mblyseius fallacis and 3mblyseius callifornicus are closely related to 5.
persimilis and establish well and gives better control under low density mite
situations, but should be used along with 5. persimilis (Gon Flliot, pers
comm!"
Thrips
Figure 4.. Thrips.
&here are t"o species of thrips that are common pests in greenhouse
vegetable crops, the "estern flo"er thrips (Franliniella occindentalis), and
the onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) ($o"ard et al 199C, *ortree 1996) &hrips
feed by opening "ounds on the plant surface and sucking out the contents
of the plant cells, the feeding results in small "hitish streaks on the leaves
and fruit and can cause distortions in the young developing fruit ($o"ard et
al 199C, *ortree 1996)
The adult thrips congregate in the @owers and regular
monitoring of the @owers will allow for the early detection of
thrips" Lellow andKor blue sticky traps placed throughout the
crop, as with the other insect pests, will help in the early
detection of thrips infestations" %void using yellow traps if
3pidius sp" are being used for the control of aphids in the
crop"
'n addition to causing direct feeding damage and resultant
yield loss, both thrips species are vectors
of &omato Spotted 5ilt +irus (&S5+) "hich can be a serious disease problem in peppers and
tomatoes ($o"ard et al 199C, *ortree 1996) 0ne of the main control measures for minimi(ing
the spread and infection of &S5+ "ithin the crop is to control the thrips vectors
There are a number of predators available for biological control of thripsP
predatory mites 3mblyseius degenerans, 3mblyseius cucumeris, 4ypoaspis
miles and 4ypoaspis aculeifer and predatory bugs, !rius insidiosis and other
!rius species"
Loopers and Caterpillars
At least t"o species of loopers have been associated "ith
problems in greenhouse pepper crops, the cabbage looper,
Trichoplusia ni, is the most common, "ith the alfalfa
looper )utographa californica being an occasional
problem &he damage is caused by the larval stages "hich
can reach #? to >? centimeters in length depending on
the species &he cabbage looper is the larger the t"o
species in the final larval stage &he larva are a light green
in color "ith "hitish stripes along the length of their
bodies &he larvae feed on foliage and fruit, fruit damage
consists of holes in the fruit, accompanied by frass on and
around the caly% As the loopers reach their mature si(e,
the amount of feeding damage can be considerable
<oopers generally enter the greenhouse
through vents and other openings as adult
moths which then lay eggs on the plants" The
eggs hatch and the larval or looper stages
begin feeding and complete their life cycle in
about 8; days" %s a result, a number of
generations can be completed in the crop if
control measures are not taken" <oopers
overwinter as pupae, and can overwinter
inside the greenhouse Figure 4&. Looper on a pepper fruit.
(*ortree 1996) 5hen the greenhouse enters the ne" production cycle, the moths emerge, mate
and begin egg)laying in the ne" crop (*ortree 1996)
1creening intake vents will help prevent adult moths from entering the
greenhouse" 5heromone traps can be used to detect the presence of adult
moths in and around the greenhouse, and acts as an indicator for when to
introduce biocontrol agents" Iltra$violet light traps are also used to catch
adult moths" The egg parasite *richogramma brassicae should be released as
soon as adults are detected" The parasite Cotesia magrini%entris should also
be introduced, this parasite prefers to attack young loopers" Bacillus
thuringiensis (*"T"! can also be used as part of the biocontrol program" *"T" is
a microbial biocontrol agent which is activated once the loopers consume
plant material which has been sprayed with *"T" %lso, since the loopers are
)uite large, they can be removed by hand when they are found in the crop"
Figure 4'. Looper feeding damage on a pepper fruit.
Figure 4/. Looper feeding in4ury on pepper leaves.
Dhite3y
&he greenhouse "hitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) is a common and
serious pest in greenhouse crops in -anada ($o"ard et al 199C) $o"ever, it
is rarely a problem on greenhouse s"eet pepper ($o"ard et al 199C) A
second "hitefly species, the s"eet potato "hitefly, 8emesia tabaci, has been
found in some greenhouses in 1ritish -olumbia (*ortree 1996) 0f the t"o
"hitefly species, the s"eet potato "hitefly is more difficult to control (*ortree
1996)
(reenhouse white@y adults are about two millimeters long
and congregate on the undersides of the leaves" The usually
@y short distances when disturbed" The white@y nymphs are
clear, @attened scales about 1"; millimeter long at their
largest size, and are also found on the underside of the
leaves" The sweet potato white@y is smaller than the
greenhouse white@y and is more yellowish in color (5ortree
19!"
Figure 44.
5reenhouse ,hitefly.
7hite@y damage the plant by sucking sap from the leaves" <arge infestations
can cause leaf yellowing and a general decline in the plant" 1ooty mold is
commonly found in association with white@y" %s with aphids, white@y feeding
also results in honeydew formation which can reduce fruit )uality" The
presence of the honeydew and sooty mold can necessitate that the fruit be
washed prior to going to market" The presence of sooty mold on the leaves
can reduce the productivity of the leaf by reducing the amount of light
reaching the leaf surface (.oward et al 16!"
The parasitic wasps, $ncarsia formosa and $retmocerus eremicus, are
e>ective against white@y with parasitized white@y scale becoming yellow or
black in color, depending on the parasite" 1cale parasitized by $ncarsia
formosa is black in color" 6elphastus pusillus is a small beetle that feeds on
white@y eggs and is ideal for complementing $ncarsia and $retmocerus
(5ortree 19!"
6un-us Gnats
,ungus gnats are commonly found in practically all greenhouse crops
($o"ard et al 199C) ,ungus gnats are an indicator of moist conditions
in the greenhouse and populations generally gro" to be quite large
early in the year or "henever there is pooling of "ater on the
greenhouse floor Adult fungus gnats range from # to > millimeters in
length, "hile the larvae are C to ? millimeters long &he larvae of the
fungus gnats are the damaging stage and feed on the roots &hey are
generally not a problem in greenhouse tomato and pepper, but can be a
serious in cucumbers ($o"ard et al 199C), especially young plants
Affected plants develop slo"ly and may eventually collapse if too
much of the root system has been damaged (*ortree 1996) &here
Figure 4(. Fungus gnats.
is evidence that fungus gnat adults may transport root rot fungi such as Pythium sp and
Fusarium sp from plant to plant, contributing to the spread of disease caused by these fungi
($o"ard et al 199C) ,ungus gnats are often confused "ith shore flies, as both are common in the
greenhouse under "et conditions Shore flies are slightly larger than fungus gnats, and look like
scaled)do"n versions of house flies, "hile fungus gnats look more like tiny mosquitos that don4t
bite
*iological control of fungus gnats is obtained through the use of predatory
mites 4ypoaspis miles and most recently 4ypoaspis aculeifer" *oth of these
predatory mites also have activity against thrips larvae that move to the base
of the plants to pupate" 0ematode parasites in the genus 1teinernema are
applied as a drench to the root zone and kill the fungus gnat larvae by
penetrating the larvae and consume them from the inside"
Ly-us bu-s
Figure 4(. Fungus gnats.
2ygus bugs (Lygus spp) are common pests of field crops in Alberta,
particularly alfalfa and canola, and have become increasingly important
in greenhouse vegetable crops ($o"ard et al 199C, *ortree 1996) &here
are a number of species "ithin the genus "hich can become pests in the
greenhouse including Lygus lineolaris 5hen nearby alfalfa or canola
fields are cut or harvested, large numbers of 2ygus bugs can be
displaced and move into the greenhouse 2ygus bugs can enter the
greenhouse through unscreened vents
%dult <ygus bugs can reach C to 9 mm in length and can
range in color from green to brown with mottled black
markings" +nce in the greenhouse, <ygus bugs can
continue their life cycle and establish a population within
the greenhouse" *oth the adults and nymphs feed on
plant ,uices through piercing and sucking mouthparts"
The bugs like to feed on the plants at the growing points
and can damage the developing @ower bud that in$turn
results in malformed fruit"
<ygus bugs are relatively large, fast$moving insects which can be di?cult to
control with biologicals" !rius and 6eraeocoris will feed on <ygus bugs
(5ortree 19!" 5reventing the entry of <ygus bugs into the greenhouse by
screening the vents o>ers the best prospect for controlling this pest"
Figure +7. 0alformed fruit caused by lygus bug feeding
in8ury when the fruit was in the %ery young 9bud9 stage.
*arwi-s
&he 6uropean ear"ig (Forficula auricularia) can be quite common in
greenhouses &hese insects are bro"n in color and about 1@ ) 1?
millimeters long &hey are easily identified by the presence of distinctive
;cerci;, or appendages located at the back end of the insect 3n the male
ear"igs, the cerci resemble pincers, the cerci are almost straight on female
ear"igs 6ar"igs are often found under the sa"dust bags or rock"ool slabs
or hiding in other dark, moist, protected areas 6ar"igs are nocturnal and
feed on a variety of things, including plants and other insects
Farwigs have occasionally become a problem in greenhouse
sweet pepper crops by moving into the crop canopy and
damaging pepper fruit located up to one meter o> the @oor"
The earwigs burrow into the fruit at the calyx, the damage
resembling that caused by loopers" -utting the fruit open
often reveals a mature earwig" The holes in the fruit and the
associated frass renders the fruit unft for market"
Figure 4!. "ar,ig.
Control of these insects is obtained by trappin- them when they are still on the
-reenhouse 3oor$ before they moe into the canopy. Commercial traps
and baits are aailable.
<iseases of Sweet Pepper > 6un-al
<iseases
<ampin->oL
7amping)off is a disease of seedlings and occurs on the seeding table "hen the young plants are
8ust beginning to gro" &he disease is caused by a number of species of Pythium as "ell as
hi%octonia solani 3f the disease attacks the young plants as they are 8ust emerging from the
seed, the symptoms of this pre)emergent damping)off is simply seen as areas "here no seedlings
have emerged 7amping)off in young, emerged, seedlings is seen as a toppling over of the
seedlings as the root systems are destroyed by the fungi 3t is possible for some plants to be
affected by these fungi and still develop into mature plants 3f these plants are stressed later in the
season the fungi can begin to progress in the plants causing a root rot "hich can eventually kill
the mature plant
Gamping$o> is not common when seedlings are grown in inert media such as
rockwool, it is more common in soil$based media" The disease is more
common where greenhouse sanitation practices are poor (.oward et al 16!
or where growing conditions i"e" soil temperature, watering etc" are not
optimal, and the young plants are stressed"
%s commercial greenhouse vegetable seedlings and transplants are grown in
rockwool, under optimal conditions with proper plant spacing, this disease is
generally of minor importance" .owever, if the young plants are exposed to
stress conditions, particularly conditions of cold, excessively moist root
zones, then the disease can occur"
The best control for this disease is prevention, obtained by using high )uality,
fresh seed, and by maintaining optimal growing conditions for the young
plants"
Pythium Crown and Root Rot
*ythium cro"n and root rot caused by a number of Pythium spp is not common in greenhouse
peppers, ho"ever it can occur as an e%tension of an early damping)off problem in the seedlings
or as a result of stressful conditions in the greenhouse at transplanting &ransplants infected by
Pythium spp develop slo"ly, are slo" to root into and establish on the sa"dust bags, and in
e%treme circumstances, "ilt and slo"ly die
The early stage of the crop cycle often determine the success of the entire
year as it is important to go into the production cycle with strong, well
established plants" The best method for the control of 5ythium root rot is to
ensure that optimal growing conditions, particularly root zone temperatures
and watering, are maintained"
6usarium Stem and 6ruit Rot
&he appearance of soft, dark bro"n or black lesions on the stems at nodes or "ound sites are
symptoms of ,usarium stem and fruit rot caused by Fusarium solani ($o"ard et al 199C) 1lack
"ater)soaked lesions may also develop around the caly%, eventually spreading do"n the sides of
the fruit ($o"ard et al 199C) Gnder conditions of high humidity the fungal mycelium is quite
apparent on the lesions ($o"ard et al 199C)
/aintaining a clean greenhouse and good sanitation practices are key factors
in preventing fusarium stem and fruit rot" 'nfected plants should be carefully
removed from the greenhouse and buried in a landfll" /aintain good air
circulation and avoid conditions where the relative humidity rises above 4CH"
%void wounding fruit and excessive wounding to the stems"
Gray "old
!ray mold, caused by the fungus 8otrytis cinerea, is a common disease of greenhouse crops
gro"n under conditions of high humidity and poor air circulation &he fungus enters the plant
from "ound sites and olive)green lesions develop that can eventually girdle the stem causing the
plant to die ($o"ard et al 199C) ,ruit infections commonly begin at the caly% or at "ound sites
Fnsure good air circulation within the crop, maintain the relative humidity in
the greenhouse below 4CH and avoid the formation of free water on the
plants and fruit (.oward et al 16, <ange and Tantau 19!"
Powdery "ildew
*o"dery milde" of greenhouse pepper, caused by Leveillula taurica, is not a common problem
in -anada &he first report of this disease in -anada "as in 1999 in t"o separate greenhouse
locations in 2eamington and +ineland, 0ntario (-erkauskas et al 1999) Oield losses of 1@ to
1?H "ere associated "ith the disease in these greenhouses (-erkauskas et al 1999)
1pots with a white powdery coating develops on the lower surface of the
leaves, a slight chlorosis of the upper leaf surface is associated with the spots
(-erkauskas et al 1!"
<iseases of Sweet Pepper > 5irus
<iseases
Pepper "ild "ottle 5irus 7P""58
*epper mild mottle virus occurs practically
every"here that pepper is gro"n and "as first
reported in -anada on field gro"n peppers in
19B? ($o"ard et al 199C) &he first confirmed
report of this virus in Alberta greenhouse s"eet
peppers "as in 199B (-alpas 199B) &he presence
of the virus is difficult to detect in the greenhouse
until the plants begin to bear fruit 2eaf symptoms
are easily mistake for other problems such as
magnesium and manganese deficiencies As the
disease progresses in the plants, the ne" gro"th
can be distinctly stunted "ith a clear mosaic
pattern of yello" and green ,ruit symptoms often
occur "ell in advance of the stunting symptoms
and include the development of obvious bumps on
the fruit as "ell as color streaking and green
spotting as the fruit matures to color ,ruit tend to
have pointed ends and may also develop sunken
bro"n areas on the surface ($o"ard et al 199C)
2outine use of skim milk (1;; gms K 1
<iter! as a dip while handling the plants
acts to prevent any potential spread of
the virus in the crop" The protein in skim
milk binds to the virus and inactivates
it" The virus is very stable in plant sap
and it is easily spread from plant to
plant" +nce the plants begin to bear
fruit, 5//A infected plants are fairly
easy to recognize from symptoms on
the fruit" 'nfected plants should be
carefully removed and destroyed as the
virus can survive in dry plant debris for
up to 8C years (5ortree 19!" 'f all
Figure 4#. Pepper mild mottle virus symptoms.
plants bear normal fruit, dipping the
hands in skim milk can be discontinued"
*epper mild mottle virus enters the greenhouse primarily on infected seed, transplants, plant sap
and plant debris ($o"ard et al 199C, *ortree 1996) &he virus is not kno"n to be spread by
insects, but is very easily spread the routine handling of the young plants, especially at
transplanting (*ortree 1996) .any other plants in the Solanaceae family are susceptible, but
tomato is not a host of *..+
5epper mild mottle virus is related to tobacco mosaic virus (T/A! and pepper
cultivars with T/ resistance also have a level of resistance to 5//A (.oward
et al 16, 5ortree 19!"
Tobacco "osaic 5irus 7T"58
&obacco is not a common disease problem in -anada although it occurs on greenhouse pepper
throughout the "orld ($o"ard et al 199C, *ortree 1996) &he symptoms of infection first appear
on the leaf as a necrosis along the main veins accompanied by "ilting and leaf drop ($o"ard et
al 199C, *ortree 1996) /e" gro"th on the plants may e%hibit mosaic symptoms as "ell as
distorted gro"th ($o"ard et al 199C, *ortree 1996)
Ise disease$free seed and ensure that resistant cultivars are grown" Ise a
skim milk dip when handling the plants and remove and destroy any infected
plants that develop early in the season (.oward et al 16, 5ortree 19!"
/ature plants can be symptomless carriers of the virus and escape detection
later in the season (5ortree 19!"
Tomato Spotted Dilt 5irus 7TSD58
&omato spotted "ilt virus has a "ide host range, affecting appro%imately >@@ species in >C
families of plants ($o"ard et al 199C) &he virus is spread primarily by thrips, particularly the
"estern flo"er thrips (,rankliniella occidentalis), and "ill only become a significant problem in
greenhouse pepper crops if the thrips vector is present ($o"ard et al 199C)
Figure (.. Tomato spotted ,ilt virus symptoms.
Symptoms of infection on the leaves includes
blackish)bro"n circular spots, or tan spots
bordered by a black margin ($o"ard et al 199C)
Symptoms on ripening fruit are quite dramatic
"ith orange to yello" spots surrounded by a green
margin, or green spots on a background of the ripe
fruit color of red, yello" or orange /ot all fruit
from infected plants may develop fruit symptoms,
e%perience in Alberta pepper greenhouses has
sho"n that only about one)third of the fruit from
infected plants "ill develop symptoms
-ontrol of this virus is obtained by
controlling the thrips vector" Thrips
biocontrol programs should be initiated
at the beginning of the season" 7eeds
should be kept under strict control as
they can serve to harbour both the
thrips vector and the virus" /aintaining
a 9 meter weed$free bu>er
)one around the -reenhouse will help preent the introduction of thrips into the
-reenhouse$ as well as preentin- the establishment of irus infected
weed plants around the -reenhouse which could sere as a source of the
irus. Aoid hain- any ornamental plants in the -reenhouse as they can
also sere as reseroirs for the irus.
Tomato "osaic 5irus 7To"58
&omato mosaic virus is not a common problem in greenhouse pepper and causes symptoms very
similar to those caused by tobacco mosaic virus ($o"ard et al 199C)
-ontrol measures are the same as for tobacco mosaic virus" Ise disease$free
seed and remove and destroy infected plants (.oward et al, 16!"
<iseases of Sweet Pepper >
Physiolo-ical <isorders
Blossom *nd Rot
1lossom end rot (169) is a common disorder of
greenhouse peppers, "ith the symptoms occurring
on the pepper fruit &he disorder is associated "ith
a number of environmental stress triggers as "ell
as calcium deficiency ($o"ard et al 199C) Any
condition "hich causes "ater stress or a reduction
in transpiration, and resultant movement of
nutrients through the plants can bring on
symptoms Gnder "atering, fluctuating "ater
conditions, from dry to "et to dry etc, damage to
the root system high 6- in the root (one can
cause 169 ($o"ard et al 199C, *ortree 1996) An
actual calcium deficiency to the plant is rarely the
primary cause of the disorder as 169 can develop
"hen adequate levels of calcium are being fed to
the plants &he environmental factors that can
trigger the disorder interfere "ith the movement of
calcium "ithin the plant, causing less calcium to
reach the fruit Some cultivars are more prone to
this disorder than others (*ortree 1996)
1ymptoms of *F2 begin as soft spots on
the fruit which develop into sunken tan$
brown lesions with a very distinct
border between a>ected and healthy
tissue" The spots usually occur on the
bottom third of the fruit and
Figure (&. 8lossom end rot.
are not strictly confined to the bottom, or blossom end of the fruit Affected fruit are
unmarketable
-ontrol is obtained by avoiding conditions of moisture stress or conditions of
reduced transpiration in the crop, ensure that the plants receive ade)uate
water and that vapor pressure defcit (A5G! targets are met" 7eekly foliar
applications of calcium nitrate can have a signifcant impact on reducing the
amount of *F2 ( 1chon 1:!"
Sunscald
&he symptoms of sunscald on the pepper fruit are very similar to those for blossom end rot Soft,
tan coloured sunken lesions develop fruit that are e%posed to direct sunlight 3t is important to
ad8ust pruning practices to ensure that all fruit are shaded from direct sunlight Applying shading
to the greenhouse during the summer months "ill also help reduce the incidence of sunscald
&emperatures of e%posed fruit can often be 1@ D- higher than shaded fruit, reaching over >? D-
during the mid day of a typical hot, sunny Alberta afternoon, even "hen air temperatures in the
greenhouse are maintained belo" #A D- ,ruit temperatures over >? R- should be avoided
(*ortree 1996)
Figure 52. :unscald.
6ruit crac0s
&his condition is characteri(ed by the appearance of very fine, superficial cracks on the surface of
the pepper fruit "hich gives a rough te%ture to the fruit (*ortree 1996) &he development of these
cracks are associated "ith sudden changes in the gro"th rate of the individual fruit &he
appearance of fruit cracks can follo" periods of high relative humidity (over B?H), changes from
hot sunny "eather to cool cloudy "eather or vise versa (*ortree 1996)
/aintaining a consistent, optimized growing environment is the best way to
prevent the development of fruit cracks"
6ruit Splittin-
The deelopment of lar-e crac0s in the fruit is a direct response to hi-h root
pressure. 6actors that contribute to the deelopment of hi-h root
pressure directly impact fruit splittin- 7Portree '99F8. *nsure that
optimal 5P< tar-ets are met at all times. Ad=ust the timin- of the last
waterin- in the day so as not to water too late. *liminate any ni-ht
waterin- cycles.
6ruit Spots
The appearance of small whit dots below the surface of the pepper fruit is
associated with e/cess calcium leels in the fruit$ and the subse1uent
formation of calcium o/alate crystals 7Portree '99F8. Conditions that
promote hi-h root pressure will also faor the deelopment of fruit spots.
"isshapen 6ruit
&he development of misshapen fruit is generally associated "ith sub)optimal gro"ing conditions
at flo"ering and pollination "hich result in poor flo"er development or poor pollination Section
6>A discusses some of the common causes of misshapen fruit, "hich include the temperatures
being either too cool or too "arm 6nsuring that all environmental targets are met and maintained
"ill reduce or eliminate the development of misshapen fruit
Figure 53. 9;ings9 on pepper fruit due to low
temperatures during pollination.
Internal Growths in the 6ruit
The deelopment of -rowths within the pepper usually appear early in the
croppin- cycle$ -enerally on the 2rst fruit set 7Portree '99F8. This results
from abnormal tissue deelopment in the honey -land of the fruit
7Portree '99F8.
Appendi/ I
*Lect of Pesticides on Biolo-ical Control
A-entsC
&rade /ame -ommon /ame "ncarsia
3phidiu
s
Persimilis
Fallicis
Cucumeris
$ypoaspis
/

degenerans
)phidoletes 0rius
$armonia
9elphastus
Admiral= pyripro%ifen $(>?)/ 3 3 $(A) $(A)
Admire= imidacloprid $(#1)/ S S $(#1) $(#1)
Afugan pyra(ofos $(#1) S(@) $(1) $(#1) $(#1)
Agrimycin streptomycin S S S S S
Ambush= permethrin $(?6)/ $(?6) $(?6) $(?6) $(?6)
Ape% methoprene S S S S S
Applaud buprofe(in $(>) 3(@) S $(A) $(>)
Avid= abamectin $(#1)9 $(1C) $(1C) $(#1) $(1C)
A(atin a(adarachtin S S S S S
1)/ine damino(ide S S S S S
1aygon propo%ur $(6@)/ $(1C) $(C#) $ $
1asamid da(omet S S S S S
1enlate, S benomyl S $(1C) $(1C) S $
1otran 7-/A S S S S S
1ravo chlorothalonil 3(A) S 3 S S
-aptan captan S S S S S
-itation cyroma(ine S S S $ 3(A)
-ygon= dimethoate $(6@)/ $(6@) $(6@) $(1C) $
7aconil chlorothalonil S S 3 S S
77+* dichlorvos $(A) $(>) $(>) $(>) $(A)
7ecis= deltamethrin $(?6)/ $(?6) $(?6) $(?6) $(?6)
7erris rotenone $(C#)/ $ $ $(1C) $
7ia(inon= dia(inon $(C#)/ 3(A) $(#1) $(C#) 3
7ibrom , naled $(A) $(>) $(>) $(A) $(>)
7imilin difluben(uron S S S S S
7ipel 8acillus
Thuringiensis
3 S S 3 3
7ithane .aneb 3 S S 3 $
7ursban chlorpyrifos $(#B)/ $(>) $(1C) $(#B) $(#B)
7yno)mite pyridaben $(#9)/ $ $ $(#B) $(1C)
6nstar kinoprene 3 3 3 3 3
6psom salts .gS@C S S S S S
6%otherm chlorothalonil 3(A) S S S S
,i%ed
copper
copper 3(A) S S S S
,ormalan formaldehyde $ $ $ $ $
,ungaflor ima(alil S $(>) S $(>) S
!ardona= tetrachlorvin)
$phos $(?6) 3 $(C#) $(C#) $
3nsecticidal
$ soap
fatty acid salts
$(@) $(@) $(@) $(@) $(@)
3mpo"er= imidacloprid $(#1)/ S S $(#1) $(#1)
Marathane dinocap $(A) S 3 $(A) S
Melthane dicofol $(A) 3(1C) $(>@) $(C) 3
Mumulus sulphur $(#B)/ 3(A) 3(A) 3 3
2annate= methomyl $(CB)/ $(#1) $(C#) $(?6) $(?6)
2indane= lindane $(?6)/ $(C#) $(C#) $(?6) $
2orsban chlorpyrifos)
$methyl $(C#)/ $(A) $(C#) $(A) $
.alathion= malathion $(?6)/ 3(A) $(?6) 3(#@) $
.an(ate manco(eb 3 3 S S S
.altato% dodemorph 3(A) S 3(A) 3 3
.)Systo%)
9=
o%ydemeton
methyl $(?6)/ $(A) $ $ S
.icro)
/iasul
sulphur $(A) 3 3 3 3
.itac amitra( $(#1)/ $(#1) $(#1) $(1C) 3(#1)
.orestan o%ythiioquino% 3 $(1C) $(1C) 3 S
.onitor= methamidophos $(#B)/ $(?6) $(#@) $(#1) $(#1)
/icotine nicotine 3(A) $(A) $(A) $(3) $
/imrod bupirimate S 3(C) S S 3(@)
/ova mycobutanil S S S S 3
0il refined oils $(@) $(@) $(@) $(@) $(@)
0mite propargite 3(A) $ 3 3
0rthene= acephate $(?6)/ $(1C) $(?6) $(?6) $(C#)
*aration ,= parathion $(?6)/ 3(?) $(C#) $(?6) $
*hosdrin mevinphos $(A) 3(A) $(A) $(A) $
*irliss pirimicarb 3(A) 3 3 $(A) 3(>)
*lantfune
1@>=
sulfotep $(A@)/ $(A@) $(A@) $(A@) $
*yrethrum pyrethrins $(A) $(A) $(A) $(A) 3
9idomil metala%yl S 3 3 S S
9ovral iprodione S S S S S
9ubigan fenarimol S S S S S
Sevin= carbaryl $(#B)/ $(1C) $(>@) $(>@) $
Sulfur , sulphur $(#B)/ S 3(A) 3 3
Sulfur sulphur 3 3(A) 3(A) 3 S
&emik= aldicarb $(C9)/ $(#1) $(#1) $(C9) $
&hiodan endosulfan $(C) $(1C) $(C) $(1C) $
&hiram thiram 3(1C) 3(#) 3(#) 3(#) 3
&rumpet bendiocarb $(#1)/ $(#1) $(#1) $(#1) $
&rounce fatty acids E
pyrethrin
3(A) 3 3 3(A) 3(A)
+ende% fenbutatino%ide S 3 S S S
+ydate= o%amyl $(?6)/ $(?6) $(?6) $(?6) $(?6)
<ineb (ineb S S S 3 3
1" .(:! S harmful for Y days, ' S intermediate, some survival and
reproduction, low residual e>ect, 1 S safe or negligible e>ect, U S no data,
presume toxic"
8" %pplications are all foliar sprays unless indicated as = S fumigant, =1 S
@oor spray, or G2 S drench"
:" 1pray will a>ect foliage$inhibiting Cucumeris more than the soil dwelling
4ypoaspis"
6" 0 S 0ot normally compatible with bees and biologicals" -ontact your
supplier before using"
C" R S Go not use even for cleanup as residues may harm biological control
agents for 18T months as it may be absorbed in greenhouse poly or plastic
coverings and insulation"
R2eprinted with permission from Gon Flliot, %pplied *io$0omics <td"
Appendi/ II
Plant nutrient de2ciency symptoms
/itrogen *lant light green "ith lo"er leaves yello"ing, slo" gro"ing
*hosphorus *lant dark green, developing a purplish color, slo" gro"ing, stunted
*otassium -hlorosis developing at leaf tips, moving do"n the edges of the leaves and bet"een
the veins, symptoms developing on lo"er leaves first
.agnesium 3nterveinal chlorosis beginning on older leaves, chlorotic patches developing to be
fairly large, @? ) @A? mm in diameter -an also develop a reddish)purple hue at the
margins of the chlorotic spots
-alcium 7eficiencies occur at gro"ing points, young developing leaves at the terminal buds
develop a ;hooked; appearance at the tips, later leading to bro"ning (tip burn) and
die)back 3ncreased severe blossom end rot (169) of fruit
Sulfur *lants light green in color over entire plant, symptoms can be confused "ith
nitrogen deficiency /itrogen deficiency initially affects the older leaves first
3ron 3nterveinal chlorosis of young leaves, veins remain green giving a finely netted
appearance to the leaves 3nterveinal chlorosis "ill eventually spread to the older
leaves
.anganese 3nterveinal chlorosis of young leaves .anganese deficiency is difficult to
distinguish from iron deficiency based on visual symptoms
-opper Ooung leaves permanently "ilted, unable to stand erect 6ventually the gro"ing
point bro"ns and dies
<inc 3nterveinal chlorosis of ne" leaves that produces a ;banding; appearance As the
condition progresses the ne" internodes shorten producing a rosette appearance at
the tops of the plants
.olybdenum 7eficiency symptoms resemble nitrogen deficiency symptoms, older and middle
leaves become chlorotic first .argins of the leaves can develop a curled
appearance, formation of flo"ers is restricted
1oron Abnormal development of gro"ing points, eventually becoming stunted and die
-hlorine -hlorosis of younger leaves and "ilting of the plant and overall "ilting of the plant
Biblio-raphy
Abou'&adid4 A2024 M2D El'Shinawy4 A2S2 El'eltagy4 and S2E2 urrage2 199# 9elation
bet"een "ater use efficiency of s"eet pepper gro"n under nutrient film technique and rock"ool
under protected cultivation )cta $orticulturae >#>:B9)9?
Adams$ P. and L.C. +o. 1C" Gi>erential e>ects of salinity and humidity on
growth and -a status of tomato and cucumber grown in hydroponic culture"
3cta 4orticulturae 6;1P:C3$:9:"
Adams$ P. and R. +older. 18" F>ects of humidity, -a and salinity on the
accumulation of dry matter and -a by the leaves and fruit of tomato
("ycopersicon esculentum!" <ournal of 4orticultural :cience 93(1!1:3$168"
Anonymous. 13:" (rowelectric .andbook 8# <ighting in greenhouses" The
Flectricity -ouncil" <ondon Fngland"
Ba00er$ J.C. 14" The e>ects of temperature on @owering, fruit set and fruit
development of glasshouse sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum ".!" <ournal of
4orticultural :cience 96(:!P:1:$:8;"
Benoit$ 6. and ,. Ceustermans. 16" (rowing pepper on ecologically
sound substrates" 3cta 4orticulturae :91P193$134"
Ber0elmann$ B.$ D. Dohan0a and G.A. Dolf. 16" -haracterization of
the bacterial @ora in circulating nutrient solutions of a hydroponic system
with rockwool" 3cta 4orticulturae :91P:38$:41"
Blom$ T.J. 14" %ir pollution in greenhouses" =egulatory 4orticulture 86P1$C"
Blom$ T.J.$ D. Brown$ and J. +u-hes. 11" (reenhouses" +ntario /inistry
of %griculture and =ood" 5ublication 6;"
Boi0ess$ R.S. and *. *delson. 141" -hemical 5rinciples 8nd Fdition"
.arper N 2ow 5ublishers, 0ew Lork"
Boiin$ C.$ A. Gosselin$ and ". J. Trudel. 143" F>ect of supplementary
lighting on transplant growth and yield of greenhouse tomato" 4ort:cience
88(9!P1899$1894"
Bru--er$ ".6.$ T.+. Short and D.L. Bauerle. 143" %n evaluation of
horizontal air @ow in six commercial greenhouses" 3merican :ociety of
3gricultural $ngineers 143 summer meeting presentation number :3$6;8;"
Butt$ J. 1:" *edding 5lant 5roduction 7orkshop /anual" -rop
Giversifcation -entre 1outh 5ublication"
California 6ertili)er Association, 13C" 7estern =ertilizer .andbook Cth
edition" the 'nterstate 5rinters N 5ublishers, 'nc" Ganvill, 'llinois"
Calpas$ J. T. 14" =irst confrmed report of pepper mild mottle virus in
%lberta" (reenhouse Co%erings 4 (6!P1$8"
Cer0aus0as$ R.6.$ J. Brown$ G. 6er-uson and S. Ihosla. =irst report of
powdery mildew of greenhouse pepper caused by <eveillula taurica in
-anada (abstract!" 5lant 6isease 4:P341"
Chan-$ J. 19" 1creening greenhouse vents for insect pest control" %lberta
%griculture, =ood and 2ural Gevelopment Fngineering 1ervices 5ublication"
<e Ionin-, %"0"/" 14" Gevelopment and growth of a commercially grown
tomato crop" 3cta 4orticulturae 89;P893$83;"
<e Ionin-, %"0"/" 19" Juantifying the responses to temperature of
di>erent plant precesses involved in growth and development of glasshouse
tomato" 3cta 4orticulturae 6;9P$1;6"
<emers$ <.A.$ J. Charbonneau$ J. and A Gosselin. 11" F>ects of
supplementary lighting on the growth and productivity of greenhouse sweet
pepper" Can <. 5lant. :ci. 31PC43$C6"
<emers$ <.A.$ and A. Gosselin. 14" F>ects of supplemental light
duration on greenhouse sweet pepper plants and fruit yields" <. 3mer. :oc
4ort. :ci. 18:(8!P8;8$8;3"
*siyo0$ <.$ *. ())amba0 and B. *ser. 16" The e>ects of stem pruning
on the yield and earliness of greenhouse peppers (Capsicum annum ".
grossum c%. Eandil and 11*$16!" 3cta 4orticulturae :99P8:$:;;"
6ierro$ A.$ ,. Tremblay and A. Gosselin. 16" 1upplemental carbon
dioxide and light improved tomato and pepper seedling growth and yield"
4ort:cience 8(:!P1C8$1C6"
6ric0e$ A. and +. Iru-. 13" 'n@uence of humidifcation and
dehumidifcation on greenhouse climate as well as water relations and
productivity of cucumber ''" 'n@uences on plants" (artenbauwissenshaft
98(9!P861$864"
(agne- :.". 6ehbi- 6. "e >uere- F. Cayer- <.". 0orin- =. "emay and N. Fournier.
1:" 'ncrease of greenhouse tomato fruit yields by plant growth promoting
rhizobacteria (5(52! inoculated into the peat$based growing media" :oil Biol.
Biochem. 8C(8!P89$838"
Gauthier$ L. 18" (ZP % small talk$based platform for greenhouse
environmental control" 5art '" /odeling and managing the physical system"
*ransactions of the 3:3$ :C(9!P8;;:$8;;"
Gauthier$ L. 18" (ZP % small talk$based platform for greenhouse
environmental control" 5art ''" 1upporting and implementing control
strategies" *ransactions of the 3:3$ :C(9!P8;11$8;8;"
Girardin$ P.$ C. Boc0staller$ and +. 5an der Derf. 1" 'ndicatorsP Tools
to evaluate the environmental impacts of farming systems" <ournal of
:ustainable 3griculture 1:(6!PC$81"
Gul$ A. and A. Seican. 18" F>ect of growing media on glasshouse
tomato yield and )uality" 3cta 4orticulturae :;:P16C$1C;"
+and$ <.D.$ J.D. Dilson and ".A. +annah. 1:" <ight interception by a
row crop of glasshouse peppers" <ournal of 4orticultural :cience 94P 9C$3;:"
+ansen$ C.D. and J. Lynch. 14" 2esponse to phosphorus availability
during vegetative and reproductive growth of chrysanthemumP ''" *iomass
and phosphorus dynamics" <. 3mer. :oc. 4ort. :ci. 18:(8!P88:$88"
+ansen$ C. D.$ J. Lynch and C. (. (ttosen. 14" 2esponse to
phosphorus availability during vegetative and reproductive growth of
chrysanthemumP '" 7hole$plant carbon dioxide exchange" <. 3mer. :oc. 4ort.
:ci. 1:8 (8!P81C$888"
+ard-roe$ ". R. 18" 2ecirculation systems for greenhouse vegetables"
3cta 4orticulturae :;:P4C$8"
+orbowic)$ "$ and A. Stepows0a. 1C" F>ect of growing conditions at
greenhouse on vitamin F content in sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum ".!
fruits" 3cta 3grobotanica 64P91$93"
+oward$ R.J.$ J.A. Garland and D.L. Seaman. 16" Giseases and pests
of vegetable crops in -anada" The -anadian 5hytopathological 1ociety and
the Fntomological 1ociety of -anada"
Jaris$ D.R. 18" /anaging Giseases in (reenhouse -rops" %51 5ress, 1t"
5aul, /innesota"
Jespersen$ L. ". and J. Dillumsen. 1:" 5roduction of compost in a heat
composting plant and test of compost mixtures as a growing media for
greenhouse cultures" 3cta 4orticulturae :68P183$168"
Jolliet$ (.$ B.J. Bailey$ <.J. +and$ and I. Coc0shull. 1:" Tomato yield in
greenhouses related to humidity and transpiration" 3cta 4orticulturae
:84P11C$186"
Jones$ J.B. Jr., 14" 5lant 0utrition /anual" -2- 5ress, 0ew Lork"
Jones$ J.D.$ *. <ayan$ P. Jones$ O +wan-$ and B. Jacobson. 144"
/odeling tomato growth for greenhouse environment control" 3merican
:ociety of 3gricultural $ngineers Gecember 144 winter meeting
presentation number 44$3C;1"
Jones$ J.D.$ *. <ayan$ +. 5an Ieulan$ and +. Challa. 14" /odeling
tomato growth for optimizing greenhouse temperatures and carbon dioxide
concentrations" 3cta 4orticulturae 864P 84C$86"
Jones$ J.D.$ *. <ayan$ L. +. Allen$ +. 5an Ieulen$ +. Challa. 11" %
dynamic tomato growth and yield model (T+/(2+!" *ransactions of the
3:3$ :6(8!P99:$938"
Ihah$ *.". and +.C. Passam. 18" =lowering, fruit set and development
of the fruit and seed of sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum ".! cultivated under
conditions of high ambient temperature" <ournal of 4orticultural :cience
93(8!8C1$8C4"
Ihosla$ S. 1" 'n B(reenhouse Aegetable Fxperts Giscuss the =uture of the
'ndustryB, Tomato /agazine, %ugust, 1" Lakima 7ashington"
Ioppert Biolo-ical Systems 1 B*io$5lusB Technical 'nformation *ulletin
Lan-e$ <. and +.J. Tantau. 19" -limate management for disease control
investigations on control strategies, plant densities and irrigation systems"
3cta 4orticulturae 6;9P1;C$11:"
LI>C(R Inc. 2adiation /easurement $ <' -+2 Technical *ulletin"
Lin$ D.C.$ J.D. +all$ and ".*. Salteit Jr. 1:" 2ipening stage a>ects the
chilling sensitivity of greenhouse$grown peppers" <. 3mer. :oc. 4ort. :ci.
114(9!P31$3C"
Lin$ D.C. and G.S. Bloc0. 13" Getermination of water vapor in a small air
sample by a non$dispersive infrared gas analyzer" 4ort:cience :8(8!P834$841"
Lon-uenesse$ J.J.$ and C. Leonardi. 16" 1ome ecophysiological
indicators of salt stress in greenhouse tomato plants" 3cta 4orticulturae
::9P691$693"
"anri1ue$ L.". 1:" (reenhouse cropsP % review" <ournal of 5lant Nutrition
19(18!P8611$8633"
"aree$ P. C. J. 16" Ising bio$degradable material as a growing media in
hydroponics in the republic of 1outh %frica" 3cta 4orticulturae :91P161$1C;"
"cGrady$ J.J.$ and <.J. Cotter. 14" =resh conifer bark reduces root$knot
nematode galling of greenhouse tomatoes" 4ort:cience 86(9!P3:$3C"
"c"urtry$ ".R.$ <.C. Sanders$ P.5. ,elson$ and A. ,ash. 1:" /ineral
nutrient concentration and uptake by tomato irrigated with recirculating
a)uaculture water as in@uenced by )uantity of fsh waste products supplied"
<ournal of 5lant Nutrition 19(:!P6;3$61"
"orard$ P.$ A. Pu=os$ A. Bernadac$ and G. Bertoni. 19" F>ect of
temporary calcium defciency on tomato growth and mineral nutrition"
<ournal of Plant Nutrition '97'8H''G>'%#.
"ohyuddin$ ". '99&. (reenhouse Aegetable 5roduction (uide 1;$1"
%lberta %griculture 5ublication" %(GFZ 8C;K1C $ 1"
"ir)a$ ". and ". Oounus. 1C" 5lant 0utrition and =ertilizer /anagement"
%lberta Tree 0ursery and .orticulture -entre 5ublication YC$(18"
,ederhoL$ *.".$ A.A. Ri=sdi=0 and R. de Graaf. 18" <eaf conductance
and rate of crop transpiration of greenhouse grown sweet pepper (Capsicum
annuum ".! as a>ected by carbon dioxide" :cientia 4orticulturae C8P84:$:;1"
,ederhoL$ *.".$ A.,. ". <e Ionon- and A.A. Ri=sdi=0. 18" <eaf
deformation and fruit production of glasshouse grown tomato ("ycopersicon
esculentum /ill"! as a>ected by -+8, plant density and pruning" Journal of
4orticulture :cience 93(:!P611$68;"
,ederhoL$ *.". 16" F>ects of -+8 concentration on photosynthesis,
transpiration and production of greenhouse fruit vegetable crops" Iniversity
of 7ageningen, The 0etherlands"
,ederhoL$ *. ". and J. G. 5e-ter. 16" -anopy photosynthesis of
tomato, cucumber and sweet pepper in greenhousesP measurements
compared to models" 3nnals of Botany 3:P pp 618 $ 683"
,-$ I. and T. an der Gulic0, 1" *io$1and =iltration" *ritish -olumbia
/inistry of %griculture and =ood =actsheet $;1"
Padem +. and R. Alan. 16" The e>ects of some substrates on yield and
chemical composition of pepper under greenhouse conditions" 3cta
4orticulturae :99P 66C $ 6C1"
Papada0is$ G.$ A. 6ran-ouda0is$ and S. Iyritsis. 16" Fxperimental
investigation and modelling of heat and mass transfer between a tomato
crop and the greenhouse environment" <. 3gric. $ngng =es. C3P813$883"
Papadopoulos$ A.P.$ and S. Parara=asin-ham. 13" The in@uence of
plant spacing on light interception and use in greenhouse tomato
("ycopersicon esculentum /ill"!P % review" :cientia 4orticulturae 9P1$83"
Pfadt$ R.*. ed. 134" =undamentals of %pplied Fntomology :rd edition"
/acmillan 5ublishing -o", 'nc" 0ew Lork"
Portree$ J. 19" (reenhouse vegetable production guide for commercial
growers" 5rovince of *ritish -olumbia /inistry of %griculture, =isheries and
=ood"
Pressman$ *.$ +. "osh0oitch$ I. Rosenfeld$ R. Sha0ed$ B. Gamliel
and B. Aloni. 14" 'n@uence of low night temperatures on sweet pepper
@ower )uality and the e>ect of repeated pollinations, with viable pollen, on
fruit setting" <ournal of 4orticultural :cience ? Biotechnology 3:(1!1:1$1:9"
Pulupol$ L.;.$ ".+. Behboudian$ and I.J. 6isher. 19" (rowth, yield and
postharvest attributes produced under defcit irrigation" 4ort:cience
:1(9!P89$8"
Ri=0di=0$ A.A. and G. +outer. 1:" Aalidation of a model for energy
consumption, -+8consumption and crop production (F-5$model!" 3cta
4orticulturae :84P18C$1:1"
Rodo$ 5.$ S. Ben>Oehoshua$ T. 6ierman and <. 6an-. 1C" /odifed$
humidity packaging reduces decay of harvested red bell pepper fruit"
4ort:cience :;(8!P8$:;8"
Romero>Aranda$ R. and J.J. Lon-uenesse. 1C" /odelling the e>ect of
air vapour pressure defcit on leaf photosynthesis of greenhouse tomatoesP
The importance of leaf conductance to -+8" <ournal of 4orticultural :cience
3;(:!P68:$6:8"
Salisbury$ 6.B.$ and C.D. Ross. 134" 5lant 5hysiology 8nd edition"
7adsworth 5ublishing -ompany, 'nc" *elmont -alifornia"
Saa-e$ Adam J. 19" 5lanning a proftable hydroponic greenhouse
businessKby %dam J" 1avage" 1st ed" 1ark, -hannel 'slands, I"E" 1overeign
Iniversity 5ub" .ouse"
Schon$ ".I. 1:" F>ects of foliar antitranspirant or calcium nitrate
applications on yield and blossom$end rot occurrence in greenhouse$grown
peppers" <ournal of 5lant Nutrition 19(9!P11:3$116"
Se-iner$ I. and R.D. "cClendon. 18" /ethods for optimal control of the
greenhouse environment" *ransactions of the 3:3$ :C(6!18$1:;3"
Se-iner$ I. 19" +ptimal control of the greenhouse environmentP an
overview" 3cta 4orticulturae 6;9P11$8;1"
Se-iner$ I.$ O. +wan-$ T. Boulard$ J.D. Jones. 19" /imicking an expert
greenhouse grower with a neural$net policy" *ransactions of the 3:3$
:(1!P8$:;9"
Shina$ G. and I. Se-iner. 14" +ptimal management of tomato growth in
greenhouses" 3cta 4orticulturae 864P:;3$:1:"
Simon$ L.$ T.J. Smalley$ J. Benton Jones Jr.$ and 6.T. Lassei-ne. 16"
%luminum toxicity in tomato" 5art 1" (rowth and mineral nutrition" <ournal of
5lant Nutrition 13(8N:!P8:$:;9"
Simon$ L.$ ". Iie-er$ S.S. Sun-$ and T. J. Smalley. 16" %luminum
toxicity in tomato" 5art 8" <eaf gas exchange, chlorophyll content, and
invertase activity" <ournal of 5lant Nutrition 13(8N:!P:;3$:13"
Slac0$ G.$ J.S. 6enlon and <.D. +and. 144" The e>ects of summer -+8
enrichment and ventilation temperatures on the yield, )uality and value of
glasshouse tomatoes" <ournal of 4orticultural :cience 9:(1!P11$18"
Stan-hellini$ C.$ D.Th.". 5an "eurs. 18" Fnvironmental control of
greenhouse crop transpiration" <. 3gric. $ngng =es. C1P83$:11"
Styer$ R.C. and <.S. Iorans0i. 13" 5lug and transplant production, a
grower&s guide" *all 5ublishing, *atavia, 'llinois" I1%"
Tilley$ <.*. 13" -ontemporary -ollege 5hysics" *en,aminK-ummings
5ublishing -ompany" /enlo 5ark, -alifornia"
Tootil$ *. and S. Blac0more. 146" The =acts on =ile Gictionary of *otany"
/arket .ouse *ooks <td" %ylesbury, I" E"
Tremblay$ ,. and A. Gosselin. 14" F>ect of carbon dioxide enrichment
and light" 4ort*echnology 4(6!PC86$C84"
5an "eurs$ D.Th.".$ and C. Stan-hellini. 18" Fnvironmental control of
a tomato crop using a transpiration model" 3cta 4orticulturae :;:P8:$:;"
Deiler$ T.C. and ". Sailus. 19" 7ater and nutrient management for
greenhouses" 0ortheast 2egional %gricultural Fngineering 1ervice
-ooperative Fxtension" 'thaca, 0ew Lork, I1%"
Dhaley>*mmons$ C.L.$ and J.D. Scott. 13" Fnvironmental and
physiological e>ects on cuticle cracking in tomato" <. 3mer. :oc. 4ort. :ci.
188(9!P33$4;1"
Dilson$ C.L.$ and D.*. Loomis. 193" *otany 6th edition" .olt, 2inehart
and 7inston" 0ew Lork, I1%"
Dilson$ J.D.$ <.D. +and and ".A. +annah. 18" <ight interception and
photosynthetic e?ciency in some glasshouse crops" <ournal of $&perimental
Botany 6:(864!P:9:$:3:"
Dittwer$ S.+. and S. +onma. 13" (reenhouse tomatoes, lettuce and
cucumbers" /ichigan 1tate Iniversity 5ress" Fast <ansing, I1%"
Dolfe$ *.D.$ <.T. Topoles0i$ ,.A. Gundersheim and B.A. In-all. 1C"
(rowth and yield sensitivity of four vegetable crops to soil compaction" <.
3mer. :oc. 4ort. :ci. 18;(9!PC9$9:"
Aabri$ A.D.$ and S.D. Burra-e. 13" The e>ects of vapour pressure
defcit (A5G! and enrichment with -+8 on water relations, photosynthesis,
stomatal conductance and plant growth of sweet pepper (Capsicum annum
<"! grown by 0=T" 3cta 4orticulturae 66(8!PC91$C93"
Ae00i$ +.$ L. Gauthier and A. Gosselin. 19" (rowth, productivity, and
mineral composition of hydroponically cultivated greenhouse tomatoes, with
or without nutrient solution recycling" <. 3mer. :oc. 4ort. :ci. 181(9!P1;48$
1;44"
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