CIVE1129 Revision 2013 Part 2

Earth Pressures and Retaining Walls
Muni Budhu - Soil Mechanics and Foundations

2
nd
edition
Dr Jie Li
School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering
RMIT University ()
Melbourne, Australia
CIVE1129 Geotechnical Engineering 2
Revision Part 2
Importantly, at K
0
state, there are no lateral strains
GL
A
o
v
= o
1
o
h
= o
3
Lateral Earth Pressure At Rest

Soil is usually deposited in the horizontal layers and consolidation
occurs solely in the vertical direction with no lateral deformation. Such
a soil mass is said to be in the at-rest condition. The ratio between the
horizontal and vertical effective stresses is a constant known as the K
o
coefficient.
' ' '
3
' ' '
1
h x
o
v z
K
o o o
o o o
= = =
In a homogeneous
natural soil deposit
Lateral Earth Pressure
Coefficient at Rest:
smooth wall
Wall moves
away from soil
Wall moves
towards soil
A
B
Lets look at the soil elements A and B during the wall
movement.
Active Earth Pressure in granular soils
A
o
z
o
x
z
As the wall moves away from the soil,
Initially, there is no lateral movement.
o
z
= o
v
= z
o
x
= o
h
= K
0
o
z
= K
0
z
o
z
remains the same; and
o
x
decreases till failure occurs.
Active state
t
o o
z
decreasing o
x
Initially (K
0
state)
Failure (Active state)
active earth pressure
A
o
z
o
x
z
WJM Rankine
(1820-1872)
' '
( )
x z
a a
K o o =
Rankines coefficient of active earth pressure
Can be derived from Geometry of Mohrs circles
2
1 sin
tan (45 / 2)
1 sin
a
K
|
|
|
= =
+
o
z
(o
x
)
a
t
o
|
A
o
z
o
x
45 + |/2
90+|
Failure plane is at
45 + |/2 to horizontal
' '
( )
x z
a a
K o o =
A
o
z
o
x
z
o
x
decreases until failure occurs.
wall movement
o
x
Active
state
K
0
state
o
1
and o
3
Relation at Failure
1 3
' ' 2
tan (45 '/ 2) 2 ' tan(45 '/ 2) c o o | | = + + +
3 1
' ' 2
tan (45 '/ 2) 2 ' tan(45 '/ 2) c o o | | =
1 3
1 3
OF
2
sin
OA
cot '
2
c
o o
o o
|
' '
'
= =
' '
+
'
+
The failure criterion can also be expressed in terms of principal stresses
o
t
3
o
'
1
o
'
|
'
u 2
u
O
F
|
'
A
c
1 3
2
o o
' '
+
1 3
2
o o
' '
ccot |
' ' tan '
f
c t o | = +
u = 45
o
+ |/2
o
t
|
'
z
o
'
x
o
'
2
45
|
'
+
active wedge
Active Earth Pressure
2
3 1
tan (45 '/ 2) o o |
' '
=
2
x z z
tan (45 )
2
a
K
o o o
'
' ' '
= =
2
'
tan (45 )
2
a
K
|
=
Rankine Theory of Earth Pressure in Sand
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion:
For sand, c=0. This leads to:
effective active earth pressure
Coefficient of active earth pressure
3 1
' ' 2
tan (45 '/ 2) 2 ' tan(45 '/ 2) c o o | | =
B
o
z
o
x
Initially, soil is in K
0
state.
As the wall moves towards the soil,
o
z
remains the same, and
o
x
increases until failure occurs.
Passive state
Passive Earth Pressure in granular soils
t
o o
z
Initially (K
0
state)
Failure (passive state)
increasing o
x
passive earth
pressure
( ') '
x p P z
K o o =
Rankines coefficient of
passive earth pressure
B
o
z
o
x
Again, from Geometry of Mohrs circles

o
z
(o
x
)
p
t
o
|
A
o
z
o
x
90+
Failure plane is at
45 - |/2 to horizontal
45 - |/2
) 2 / 45 ( tan
sin 1
sin 1
2
|
|
|
+ =
+
=
P
K
( ') '
x p P z
K o o =
B
o
z
o
x

o
x
increases till failure occurs.
wall movement
o
x
K
0
state
Passive state
1 3
' ' 2
tan (45 '/ 2) o o | = +
o
t
|
'
z
o
'
x
o
'
2
x z z
tan (45 '/ 2)
p
K o o | o
' ' '
= + =
2
tan (45 '/ 2)
p
K | = +
2
45
|
'
passive wedge
Passive Earth Pressure
For sand, c=0. This leads to:
1 3
' ' 2
tan (45 '/ 2) 2 ' tan(45 '/ 2) c o o | | = + + +
Coefficient of passive earth pressure
effective passive earth pressure
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
' '
1 3
' '
1 3
' ' ' '
1 3 1 3
2
sin '
2
f f
f f
f f f f
OB
OA
o o
o o
|
o o o o
= = =
+ +
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
( )
( )
'
1
2
'
3
1 sin ' '
tan 45
1 sin ' 2
f
p
f
k
o
| |
|
o
+
| |
= = + =
|
\ .
( )
( )
'
3
2
'
1
1 sin ' '
tan 45
1 sin ' 2
f
a
f
k
o
| |
|
o

| |
= = =
|
+
\ .
k
p
= passive earth pressure coefficient
k
a
= active earth pressure coefficient
1 3
(1 sin ) (1 sin ) o | o | = +
Normal stress
Shear stress
o'
zo
Active state
Passive state
The 3 States:
At Rest
o
t
x
o
'
z
o
'
x
o
'
z
o
'
At-Rest
|
'
x
o
'
z
o
'
Active pressure
o
t
x
o
'
z
o
'
|
'
t
z
o
'
x
o
'
x
o
'
z
o
'
Passive pressure
|
'
From the at-rest
condition and with the
vertical effective stress
kept constant, the soil
can fail in two ways.
First, the horizontal
effective stress may
decrease when the soil
is allowed to have
lateral extension. This
creates the active earth
pressure.
Second, the horizontal
stress may increase
when the soil is
compressed laterally.
This creates the passive
earth pressure.
2
a x z a
1
2
a a a
P dz K dz z K dz K H o o
' ' ' ' '
= = = =
} } }
2
p x z p
1
2
p p p
P dz K dz z K dz K H o o
' ' ' ' '
= = = =
} } }
x
o
'
a
P
'
p
P
'
x
o
'
P
A
and P
P
are the resultant active
and passive thrusts on the wall
H
a
H
p
Active thrust:
Passive thrust:
K
a
H
a
K
p
H
p
H v
o
'
u
a
P
'
h
For the case shown above:
z
( )
z z h
h z h z h
o

s
'
=

'
+ >
) (
w
h z u =
a x
0 0
2
( ( ))
1 1
( ) (2 ( ))
2 2
H h H
a a
h
a a
P dz z K dz h z h K dz
K h K H h h H h
o

' '
= = + +
'
= + +
} } }
x z a
K o o
' '
=
2
w
) (
2
1
h H dz u U
H
h
= =
}

a a
P P U
'
= +
1. Calculate the vertical effective stress
distribution.
2. Calculate the effective earth pressure.
3. Calculate the effective earth thrust.
4. Calculate the pore pressure u.
5. Calculate the total force U due to u.
6. Calculate the total earth thrust P
a
= P
a
+ U
Presence of pore pressure:
The general relation: K
p
> K
o
> K
a
K
p
K
a
K
o
K
p
K
a
K
o
>
>
x z
2
a a
K c K o o
' ' '
=
o
t
z
o
'
x
o
'
c
'
2
tan (45 '/ 2)
a
K | =
active wedge
2
45
|
'
+
c
z
Rankine Theory for Clay
Since o
x
= o
3
and o
z
= o
1
at failure, the passive earth
pressure:
3 1
' ' 2
tan (45 '/ 2) 2 ' tan(45 '/ 2) c o o | | =
Can soil undergo tension?
If o'
z
= 0, then o'
x
< 0
Now if o'
z
= 'z,
At what depth will o'
x
= 0?
o'
x
= K
a
o'
z
- 2c'\K
a
This depth is called the depth of cracking, z
c
, &
defines the potential tension zone
Depth of Cracking
By definition:
At z
c
, o'
x
= 0
Therefore,
o'
x
= 0 = K
a
'z
c
- 2c'\K
a
Therefore,
z
c
= [2c'\K
a
][ K
a
']
Or
c
a
2c
z
K
'
=
'
x z
2
a a
K c K o o
' ' '
=
o
t
z
o
'
x
o
'
c
'
a
c
2
K
c
z
'
'
=
2
tan (45 '/ 2)
a
K | =
active wedge
2
45
|
'
+
c
z
The depth of tensile cracking:,
c
a x
1 2
2
H
a
z a
c
P dz K H
K
o
| |
'
' '
= =
|
|
\ .
}
Active thrust:
Active earth pressure
a
P
'
x 3 z 1
o o o o
' ' ' '
= < =
Passive earth pressure
p
P
'
x 1 z 3
o o o o
' ' ' '
= > =
Advantage: Simple and explicit
expressions for earth pressures and
earth thrust.
Solution Steps:
1. Find vertical stress o
z
2. Find horizontal stress o
x
3. Integrate o
x
to find the effective
earth trust.
4. If a water table is present,
estimate the forces due to pore
pressures.
5. Estimate the total earth thrust.
Assumptions:
Rankine Earth Pressure: Summary
Horizontal ground surface
Vertical retaining wall
Initially at an at-rest state
No friction between the wall and soil
Failure occurs throughout the soil mass behind the wall
Orientation of Failure Planes
From Mohrs circles
Active state:
(45 + |'/2) to horizontal
Passive state:
(45 - |'/2) to horizontal
Rankine Earth Pressure: Summary
[ '] ' 2
x p P z P
K c K o o = +
[ '] ' 2
x a a z a
K c K o o =
Quiz
1. Which requires more retaining wall rotation to be mobilized?
A) Neutral resistance
B) Passive resistance
C) Active resistance
D) None of above
2. For the same soil, what is usually true?
A) Passive pressure > at-rest stress > active pressure
B) Passive pressure > active pressure > at-rest stress
C) Active pressure > passive pressure
D) At-rest stress > passive pressure
Rankine Active Earth Pressure
Determine the active lateral earth pressure on the frictionless
wall shown below. Calculate the resultant force and its location
from the base of the wall. Neglect seepage effects.
1. The active lateral earth coefficient
2 2
tan (45 '/ 2) tan (45 30 / 2) 0.333
o o o
a
K | = = =
2. The effective stresses and pore pressure
Example 12.1 Rankine Active Earth Pressure (p495)
3. These stresses are sketched as below:
4. The lateral force
P
a
= P
a
+U = 165 kN/m
P
a
= x 17 x 5 = 42.5 kN/m
U = P
w
= x 49 x 5 = 122.5 kN/m
Since both the distributions of the effective lateral earth
pressure o
x
and the pore pressure u are triangular over
the whole depth, the resultant is at the centroid of the
triangle, that is H/3=1.67m from the base.
5. Location of resultant
x 3 z 1
o o o o
' ' ' '
= < =
x 1 z 3
o o o o
' ' ' '
= > =
Solution Steps:
1. Find vertical stress o
z
2. Find horizontal stress o
x
3. Integrate o
x
to find the effective earth trust.
4. If a water table is present, estimate the forces due to pore pressures.
5. Estimate the total earth thrust.
Summary - Rankine Earth Pressure
p
P
'
a
P
'
Active earth pressure
Passive earth pressure
1. Vertical backs of walls only
2. Backfill surface must be regular
a solution exists for a sloping backfill, provided slope
angle, | < |'
3. Backfill loads / surcharge effects approximated
4. Wall friction ignored!
a beneficial effect
Limitations of Rankines earth pressure theory
Example: Rankine Earth Pressure
A 6 m high smooth retaining wall is to support a soil with unit
weight =17.4 kN/m
3
, friction angle | = 26
o
and cohesion c =
14.36 kN/m
2
. The groundwater table is below the base of the wall.
Determine the Rankine active force per unit length of the wall, and
determine the line of action of the resultant.
(1) Active lateral earth pressure coefficient:
2
tan (45 '/ 2) 0.39
o
a
K | = =
' '
2 ' ) 17.95
x
a z a
K c K kPa o o = =
2 '
2.64
c
a
c
z m
K
= =
At surface: o
z
= 0 kPa
(2) The depth of tensile cracks :
Soil cannot undergo tension!
The depth of tensile cracks
' '
2 ' ) 22.77
x
a z a
K c K kPa o o = =
At base: o
z
= 17.4 x 6 =104.4 kPa
(3) Active lateral earth pressure:
The active force is the positive area of active earth pressure distribution:
'
1 1
( )( 2 ' ) 22.8(6 2.64) 38.3 /
2 2
a c a a
P H z HK c K kN m = = =
Location of resultant active earth pressure is (H-z
c
)/3 = (6-2.64)/3 =1.12m
o
z
= 104.4 kPa
2 '
2.64
c
a
c
z m
K
= =
o
x
= 22.8 kPa
o
x
= -18 kPa
1.12 m
For the frictionless wall shown below, determine:
1. Active lateral earth pressure distribution
2. Passive lateral earth pressure distribution
3. Magnitudes and locations of active and
passive forces
4. Resultant force and its location
5. Ratio of passive moment to active moment
Earth Pressure in Layered Soils
(1) Lateral earth pressure coefficients
2
tan (45 25 / 2) 0.41
o o
a
K = =
2
tan (45 30 / 2) 0.33
o o
a
K = =
Top layer:
Bottom layer:
2
tan (45 30 / 2) 1/ 3
o o
p a
K K = + = =
Passive coefficient:
(2) Active lateral earth pressure (at the back of the wall)
At surface:
o
x
= K
a
o
z
= 0.41 x 20 kPa = 8.2 kPa, u = 0 kPa
At 2
-
m,
o
z
= 20+H = 20+19 x 2 = 58 kPa
o
z
= q
s
= 20 kPa
o
x
= K
a
o
z
= 0.41 x 58 = 23.8 kPa u = 0 kPa
At 2
+
m,
o
z
= 20+H = 20+19 x 2 = 58 kPa
o
x
= K
a
o
z
= 0.33 x 58 = 19.33 kPa u = 0 kPa
At base,
o
z
= 58 + H = 58 + (20 9.8) x 4 = 98.8 kPa
o
x
= K
a
o
z
= 0.33 x 98.8 = 32.93 kPa
u =
w
H = 9.8 x 4 = 39.2 kPa
(3) Passive lateral earth pressure (in the front of the wall)
At surface:
o
x
= K
p
o
z
= 3 x 0 = 0 kPa, u = 0 kPa
o
z
= 0 kPa
At base:
o
z
= H
2
= (20 9.8) x 4 = 40.8 kPa
o
x
= K
p
o
z
= 3 x 40.8 = 122.4 kPa
u =
w
H = 9.8 x 4 = 39.2 kPa
(4) Active Force
o
x
= 122.4 kPa
U = x 39.2 x 4 = 78.4 kN/m
u =
w
H = 9.8 x 4 = 39.2 kPa
o
x
= 8.2 kPa
o
x
= 23.8 kPa
o
x
= 19.3 kPa
o
x
= 32.9 kPa
u = 39.2 kPa
u = 39.2 kPa
'
8.2 23.8 19.3 32.9
2 4 136.4kN/m
2 2
a
P
+ +
= + =
The effective active force acting on the back of the wall is the total
area of the active lateral earth pressure distribution:
P
a
= P
a
+ U = 214.8 kN/m Total
4 m
2 m
(4) Total moment about the base line:
o
x
= 122.4 kPa
M
u
= x (39.2 x 4) x 1/3 x 4 = 78.4 kN
u =
w
H = 9.8 x 4 = 39.2 kPa
o
x
= 8.2 kPa
o
x
= 23.8 kPa
o
x
= 19.3 kPa
o
x
= 32.9 kPa
u = 39.2 kPa
u = 39.2 kPa
'
1 2 1 4
8.2 2 (1 4) 15.6 2( 4) 19.3 4 2 13.6 4 345.6kN
2 3 2 3
a
M = + + + + + =
M
a
= M
a
+ M
u
= 214.8 kN
Total
32.9-19.3 =13.6
Location of active lateral force = M
a
/P
a
= 450.1/214.8 = 2.1m from the base
4 m
2 m
Total moment about the base line: M
p
= P
p
x 4/3 = 430.8 kN
R
x
= P
p
- P
a
= 323.2 214.8 =108.4 kN/m
The negative sign indicates the location is below the base.
Ratio of moment = M
p
/M
a
= 430.8/450.1 = 0.96 < 1
(5) Passive Force
The effective passive force acting on the front face of the wall
is the total area of the passive lateral earth pressure distribution:
P
p
= x 122.4 x 4 = 244.8 kN/m
P
p
= P
p
+ U = 323.2 kN/m
U = x 39.2 x 4 = 78.4 kN/m
Location of passive lateral force = 4/3 = 1.33m from the base
Its location is:
The resultant lateral force
(M
p
- M
a
)/R = (430.8 - 450.1)/108.4 = - 0.18 m
(6) The moment ratio
Wall will rotate
TWO METHODS
to estimate the
earth pressures on structures
1. Rankine
Plausible stress states
2. Coulomb
Plausible failure mechanisms
Relative merits of approaches?
HANDLES:
Irregular backfill surfaces
Sloping backs of walls
Sloping backfill
Surface surcharges
Wall friction
Interface friction angle, o
COULOMB APPROACH
Although failure surfaces were known to be
curved, a planar approximation was adopted
(OK for Active pressures)
At failure, the stress on the slip surface through the soil obey the Coulomb
failure criterion Stresses:
n
tan c t o = +
Slip surface
tan T C N = +
n
T ds N ds C c ds t o = = =
} } }
Passive wedge failure
Slip surface
Active wedge failure
Coulombs Earth Pressure Theory
Coulomb wedge analysis is a limited equilibrium method. A collapse
mechanism is assumed, which is usually a straight-line slip surface, and the
resulting forces are deducted graphically from the principle of equilibrium.
Integrating we obtain the corresponding forces according to
where
o
n
t
H
u
Failed soil wedge
T ds t =
}
Free-body diagram of failed soil wedge
u
P
a
W
T
N
n
N ds o =
}
H cotu
sand
W= weight of soil wedge - needs support
N = force normal to sliding plane from underlying supporting soil
T = tangential force along sliding plane = N tan|
P
a
= Max reaction from wall required for equilibrium for critical
wedge angle, u
T ds t =
}
H
u
Failed soil wedge
Free-body diagram of failed soil wedge
u
P
a
W
T
N
n
N ds o =
}
H cotu
EF
x
= P
a
+ T cosu - N sinu = 0
EF
y
= W- T sinu - N cosu = 0
W = H
2
cotu
T = N tan|
sand
P
a
= H
2
cotu tan(u - |) Solving for P
a
,
The critical value of u which makes the wall force P
a
a maximum is
given by solving oP
a
/ou = 0. This leads to
u = 45
o
+ |/2
Influence of Wall Friction
o
P
a
Active
P
p
o
Passive
o = angle of friction
between wall and soil
For rough wall, o = |. For
smooth wall, o = 2|/3
Active Earth Pressure: Sand
H
q
N
'
T
'
Sand
, ' , | o
|
' '
=
'
tan N T
w w
tan T N o =
2
1
cot
2
W H u =
cot
q
Q qB qH u = =
u
B
q
= H cotu
W
N
w
T
w
Consider both Wall friction o + Surface surcharges q
P
a
N
w
T
w
P
a
o
For sand, the analysis is done in terms of effective stress using | and o and c =
c
w
= 0. Consider a vertical wall of height of H retaining a sand backfill in level with
its coping. A surcharge q is applied to the ground surface. The water table is
assumed to below the base of the wall.
x
F =0 E
H
q
N
'
T
'
Sand
, ' , | o
|
' '
=
'
tan N T
w w
tan T N o =
2
1
cot
2
W H u = cot Q qH u =
Two unknowns:
,
w
N
N
'
w
sin cos sin tan ' cos cos (tan tan ') N N T N N N u u u | u u u |
' ' ' ' '
= = =
y w
F =0 cos sin cos (1 tan tan ') Q W T N T N u u u u |
' ' '
E + = + = +
u
H cotu
W
N
w
T
w
Dividing 1
st
by 2
nd
equation, we have
tan( ')
w
w
N
Q W T
u | =
+
The two equations can be used to solve
N and N
w
, in terms of the angle u.
The critical value of u which makes the wall force N
w
a maximum is
given by solving oN
w
/ou = 0. This leads to
2
a
1
2
a
P qH H K
| |
= +
|
\ .
2
cos '
tan
1 sin ' 1
tan '
a
K
|
o
|
|
| |
|
=
|
+ +
|
\ .
2
( ) tan( ') 1 cot tan( ')
1 tan tan( ') 2 1 tan tan( ')
w
Q W
N qH H
u | u u |
o u | o u |
+
| |
= = +
|
+ +
\ .
tan( ')( ) tan( ')( tan )
w w w
N Q W T Q W N u | u | o = + = +
with
2
2
' cos '
tan 45
2 1 sin '
o
a
K
| |
|
| |
| |
= =
| |
+
\ .
\ .
Comparing with Rankine result derived previously
when o = 0 (smooth wall) we recover the Rankine expression for K
a
K
a
and K
p
for retaining wall
with sloping back, wall friction
and sloping soil surface.
(12.16)
(12.17)
Page 500
The above type of analysis can
also be extended for the case
of an inclined wall and an
inclined ground surface.
Rankine Theory
At no point in the soil mass did the stress state exceed the failure
stress state.
In reality, a more efficient distribution of stress could exist
This is a lower bound solution (lower than the true solution)
Coulomb Wedge Method
A planar slip surface is assumed and the solution is obtained by
requiring force equilibrium on the soil mass
In reality, a more efficient failure mechanism may be possible
This is upper bound solution (greater than the true solution)
Rankine Theory vs Coulomb Wedge Method
1. Coulombs approach assumes that (click all apply)
A) The soil is rigid-plastic
B) The soil is elastic-plastic
C) A slip plane occurs through the soil mass
D) The soil is homogeneous
Attention Quiz Time!
2. Coulombs approach for earth pressure is based on
A) Limit analysis
B) Finite element method
C) Limit equilibrium method
D) Lower bound solution
1) Erosion
2) Rainfall
3) Earthquakes
4) Geological Features
5) External Loading
6) Construction Activities
Summary - Causes of Slope Failure
SLOPE STABILITY
SUMMARY: KEY POINTS
Angle of repose for dry granular soils
Influence of seepage on granular soils
Slope stability for homogeneous slopes in saturated clay
- Taylors method/charts
Frictional soils more difficult
- Method of slices
Bishops method for circular slips
Slope stability programs search for failure surface with lowest FS
- Circular or non-circular slips?
Importance of shear strength parameters
- Drained and/or undrained?
- Peak, ultimate or critical state?
Slope Stability Analysis
When the ground surface is sloping, forces exist which tend to cause
the soil to move from high points to low points. The most important of
these forces are the force of gravity and the force of seeping water.
Failure will occur when the resultant shear forces exceeds the shear
strength of the soil mass.
Factor of Safety is the ratio of the available shear strength of the soil to
the minimum shear strength required to maintain equilibrium.
m
f
FoS
t
t
=
Where
t
f
is the shear strength of the soil
t
m
is the minimum shear strength required to maintain stability
Slope Stability Analysis
In stability analysis Factor of Safety is defined as the
ratio of the resisting stress to the disturbing stress
resisting stress
disturbing stress
FoS =
ESA Effective Stress Analysis
TSA Total Stress Analysis
Infinite slopes
h
b
Vertical
slice
W
o
s
Force equilibrium the slice
W
N = W
N
= W coso
s
l = length of sliding surface
o
s
o
s
W
T
= W sino
s
Stability IF, W
T
= T s t = cl + N tan|
where cl = resistance due to cohesion (kN)
and N tan|' = resistance due to friction
Factor of Safety (FoS) = restoring force
disturbing force
STABILITY
CASE 1: c' = c = 0 (clean sand)
T
Restoring force
FoS
Disturbing force
cL N tan

W
cL cos tan
sin
s
s
W a
W a
|
|
=
+
=
+
=
The natural angle of repose
W
N = W
N
= W coso
s
o
s
o
s
W
T
= W sino
s
cos tan ' tan '
FoS= FS = F
sin tan
s
s s
W a
W a a
| |
= =
At limit equilibrium, FS = 1
o
s
= |
CASE 1: c' = c = 0 (clean sand)
The natural angle of repose
o
s
= |
the maximum angle of slope (measured from
horizontal plane) at which loose sand will
come to rest on a pile of sand.
N = W
N
= b h coso
s

' cos tan ' ' tan '
FS =
sin tan
f
s
m sat s sat s
b h a
bh a a
t
| |
t
=
W
o
s
Pore force U
h
b
Seepage force parallel to slope
Case 2: c = 0, Seepage down the slope
J
s
=
w
b h i =
w
b h sino
s
(i =Ah/l = o
s
)
Available shear strength:
t
f
= N tan | = b h coso
s
tan|
t
m
= Wsino
s
+ J
s
= b h sino
s
+
w
b h sino
s
= ( +
w
)bh sino
s
sat
Pore force, U, on sliding base due to pore
water pressure
almost only half the FS!

' cos tan ' ' tan '
FS =
sin tan
f
s
m sat s sat s
b h a
bh a a
t
| |
t
=
Case 2: c = 0,
Seepage down the slope
Effective normal force reduced less friction!
' tan ' 1
tan = tan '
2
s
sat
a
|
|
~
l = b / coso
s
sin ( ) sin
= sin cos
/ cos
s s
s s
s
W a bh a T
h a a
l l b a
t = = =
2
h =z =
sin(2 )
u
s
s
a
W
o
s
h
b
Short term slope stability, find-grained
soils, Total Stress Analysis (TSA)
Case 3: TSA, c = 0,
Shear strength on l for TSA:
o
s
= 1/2 sin
-1
(2 s
u
/ h )
l
2
FS = =
sin cos sin(2 )
u u u
m s s s
s s
h a a h a
t
t
=
z
cr
= h
cr
= 2 s
u
/
o
s
= 45
o
min. value of z (or h)
z
cr
(or h
cr
) = max. slope under short term loading
Example 13.1 Infinite slope stability considering
seepage
o
s
= ?
Example Infinite slope stability considering seepage
o
s
= |
cs
= 30
o
Step 2: Determine max. slope under dry condition
For FS =1.25, the safe slope is
o
s
= 24.8
o
Step 3: Determine max. slope under saturated condition
For sand, |
cs
not significantly affected by the wet or dry
condition same o
s
Example Infinite slope stability considering seepage
' tan '
tan =
s
sat
a
|
o
s
= 14
o
<< 30
o
Step 4: Determine max. slope for
seepage parallel to the slope
o
s
= 14
o At limit equilibrium, FS = 1
= (
sat
-
w
) = 17.5 - 9.8 = 7.7 kN/m
3
o
' tan ' 7.7tan30
tan = 0.25
17.5
s
sat
a
|
= =
Seepage force effect!
Q1: A sand has a fiction angle of 24
o
. Determine the
maximum slope angle impending failure (assuming infinite
slop failure). What is the safe slope for FS =1.25?
o
s
= | = 24
o
o
s
= ?
(1)
o
-1 -1 o
s
24
=tan tan 19 6
FS 1 25
tan tan
.
.
| |
|
| |
= =
|
|
\ .
\ .
(2)
Q2: Discharge from a dam cause tidal variation in the
downstream river. For a sand of fiction angle of 25
o
and
saturated unit weight of 18.8 kN/m
3
that is subjected to this
tidal variation (rapid drawdown at low tide), determine the
maximum slope angle (infinite slop failure).
' tan '
tan =
s
sat
a
|
3
18.8 9.8 9kN m
'
= =
-1 o
s
9
=tan tan25 12 6
18 8
.
.
| |
=
|
\ .
Method of Slices
Bishops Method (1955):
Assume circular slip plane
Consider only moment equilibrium
Neglect seepage forces
Circular Failure Surface
FBD of a slice
Bishops Method (p578)
FBD of a slice
EF
y
= 0
Introduce porewater
pressure ratio

EM
o
= 0
eq (13.18)
FBD of a slice
Substitute

( )
'
tan( ')
FS =
f
f j j j
m j j
T
N
T T
t |
t
= =
'
tan( ')
FS
j j
j
N
T
|
=
Into eq 13.18
Solving for N
j
take
eq (13.26)
FBD of a slice
Ignoring (X
j
X
j+1
)
1% error, gives
Bishops equation for ESA

(Effective Stress Analysis):
(13.30)
Groundwater below
surface r
u
= 0
(13.31)
FBD of a slice
( )
cos
FS =
sin
j
u
j
f j
m j j
b
s
W
t u
t u
E
=
E
(13.34)
t
f
= E(s
u
)
j
x l
j
Bishops equation for TSA:
Total Stress Analysis (TSA)
b
j
= l
j
cos u
j
( )
FS =
sin
u j
f j
m j j
s l
W
t
t u
E
=
E
Effect of tension crack on
the slip surface
Effect of tension crack:
Modify the failure surface
Tension crack may be filled with water (reduce FS)
Provide a channel for water to reach underlying soil layers
Bishops method:
Moment caused by
hydrostatic pressure
Method of Slices
Procedures to determine FS of a slope using Bishop method.
(1) Draw the slope to scale including the soil layers
R
O
Phreatic
surface
(2) Draw a trial slip surface and identify its point of rotation (locate the
phreatic surface).
(4) Divide soil mass above the slip
surface into a number of slices. For
ease of calculations, try to make as
many as possible of the same width.
About 10 slides are satisfactory for
most hand calculations
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
(3) If soil is clay, calculate the tension crack depth and sketch in a
possible location of tension crack.
Method of Slices
(5) Measure b, z and u etc. Make a table as shown and record b, z,
z
w
, and u for each slice
R
O
Phreatic
surface
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
b
equipotential
line for slice 4
z
W
z
-u
+u
B width,
z mean height,
unit weight,
z
w
vertical projection of the
equipotential line (porewater
pressure head)
Method of Slices
R
O
Phreatic
surface
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
b
equipotential
line for slice 4
z
W
z
-u
+u
(7) Divide the sum of last column by the
sum of column 9 to get FS. If FS is not
equal to the assumed value, reiterate
until FS calculated and FS assumed
are same or within a small tolerance
(=0.01)
(6) Calculate W = bz, r
u
= z
w
w
/ z , assume a value of FS and
determine m
j
from following equation or the chart shown in Fig 13.13.
complete the calculations for the next 3 columns.
Example 13.3 (p585) - Bishops Method
Homogenous soil
s
u
30 kPa
|' 33 deg.
w
9.8 kN/m
3
sat
18 kN/m
3
z
cr
3.33 m
z
s
4 m
FS 1.06 assumed
Example 13.3 (p585) - Bishops Method
(1) Draw the slope to scale
(2) Find depth of the tension crack
(3) Divide the slide mass into 9 slices
(4) Set up a spreadsheet
ESA
TSA
Slice b z W=bz
z
w
r
u
u
m
j
Wsinu W (1 - r
u
)tan|' m
j
s
u
b/cosu
m m kN m deg
1 4.9 1 88.2 1 0.54 -23 1.47 -34.5 38.3 159.7
2 2.5 3.6 162.0 3.6 0.54 -10 1.14 -28.1 54.6 76.2
3 2 4.6 165.6 4.6 0.54 0 1.00 0.0 49.0 60.0
4 2 5.6 201.6 5 0.49 9 0.92 31.5 62.1 60.7
5 2 6.5 234.0 5.5 0.46 17 0.88 68.4 72.2 62.7
6 2 6.9 248.4 5.3 0.42 29 0.85 120.4 80.1 68.6
7 2 6.8 244.8 4.5 0.36 39.5 0.86 155.7 87.6 77.8
8 2.5 5.3 238.5 2.9 0.30 49.5 0.90 181.4 97.5 115.5
9 1.6 1.6 46.1 0.1 0.03 65 1.02 41.8 29.6 113.6
Sum 536.6 570.9 794.8
FS 1.06 1.48
b
z
R
z
w
|
u
(4) Set up a spreadsheet
For ESA, assume a value of FS first
Taylors Method
slope stability for undrained shear strength, s
u
(or c
u
)
Simple slopes
Homogeneous
- slopes are rarely homogeneous
Failure occurring by rotation
No surcharge/external loading
No open water outside the slope
Relative depth, n
d
Stability number, N
0
( )
cos
FS =
sin
j
u
j
f j
m j j
b
s
W
t u
t u
E
=
E
(13.34)
Based on TSA and the following equation:
Taylors Charts
( )
0 o
u
FS
N H
s
=
Bedrock
D
0
H
0
o
s
Unit weight of soil =
Shear strength = c
u
(1) Calculate n
d
= D
0
/ H
0
FS = FoS
(2) Calculate
(3) Read o
s
from the Charts
Example
H
0
= 10 m, D
0
= 3 m, F = 1.25
= 18 kN/m
3
, s
u
= 30 kPa
n
d
= D
0
/H
0
= 3/10 = 0.3
( )
0
1.25
(18 10)
30
7.5
o
u
FS
N H
s
=
=
=
~20
(1)
(2)
(3) Read o
s
value at the
intersection of n
d
and N
o
a) Slope failure depends on soil type
b) Slope failure depends on soil colour
c) Slope failure depends on seepage
d) Slope failure depends on slope geometry
In Bishops method, the failure surface is
Which of the following is not true for Taylors method,
a) Any shape
b) Planar
c) Circular
d) Non-circular
a) used for Homogeneous soils
b) Not consider surcharge
c) Rotation Failure
d) ESA (Effective Stress Analysis)
Which change can lead to slope failure?
Which of the following is not true for Taylors method,
a) addition of vegetation cover on slope surface
b) removal of material from the top of a slope
c) addition of material to the base of a slope
d) rise of water table in slope material
Bearing Capacity of Soils and
Settlement of Shallow Foundations
Muni Budhu - Soil Mechanics and Foundations
2
nd
edition
Dr Jie Li
VERTICAL CENTRIC LOADS
Short-Term (TSA): q
u
= 5.14s
u
s
c
d
c
Long Term (ESA):
q
u
= D
f
(N
q
1) s
q
d
q
+ 0.5 B'N
INCLINED LOADS
Short-Term (TSA): q
u
= 5.14s
u
i
c
Long Term (ESA):
q
u
= D
f
(N
q
1) i
q
+ 0.5 B' N
N
q
and N
r
are all functions of |' (effective!)
GEOMETRIC FACTORS
Choice of Strengths
SAND
Clean sand
c = 0 = c'
|', , '
CLAY
Saturated, NC
undrained (Short-Term) loading
|
u
= 0
usually more critical
drained (Long-Term) loading
c', |'
Problem Solving 9.6 A square footing, 3m wide, is located 1.5m
below the surface of a stiff clay. Determine the allowable bearing
capacity for short term condition if s
u
= 100 kPa and
sat
= 20 kN/m
3
If
the footing were located on the surface, what would be the allowable
bearing capacity? Use FS = 3.
c
B
s 1 0 2 1 0 2 1 2
L
. . . = + = + = d
c
= 1+0.33 tan
-1
(D
f
/B'), take as 1
u u c c
q 5 14 s s d 5 14 100 1 2 1 617kPa . . . = = =
Position 1 D
f
= 1.5 m:
u
a f
q 617
q D 20 1 5 236kPa
FS 3
. = + = + =
Position 2 D
f
= 0 m:
u
a f
q 617
q D 20 0 206kPa
FS 3
= + = + =
Problem Solving 9.7 A column carrying a load of 750 kN is to be
founded on a square footing at a depth of 2 m below the ground surface
in deep clay stratum. What will be the size of the footing for FS = 3 for
ESA and TSA? The soil properties are |
p
= 28
o
,
sat
= 18.5 kN/m
3
, and
s
u
= 55 kPa. The ground water level is at the base of the footing but it is
expected to rise to the ground surface during rainy seasons.
c
B 2 4
s 1 0 2 1 0 2 1 2
L 2 4
.
. . .
.
= + = + =
d
c
= 1
Check both short and long-term cases
(a) Short-Term (TSA)
Assume B = 2.4 m
u u c c
q 5 14 s s d 5 14 55 1 2 1 339kPa . . . = = =
,
Applied stress =
a
750
130 2 kPa
2 4 2 4
.
. .
o = =
u
a f
q 339
FS 3 0
D 130 2 8 7 2
.
' . .
= = =
o
tan 28 2 '
tan (45 / 2) 14.7
q p
N e
t
| = + =
N
= 0.1054 exp(9.6|
p
) = 11.5
(b) Long Term (ESA )
( )
u
1
q 8 7 2 0 13 7 1 53 1 21 8 7 2 4 11 5 0 6 1 0 513kPa
2
. . . . . . . . . .
| |
= + =
|
\ .
u
a f
q 513
FS 4 6
D 130 2 8 7 2
.
' . .
= = =
o
TSA governs, use B = 2.4 m

s
q
= 1 + B/Ltan(|
p
)=1+2.4/2.4 tan (28) =1.53
Use Davis & Booker expression (p351):
d
r
= 1
s
r
= 1 0.4 B/L= 1 0.4 x 2.4/2.4 = 0.6
d
q
= 1 + 2tan(|
p
)(1-sin(|
p
))
2
tan
-1
(D
f
/B) =1.21
(Table 9.1 p351)
2nd edition
Problem Solving 9.7
1) Which analysis should be used to calculate the bearing capacity of
a fine-grained soil?,
A) TSA
B) ESA
C) Both TSA and ESA
D) Finite Element Method
2) Which analysis should be used to calculate the bearing capacity of
a coarse-grained soil?,
A) TSA
B) ESA
C) Both TSA and ESA
D) Finite Element Method
TSA: q
u
= 5.14 s
u
s
c
d
c
ESA: q
u
= D
f
(N
q
1) s
q
d
q
+ 0.5 B N
N
q
and N
r
are all functions of |' (effective!)

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Earth Pressures and Retaining Walls

Muni Budhu - Soil Mechanics and Foundations

Lateral Earth Pressure At Rest

Again, from Geometry of Mohrs circles

As the wall moves towards the soil,

Bishops equation for ESA

TSA governs, use B = 2.4 m

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