Objectives: To understand the process of runoff

To know how to measure streamflow

Runoff
Runoff process
Runoff means the draining or flowing off of precipitation from a catchment area
through a surface channel. It thus represents the output from the catchment in a given unit
of time.
Consider a catchment area receiving precipitation. For a given precipitation, the
evapotranspiration, initial loss, infiltration and detention storage requirements will have
to first satisfy before the commencement of runoff. When these are satisfied, the excess
precipitation moves over the land surfaces to reach smaller channels. his portion of the
runoff is called overland flow and involves building up of a storage over the surface and
draining off of the same. Flows from several small channels !oin bigger channels and
flows from these in turn combine to form a larger stream, and so on, till the flow reaches
the catchment outlet. he flow in this mode where it travels all the time over the surface
as overland flow and through the channel as open channel flow and reaches the
catchment outlet is called surface runoff.
Fig. " #ifferent routes of runoff
$ part of the precipitation that infilters moves laterally through upper crusts of the
soil and returns to the surface at some location away from the point of entry into the soil.
his component of runoff is %nown variously as interflow, throughflow, storm seepage,
subsurface storm flow or quick return flow &Fig. "'. #epending upon the time delay
between the infiltration and the outflow, the interflow is sometimes classified into prompt
interflow, i.e. the interflow with the least time lag and delayed interflow.
$nother route for the infiltered water is to undergo deep percolation and reach the
groundwater storage in the soil. he groundwater follows a complicated and long path of
travel and ultimately reaches the surface. he time lag, i.e. the difference in time between
the entry into the soil and outflows from it is very large, being the order of months and
years. his part of runoff is called groundwater runoff or groundwater flow.
(roundwater flow provides the dry)weather flow in perennial streams.
*ased on the time delay between the precipitation and runoff, the runoff is
classified into two categories+ as
". #irect runoff, and
,. base flow.
#irect runoff
It is that part of runoff which enters the stream immediately after the precipitation.
It includes surface runoff, prompt interflow and precipitation on the channel surface.
*ase flow
he delayed flow that reaches a stream essentially as groundwater flow is called
base flow.
-treamflow measurement
-treamflow is generally measured by observing stage, or elevation above a
specified datum, in a channel and then relating stage to discharge via a rating curve. $
staff gage is a fixed scale set so that a portion is immerses in water and can be read
manually during storm passage.
-election of a site for gaging must include consideration of access, channel
controls where flow rate and depth are related, and seasonal changes in vegetation.
.nce a station has been established, a rating curve must be developed between
stage and discharge by actually measuring velocity in the channel at a number of different
stages, usually with a current meter &see Fig. /'. he current meter is suspended from a
bridge or held by a rod in shallow water and records velocity according to the rotation
speed of the propeller. 0elocity measurements can also be made using electromagnetic
sensing, which is based on an altered magnetic field due to flowing water. he
recommended procedure for determining mean velocity is to ta%e measures at 1., # and
1.2 #, where # is a stream depth, and the average the two values. For shallow water less
than , ft in depth, a single reading at 1.3 # is acceptable.
Fig./ 0ertical)axis current meter
he total discharge is found by dividing the channel into several sections, as
shown in Fig. 4. he average velocity of each section is multiplied by its associated area
&width x depth of section', and these are summed across the channel to yield total
discharge 5 corresponding to a particular stage 6, obtaining one point on the graph of
rating curve. .ther points are obtained by measuring velocity at different stages in the
stream.
Fig. 4 -tream section for area)velocity method

-treamflow

$ stream can be defined as a flow channel into which the surface runoff from a
specific basin drains. -treamflow is measured in units of discharge &m
7
8s' occurring at a
specified time and constitutes historical data.
-treamflow measurement techniques can be classified into two categories as &i'
direct determination and &ii' indirect determination.
". #irect determination of stream discharge9
&a' $rea)velocity method
&b' #ilution techniques
&c' :lectromagnetic ,ethod, and
&d' ;ltrasonic method.
,. Indirect determination of stream flow9
&a' <ydraulic structure, such as weirs, flumes and gated structures, and
&b' -lope)area method.
$rea 0elocity method
his method of discharge measurement consists essentially of measuring the area
of cross)section of the river at a selected section called the gauging site and measuring
the velocity of flow through the cross)sectional area.
he procedure is explained as follows9
Method for computing stream discharge.
Measured at least 25 verticals across the stream.
=ethods diagram
Calculation of discharge
Fig. 4 shows the cross section of a river in which >)" verticals are drawn. he
velocity averaged over the vertical at each section is %nown. Considering the total area to
be divided into >)" segments, the total discharge is calculated by the method of mid)
sections as follow9

=
=
"
"
N
i
i
Q Q
where 5i ? discharge in the i
th
segment
? depth at the ith segment x &"8, width to the left @ A width to the right' x
&average velocity at the ith vertical'
? yi x&Wi8, @ Wi@"8,' x 0i for i ? , to &>),'
0i ? a @ b>
a, b ? current meter coefficient
> ? number of revolution

0elocity distribution in a stream channel
Average velocity is 0.6 below surface of water.
Slower velocity on channel edges (friction).
Faster velocity at surface of water in center of channel.
=ethods diagram

-tage)discharge diagram

Develop a stage discharge relationship for a gaging station.
Therefore, one can get discharge from knowing river stage.
Relationship is dependent on the irregular geometry of the
channel.

Sample worksheet for calculating stream discharge
VELOCITY
Dist.
from
initial
point

Width

Depth
Observ-
ation
depth
Revolut-
ions
Time
in sec-
onds
At
point
Mean in
vertical

Area

Dis-
charge
6 1.5 0
9 3 .40 .6 10 40 .565 1.20 .68
12 3 .48 .6 15 50 .674 1.44 .97
15 3 .72 .6 7 42 .383 2.16 .83
18 3 .78 .6 7 40 .401 2.34 .94
21 2.5 .86 .6 15 40 .837 2.15 1.80
23 2 .96 .6 25 50 1.11 1.92 2.13
25 2 1.00 .6 20 41 1.08 2.00 2.16
27 1.75 1.08 .6 20 43 1.03 1.89 1.95
28.5 1.5 1.18 .6 15 46 .731 1.77 1.29
30 1.5 1.24 .6 30 45 1.47 1.86 2.73
31.5 1.5 1.34 .6 20 52 .858 2.01 1.72
33 1.5 1.48 .6 25 45 1.23 2.22 2.73
34.5 1.5 1.58 .6 25 45 1.23 2.37 2.92
36 1.5 1.50 .6 25 42 1.32 2.25 2.97
37.5 1.5 1.48 .6 25 40 1.38 2.22 3.06
39 1.5 1.50 .6 25 43 1.29 2.25 2.90
40.5 1.5 1.60 .6 20 50 .892 2.40 2.14
42 1.5 1.24 .6 25 41 1.35 1.86 2.51
43.5 1.5 1.30 .6 20 53 .843 1.95 1.64
45 1.5 1.20 .6 20 51 .875 1.80 1.58
46.5 1.5 1.00 .6 20 56 .799 1.50 1.20
48 1.75 .96 .6 20 58 .772 1.68 1.30
50 2.5 .40 .6 15 47 .716 1.00 .72
53 1.5 0
--- ---
--- --- 44.24 42.87
47 47

Width of -ections9

he width at the first section &station 3' is equal to "8, the distance between the first
observation point &station 3' and the second observation point &station B'
.

he width of the second section &station B' is equal to "8, the distance between the
preceding observation point &station 3' and the succeeding observation point &station ",'
. his method is used up to the final section.

he width of the last section &station 47' is equal to "8, the distance between the last
observation point &station 47' and the preceding observation point &station 41'
.

he sum of widths in column , should be equal to the width of the stream.