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ISBN 971-8986-45-6

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Guidebook of Biodiversity Principles

for Developers and Planners
ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation (ARCBC)
With illustrations by Juan B. Guaizo

2002

Credits
@ ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation
Authors: John MacKinnon, Colin Rees
& Monina Uriarte
Illustrations: Juan B. Guaizo
Layout: Nanie Gonzales & Francis Albert Florido
Editing: Bridget P. Botengan
This publication was produced through funds provided by the European Commission

Acknowledgement
This booklet is based on an idea and earlier booklet published by the Asian Wetland Bureau
(A Guide to Development in Urban and Coastal Areas)
authored by Colin Rees and illustrated by H. Ramos, with the kind permission of Faizal Parish of AWB/
Global Environment Centre. Several of the guidelines presented in this book
have been adapted from that earlier book, and have been carried forward with revised pictures and text
with the kind permission of F. Parish.

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Content
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................................. 1
1. Development in Forest Regions .......................................................................................................................... 4
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8

Multiple-use forestry .................................................................................................................................................. 5

Developing steep forested areas ........................................................................................................................... 6
Leave broadleaf saplings when reforesting ....................................................................................................... 7
Avoid planning monoculture forests .................................................................................................................... 8
Leave original vegetation along road lines ...................................................................................................... 9
Design roads along natural contours .............................................................................................................. 10
Leave original vegetation on development sites .......................................................................................... 11
Avoid intruding on the skyline in scenic areas .............................................................................................. 12

2. Development in Wetlands and Freshwater Systems ................................................................................ 13

2.1 Prohibit reclamation of important wetlands ................................................................................................... 14
2.2 Maintain connectivity through freshwater systems ....................................................................................... 15
2.3 Maintain drainage and water storage functions of the water systems ................................................. 16
2.4 Protect biodiversity in aquatic and wetland areas ....................................................................................... 17
2.5 Limit fishing capacity within sustainable limits .............................................................................................. 18
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2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17

Maintain the balance of aquatic systems ....................................................................................................... 19

Adjust use of water resources .............................................................................................................................. 20
Preserve the natural beauty of scenic spots ................................................................................................... 21
Provide proper treatment of waste water ........................................................................................................ 22
Maintain natural vegetation around lakes or waterways in town .......................................................... 23
Minimize damage from dredging ...................................................................................................................... 24
Preserve floodplains as open spaces ................................................................................................................ 25
Creating artificial ponds/lakes ........................................................................................................................... 26
Appropriate development of lakefront/coastline ......................................................................................... 27
Protect riverine and swamp forests .................................................................................................................... 28
Proper use of bridges and causeways .............................................................................................................. 29
Limit physical development along waterfront ................................................................................................ 30

3. Developments in Coastal and Marine areas ................................................................................................ 31

3.1 Preserve mangroves and coastal vegetation ................................................................................................. 32
3.2 Limit development of intertidal zone ................................................................................................................ 33
3.3 Develop comprehensive development plan for marine areas ................................................................ 34
3.4 Protect coral reefs .................................................................................................................................................... 35
3.5 Afford special protection to marine mammal colonies ............................................................................. 36
3.6 Prevent Red Tides and other pollution effects ............................................................................................... 37
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3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12

Avoid unnecessary reclamation of coastal and tidal waters ................................................................... 38

Avoid bulkheading .................................................................................................................................................. 39
Respect scenic quality ............................................................................................................................................ 40
Use of pilings ............................................................................................................................................................ 41
Maintain natural drainage patterns .................................................................................................................. 42
Avoid development along sandy shorelines .................................................................................................. 43

4. Developments in Farmlands and Agricultural Areas .............................................................................. 44

4.1 Maintain diverse farming patterns ..................................................................................................................... 45
4.2 Promote agroforestry in place of shifting cultivation .................................................................................. 46
4.3 Maintain patches of natural vegetation on farmland ................................................................................ 47
4.4 Recycle agricultural waste into the soil ............................................................................................................ 48
4.5 Preserve important natural control and pollination agents ...................................................................... 49
4.6 Preserve maximal genetic diversity in crops ................................................................................................... 50
4.7 Promote development of live bunds and terraces ....................................................................................... 51
4.8 Restrict grazing on erosion-prone slopes ........................................................................................................ 52
4.9 Enhance the biodiversity function of fallow fields ........................................................................................ 53

5. Development of Protected Areas .......................................................................................................................... 54

5.1 Create a representative system of Protected Areas ..................................................................................... 55
5.2 Protect keystone species ........................................................................................................................................ 56
5.3 Minimize impact of reserve constructions ....................................................................................................... 57
5.4 Preserve the wilderness values of Protected Areas .................................................................................... 58
5.5 Avoid introduction of exotic species ................................................................................................................. 59
5.6 Maximize connectivity between protected areas .......................................................................................... 60
5.7 Safeguard protected areas from excessive tourism impacts .................................................................... 61
5.8 Limit access roads into protected areas .......................................................................................................... 62
5.9 Develop suitable buffers or barriers to reduce incompatible boundary effects ................................ 63
5.10 Avoid construction of dangerous powerlines ................................................................................................ 64
6. Development in Rural and Urban Areas ........................................................................................................ 65
6.1 Protect soil cover on construction areas ......................................................................................................... 66
6.2 Limit emission of SO2 and other dangerous gases ..................................................................................... 67
6.3 Ensure septic tanks do not pollute water systems ........................................................................................ 68
6.4 Avoid development of hilltops ............................................................................................................................ 69
6.5 Avoid the construction of unnecessary earthworks in developing sites ............................................... 70
6.6 Create green buffers in towns ............................................................................................................................. 71
6.7 Give trees breathing spaces ................................................................................................................................ 72
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6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11

Minimize the burning of leaf litter ..................................................................................................................... 73

Minimize dust pollution ......................................................................................................................................... 74
Avoid building on steep slopes .......................................................................................................................... 75
Enhance biodiversity by urban greening ......................................................................................................... 76

7. Biosafety Issues ............................................................................................................................................................... 77

7.1 Minimize the use of exotic species .................................................................................................................... 78
7.2 Control the introduction of GMOs ................................................................................................................... 79
7.3 Do not release species outside their natural range .................................................................................... 80
7.4 Control the breeding of exotic animals ........................................................................................................... 81
7.5 Control the sale and eating of rare wildlife ................................................................................................... 82
The ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation ...................................................................... 83

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Introduction
The rate of development in Southeast Asia has been both astonishing and frightening. Over three decades
the landscape has been transformed by the development of roads, bridges and new towns and agricultural revolutions. The population has doubled and the area of forest halved. The impacts on our natural
environment are great and not entirely predictable. Already the increasing rate of natural disasters in the
form of floods, droughts, landslides, earthquakes and typhoons are causing billions of dollars of damage
each year and leads one to question whether these are natural or man induced. Global warming
brings new threats, and the acid rain of our polluted skies causes forests and fish to die and brings
problems for human health.
This booklet will not solve these problems but it may assist in reducing some of the damages. Many
developments can be less damaging to the environment and to human health and quality of life if we
show a little more respect to biodiversity principles and the values of nature and scenic beauty.
The new term to sum up our wealth of renewable natural resources is biodiversity. Biodiversity is the sum
of all living things the richness of ecosystems, species and genetic variety within species. It includes
wildlife, fisheries, forestry and agriculture. If we are humble enough, we will recognize that it also includes
ourselves.
Biodiversity brings huge benefits to mankind. These benefits fall into four main categories.
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Benefits can be through direct harvesting of plants or animals for food, fodder, medicine, fiber,
dyes, fuel, construction materials and other uses.
Benefits can be social, including aesthetic, cultural, recreational, educational and research values.
Benefits can be in the form of indirect ecosystem services such as regulating climate, generating
oxygen, regulating water supply and recharging groundwater resources, creating and protecting
soils, recycling nutrients, protecting shorelines, generating alluvial farmland, helping reduce
floods, droughts and soil erosion, providing natural controls of agricultural pests, fixing toxic
wastes (organic, pesticides and heavy metals) and promoting creative evolutionary processes.
These services are worth hundreds of billions of dollars per annum.
Finally benefits can be developed through domestication, development and improvement of
genetic resources and by biotechnology. Huge numbers of microorganisms have their own antibiotics and scientists have hardly explored the tip of the iceberg in terms of identifying potential
uses. Bio-technicians can now isolate useful genes and transfer them to different species to create
new varieties with new properties.

Estimates show also that more than 40% of the worlds economy and 80% of the needs of the worlds
poor are derived from biodiversity. Constanza et al. (1997) have estimated the value of biodiversity
services globally to mankind at $ 33 trillion per year. If biodiversity were a commercial company and had
patented many of the species and ecosystem services that we most use, we would be paying billions of
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dollars a year in royalties. Biodiversity is more generous than that; her services are given freely but she
cannot be taken for granted. If we fail to recognize the value of biodiversity and to nurture and preserve
the ecosystems capacity to deliver such services, the ecosystems will degrade and we will be left to feel
colossal losses.
This booklet presents a multitude of ways in which careless development can cause great damage to
biodiversity. It pictures two scenarios: the left picture represents careless development, and the right, the
recommended alternative. The guidelines are arranged in a number of sections covering the major
ecosystems of a country. In most cases the improvements carry no extra cost; in some, they are cheaper;
but in either case they will make a big difference to the local quality of life and quality of the environment.

John R. MacKinnon
ARCBC Co-director (EU)

1. Development in Forest Regions

Forests in the ASEAN region vary from northern or high altitude conifers, mixed temperate forests, broadleaf temperate forests, evergreen and semi-evergreen tropical forests of the south and mangroves in
tropical estuaries. They are often viewed as a source of timber or as being in the way of development for
agriculture or townships. However, forests have a much larger role to play in the ASEAN economy. Forests
trap the rain and control the rate at which it is discharged into rivers, reducing soil erosion and ensuring
dry season river flow. Forests recycle many nutrients, and control our climate. Forests reduce floods and
landslides, create spectacular scenery and harbor the greatest number of important species of plants and
animals. Forests are the national insurance against disaster and the future investment of germ plasm for
the continued development of sustained agriculture and animal husbandry. Unfortunately, we destroy
forests at our peril as the mounting cost of annual floods so clearly demonstrate.

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1.1 Multiple-use forestry

Production forests are not only for timber. They should be cut sequentially and sustainably to preserve
multiple functions of eco-tourism, biodiversity conservation, soil and water conservation and climate
amelioration.

1.2 Developing steep forested areas

Preserving natural or restored vegetation cover is important on steep slopes to protect catchments and
prevent erosion. Refrain from siting buildings and developments where it involves opening up such slopes
to roads or bare land.

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1.3 Leave broadleaf saplings when reforesting

During reforestation work, do not clear cut the native trees and plant exotics. Instead re-establish the
natural forest vegetation or interplant native fast growing tree species to give rise to a multi-species mixed
forest that can provide better ecological services and preserve local wildlife. Protection of a dense
understorey is essential for good soil protection.

1.4 Avoid planning monoculture forests

Avoid creation of unnatural monocultures. These are prone to fire, diseases and pests, preserve little
biodiversity and are less effective at protecting soils and water catchments. Always replant with a nearnatural mix of local species. Minimize the use of exotics.

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1.5 Leave original vegetation along road lines

Road construction often results in high levels of land erosion above and below the road line. Minimize
disturbance of natural vegetation during construction and use local species to reforest along road works
to prevent landslides and soil erosion.

1.6 Design roads following natural contours

Avoid the construction of straight roads across hilly terrain. These give rise to fast water runoff and gulley
erosion and appear unsightly and unnatural. Let roads follow the natural land contours and blend into
the scenery.

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1.7 Leave original vegetation on development sites

It is difficult and slow to plant new vegetation cover around buildings and construction areas if they have
been cleared. Vegetation makes the landscape more beautiful, and contributes to soil stability thus
reducing landslides, improving catchment function and preserving local biodiversity. Leave as much of the
original vegetation in tact when developing sites, especially on highway slopes. Regreen bare slopes using
local species.

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1.8 Avoid intruding on the skyline in scenic areas

Tall buildings can intrude on and spoil the scenic beauty of natural areas. Construct lower buildings that
blend more harmoniously with the scenery and paint these in natural, non-intrusive colors. Follow local
traditional styles and use natural materials to create greater harmony.

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2. Development in Wetlands and Freshwater Systems

Wetlands and freshwater systems are critical to the ASEAN regions environmental welfare. Not only are
these traditional routes of communication and sources of protein, but also serve important ecological
services in the form of flood control, water supply and quality, fixing of pollutants and toxins and control
of micro-climate. The system of interconnecting lakes and rivers allows the native fish to continue its
seasonal breeding patterns. Cutting these connections by constructing dams, dykes and reclaiming land is
already endangering many important fishery species. Excessive siltation and run-off from upland development and agriculture has caused the silting up of lakes and riverbeds resulting in reduced water storage
and drainage capacity, jeopardizing water supplies and increasing flood damage. Over-use of water
tables and reduced run-off from degraded forests has lowered lake levels and dried up the rivers. Pollution is poisoning many water systems, endangering wildlife and human health. Wetlands and waterways
have to be preserved for the environmental health of the country and as attractive sites for biodiversity
conservation, fisheries, recreation and inspiration. Healthy wildlife is an indication of safe and clean
waterways.
Integrated management of biodiversity, wetlands and river basins is a critical strategy to ensure the protection of water resources and ecosystem functions and values.
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2.1 Prohibit reclamation of important wetlands

Reclamation of wetlands (such as lakes, swamp forest and marshes) for agricultural land and other
development causes loss of key ecosystems, loss of water-storing sponges that can lessen the effects of
floods, loss of important biodiversity, and the destruction of micro-climate and the balanced ecology of
local connected river and lake systems. Maintain lakes, natural connection channels of the water system
for health, productivity and environmental quality. Do not convert these important sites into farmland.
Hydrological functions are more important than the production of more crops.
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2.2 Maintain connectivity through freshwater systems

Creation of artificial barriers across waterways impacts the migration patterns of local fish and other
aquatic animals. Maintain connections around wiers, dams or other potential barriers to preserve the
aquatic ecosystem and allow adult fish to reach breeding areas and young fry to get to their adult feeding
habitats.

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2.3 Maintain the drainage and water storage functions of water systems.

Lakes and other wetlands act as sources of water during the dry season while rivers serve as drains during
the wet season. Protect this functionality and prevent the system from being blocked by sedimentation.
Reduce upstream erosion by maintaining good forest cover in catchments and, where necessary, dredge
excess mud and gravel to prevent silting up of channels. Dredging should however be done to minimize
impact on turbidity or aquatic life.

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2.4 Protect biodiversity in aquatic and wetland areas

Wetland ecosystems are highly interconnected and very vulnerable to pollution, over-fishing or loss of
flow. Well-managed wetland systems are highly productive, have high biodiversity, recreation and tourism
potentials and help regulate microclimate. Establish protected areas and apply controls on fishing,
hunting and cutting of vegetation to protect the vital components of these ecosystems.

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2.5 Limit fishing capacity within sustainable limits

Over-fishing results in reduced catches per unit of fishing effort, loss of fish diversity, loss of average fish
size and spread of non-preferred species. There is no advantage in developing greater catch capacity with
larger or more modern methods if traditional fishing efforts are already harvesting at maximum sustainable yield. Small-scale, traditional fishing systems also provide a more socially equitable sharing of
benefits.

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2.6 Maintain the balance of aquatic systems

Do not encourage dominance of particular species by introduction or overstocking. This leads to overuse
of certain food types, loss of other species, loss of ecological balance and ultimately decline in yield.
Manage fisheries in a balanced and sustainable way by preserving diversity. The more species in the
ecosystem, the more stable it will be. Avoid the introduction of exotic species into natural systems.

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2.7 Adjust use of water resources

Over-use of water resources in seasonally dry parts of the country will lead to lowering of the water table,
loss of vegetation and increase in desertification. Determine sustainable use limits for a given locality and
limit development only up to those levels of use. Control the use of deep wells and boreholes.

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2.8 Preserve the natural beauty of scenic spots

Lakes and waterfalls surrounded by natural vegetation are scenically attractive as well as important for
biodiversity. These are excellent sites for outdoor recreation, beauty spots, tourist attractions and sources
of inspiration. Take great care not to sacrifice these increasingly rare values by careless planning of ugly
or polluting developments. There are many less sensitive locations in the ASEAN region for such developments.

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2.9 Provide proper treatment of waste water

Urban and industrial wastewater has a big negative impact on local biodiversity, killing river systems and
lakes and making an ugly and unhealthy living environment. Properly design and use adequate waste
treatment facilities so that towns can enjoy attractive, bio-rich and healthy surroundings. Strictly impose
pollution standards and fine polluters heavily.

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2.10 Maintain natural vegetation around lakes or waterways in towns

Vegetation around lakes and rivers helps to feed and purify those systems leading to an attractive, clean
and healthy environment. Sealing such aquatic systems in sterile concrete leads to eutrophication, and
dead anaerobic water bodies that are less healthy and less attractive.

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2.11 Minimize damage from dredging

Silting of riverbeds and lakes may impede water storage and drainage functions. Dredging may become
necessary but has its own negative impacts, as it impairs water quality and alters speed and direction of
flow that can cause flooding and erosion problems. Minimize the amount dredged and deposit the spoils
at suitable sites where they will not cause further erosion.

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2.12 Preserve floodplains as open spaces

With increasing climatic instability, development of floodplains may result in loss of life and damage to
property, even in areas that have not been flooded for many years. Reserve flood-prone areas for open
spaces, recreation, wildlife sanctuaries or agriculture.

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2.13 Create artificial ponds/lakes

Many quarries and mine pits can be converted into valuable lakes or ponds. Other ponds can be easily
incorporated into developments with forethought and good design. The recreational and biodiversity
value of such ponds can be enhanced if they are suitable for fish stocking. Combine both the deep and
shallow areas. Shallow vegetated areas will benefit fish and amphibians while tall reed areas will be used
by rails and warblers; if bushes are left on safe islands, these will be used as roosts and nesting sites by
egrets and other waterbirds.
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2.14 Ensure appropriate development of lakefronts/coastlines

The natural quality and biodiversity value of lakefronts or coastlines can be easily destroyed by improper
development. Heavy development of the waterfront leads to loss of vegetation and biodiversity and
increases danger of pollution from septic systems. Houses should be set back and clustered to minimize
negative impacts. Develop common docks and access points instead of large numbers of unsightly piers
and landings.

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2.15 Protect riverine and swamp forests

Swamp and riverine forests play a vital role in retaining flood waters, preventing silting of estuaries,
trapping pollutants, and maintaining dry season flow and boat channels; they are also important sites for
biodiversity. Clearance or drainage of such lands can result in flooding, collapse of riverbanks, silting of
river drainage channels and serious loss of biodiversity.

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2.16 Use bridges and causeways properly

Bridges and causeways in wetlands and tidal waters should be built so that water circulation is not
blocked or impeded. Bridges are more desirable than culverts; pile-supported causeways across marshes
and tidal flats preserve natural habitat and biodiversity. They are less disruptive than solid fill.

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2.17 Limit physical development along waterfront

The banks of waterways are highly dynamic. Natural vegetation is important in preserving the bank
structure. Set buildings well back from the waterfront to reduce the dangers of bank erosion, subsidence,
risk of flood damage and impact to the scenic and biological environment.

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3. Developments in Coastal and Marine areas

A high proportion of the population of ASEAN member countries lives along or very close to the coast.
People are therefore highly dependent both on marine and coastal resources, but are also placing great
pressure on such renewable resources as fisheries, mangroves, reefs, recreation and beauty spots and
wildlife. One important feature of this zone is the lack of natural barriers. The ecosystem is open to the
land-based discharge and ocean-borne currents and organisms originating far away from the affected
site. Another feature of the zone is its multi-functionality. Here the needs of communication routes, fisheries, conservation, coastline protection, leisure, tourism, mariculture and waste disposal all overlap. Good
regulation and planning of development are essential.

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3.1 Preserve mangroves and coastal vegetation

Coastal vegetation serves a vital role in stabilizing muddy and sandy substrates. Mangroves, Ipomoea and
Spinifex dune vegetation and thickets of Pandanus and beach forest help promote the reclamation of new
land for agriculture as well as protect coastal areas from sea erosion, typhoons and blowing sand dunes.
They also serve as refuges for wildlife and, in mangrove areas, as breeding sites for fish and prawns.
Mangroves trap sediment and prevent smothering of adjacent coral reefs. Prevent unnecessary clearing of
coastal vegetation and encourage its replanting if already damaged.
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3.2 Limit development of intertidal zone

The intertidal zone is highly productive, serves as an important purification zone, important breeding area
for fish and shrimps, a source of many edible shellfish as well as an attractive recreation zone and important biodiversity habitat. It is also very fragile and can be destroyed by pollution, changes in land run-off
patterns or tidal action. Foods collected from a polluted zone can be a health hazard. Strictly limit any
physical development inside or affecting this zone, and locate them further inland.

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3.3 Develop comprehensive development plan for marine areas

There is generally a great overlap of interest by different sectors on the marine and coastal zone. Thus it is
important to have a comprehensive development plan to ensure that any activity instigated by one agency
would not compromise the needs of other agencies and interests.

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3.4 Protect coral reefs

Coral reefs are highly productive ecosystems that serve many valuable functions: fish nurseries, tourism
areas, water purification, coastal protection. Many reef organisms contain powerful proteins that are
being increasingly developed as medicines. These benefits should not be squandered by needless destruction or development. Protect reefs from coral mining, fishing with explosives and poisons, careless boat
mooring or pollution or silt discharge.

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3.5 Afford special protection to marine mammal colonies

Breeding and feeding habitat for rare marine mammals such as seals, whales and dugong are very
vulnerable to pollution, disturbance and illegal hunting. Plan any development so as not to add more
threats to these sites that are concentrations of large portions of the Pacific populations.

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3.6 Prevent Red Tides and other pollution effects

The sea is often treated as a vast rubbish dump, but pollution causes serious damage to marine ecosystems. Corals become smothered in silt. Fish, shellfish and prawns become dangerous to eat due to heavy
metal discharge. Other waste chemicals promote the blooming of harmful algae (dinoflagelattes), which
release powerful neurotoxins into the food-chain of fish, molluscs and even affect humans in so called
red tides. Reduce pollution from rivers and coastal factories by tackling discharge at source and fining
polluters.
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3.7 Avoid unnecessary reclamation of coastal and tidal waters

As a general rule, coastal and tidal waters should not be filled in or otherwise altered. Filled tidal areas
are often subject to flooding and may result in erosion problems. In addition, filling alters the flow of
water and sediments and destroys wildlife habitat and productive shallow areas. Where such projects do
take place, it may be necessary to create artificial reefs or habitats to compensate for lost biodiversity
habitat and accompanying functions. Such works are difficult and expensive.

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3.8 Avoid bulkheading

Locate planned developments well back from the shoreline to avoid bulkheading along eroding shorelines. Where bulkheading is unavoidable, retain a buffer strip of natural vegetation between the bulkhead
and the sea. This will help prevent undermining the bulkhead, protect wildlife habitat and increase
biological productivity.

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3.9 Respect Scenic quality

Always respect scenic values when designing coastal developments. Maximize public access to scenic
views. Carefully plan the size and location of structures with respect to their visual impact or use buffer
zones to preserve the vistas of estuaries and coastal areas.

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3.10 Use pilings

Where it is deemed necessary to install keys or jetties in tidal water, use pilings rather than solid fill. Water,
sediments and wildlife can move freely beneath the pilings where solid structures would have created
obstructions and changes in water flow and erosion. Besides, pilings are biodegradable and are cheaper
to construct and maintain.

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3.11 Maintain natural drainage patterns

Maintain the natural drainage patterns of shorelands. Canalization and diversion of coastal streams can
increase pollution, change salinity levels and decrease biological activity in estuaries by diverting flow
from marshes, tidal flats and other shallow areas. For the same reasons, avoid building dams and powerstations near the coast.

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3.12 Avoid development along sandy shorelines

Sandy shorefronts are highly fragile and can easily be damaged by storm erosion if the natural vegetation
cover is damaged. Heavy use by humans or machines increases the erosion problem. Problems of flooding, collapse, water supply and waste disposal can also be expected. With great care, place developments on firmer ground, well back from the shoreline.

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4. Developments in Farmlands and Agricultural Areas

The growing of foods is the mainstay of human life and development and, in many areas, a major part of
the export economy. However, current economic and population pressures encourage quantity over
quality and quantity at any cost. This has led to the expansion of agricultural areas into many marginal
lands where agriculture cannot be sustainable. This can cause serious environmental damage in the form
of erosion, soil loss and reduced watershed control. The adoption of intensive farming techniques depletes the soils and long-term sustainability. The use of new, high-yield varieties results in the abandoning
of hundreds of years of careful selection of locally adapted varieties of great genetic value for future
agricultural development. Reliance on new varieties, especially genetically-modified organisms or GMOs
has removed the selective agency from the hands of local farmers to the hands of large multinational
agencies, posing ecological, social and economic risks. Over-dependence on chemical fertilizers and
insecticides results in loss of wildlife pest control, evolution of resistance among some pests and diseases
and an increasingly dangerous escalation of agricultural costs.

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4.1 Maintain diverse farming patterns

Over-dependence on single crops is both ecologically and economically risky. A single pest outbreak or
price drop can be a local disaster. Adopt multiple cropping to minimize associated risks to specific crops.
Diverse land cover also permits more biodiversity.

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4.2 Promote agroforestry in place of shifting cultivation

Shifting cultivation on steep slopes leads to loss of biodiversity, smoke pollution, loss of carbon reserves
and high levels of soil erosion, causing water runoff, poor water conservation and downstream sedimentation. Limit the cultivation on steep slopes and promote the adoption of agroforestry techniques to allow
sustained and more intensive cultivation of the best farmland while returning other slopes to protective
grass or forest cover. Train and encourage local farmers on the sustainable use of smaller but more
intensely developed fields involving the latest agroforestry principles of shelter trees, erosion barriers,
green manure and nitrogen-fixing species.
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4.3 Maintain patches of natural vegetation on farmland

Preserve strips or patches of local wild vegetation on farmland as a source of cover for wildlife that act as
natural pest controls and pollinators, to improve hydrology, give shade and wind protection to crops and
preserve biodiversity and scenic values. Similarly plant trees along dykes, roadsides or other unused
spaces of rural countryside to meet local fuel needs and take pressure off natural vegetation, but avoid
planting pest-prone monoculture (see 1.4).

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4.4 Recycle agricultural waste into the soil

Burning of agricultural waste results in loss of carbon and fertility from the soil, smoke pollution, loss of
biodiversity; reduces water-holding capacity, and kills beneficial soil micro-organisms. Control burning
and promote composting practices to recycle organic material into the soil. Use organic fertilizers rather
than chemicals where possible.

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4.5 Preserve important natural control and pollination agents

Over-use of insecticides leads to indirect destruction of biodiversity, loss of natural pest control agents,
and pollinator insects; insecticides can reach the food chain or water sources of humans and domestic
animals. Chemicals are also expensive. The treated insects may also develop resistance to the poisons
used and become even greater pests than before. Preserve breeding areas and wild populations of natural
controllers of insect pests (e.g. birds, bats, spiders, fish, frogs) and pollinator agents (bees, moths, butterflies, beetles) to reduce dependence on chemicals.
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4.6 Preserve maximal genetic diversity in crops

Discarding local varieties of crops and vegetables to make way for new high yield varieties is causing a
serious loss of agricultural biodiversity and germ-plasm. Many of the new varieties deplete the soils
fertility and require high inputs of costly fertilizer and insecticides. Promote compensation, labeling and
other schemes that would provide incentives for farmers to continue maintaining traditional varieties that
are more sustainable and require less fertilizer and insecticide treatment. Germ-plasm is also needed in
innovation (traditional crossing methods) and development of GMO crops.
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4.7 Promote development of live bunds and terraces

Vegetative terraces (e.g. line of bamboo) can be planted between diversified crops to reduce soil erosion,
increase moisture holding of the land and increase agricultural productivity. These are much cheaper than
land contouring and provide additional benefits like wind breaks and cover for wildlife.

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4.8 Restrict grazing on erosion-prone slopes

Free-ranging animals cause great damage to forest restoration areas and overgrazing and erosion on
hilly terrain. Farmers are forced to invest in protective fences or walls around their crops. Promote the
adoption of stall feeding of livestock combined with more intensive raising of fodder as animal feed.

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4.9 Enhance the biodiversity function of fallow fields

Leaving harvested fields dry throughout the fallow period reduces their ability to support local biodiversity
as well as their overall productivity and the soils fertility. Allow fallow fields to live outside the cropping
season by flooding them as these can create important winter feeding areas or migration staging points
for migrating waterbirds such as geese and cranes.

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5. Development of Protected Areas

Protected areas are the major tools in the services of biodiversity conservation. Such conservation is
essential to preserving the sustainability of a healthy biosphere for human existence. We must preserve
biodiversity and its ecosystem functions to maintain our climate, our hydrology, reduce the damage of
floods and droughts, and protect vital germ plasm on which the sustainability and advancement of our
agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, fisheries and much of our medical advances depends.

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5.1 Create a representative system of protected areas

A system of protected areas should be representative and protect examples of the full range of natural
ecosystems, habitats and altitudes. Select sites that favor areas of special species richness or local endemism and are large enough to regenerate sustainably. Populations of key species should be of a viable
size. Large, connected, diverse sites are better than small isolated or scattered sites.

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5.2 Protect keystone species

Control hunting, otherwise years of good protection can be lost in a short moment. Give special protection to keystone species that serve as pollinator agents, seed dispersal agents, controlling species or have
other essential ecosystem functions. Loss of such species can cause the very fast collapse of balanced
ecosystems.

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5.3 Minimize impact of reserve constructions

Constructions within protected areas should be of low impact design. They should not cause pollution or
visual intrusion into the local scenery. Ideally these should be made of natural, biodegradable materials
with low profile and in local traditional style. Avoid use of non-degradable materials. Avoid unnecessary
construction altogether or locate it outside the protected area.

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5.4 Preserve the wilderness values of protected areas

Plan developments, zoning and regulations so that wilderness values of protected areas are maintained.
This means that the visitor should be able to feel surrounded by the forces of nature and not by the hand
of man. Strictly enforce regulations on intrusive construction, collection of plants, scarring of trees, and
laws against littering and graffiti as well as loud noises.

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5.5 Avoid introduction of exotic species

There is already enough problems with alien invasive species spreading accidentally into nature reserves
and outcompeting or hybridizing with local species and ecosystems. Do not add to the problem by introducing exotic ornamental plants, grasses or trees as well as exotic animals. Do not plant trees in natural
grasslands. Initiate campaigns to eliminate introduced species if exotics become a problem.

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5.6 Maximize connectivity between protected areas

Small isolated protected areas lose component species because they have high local extinction rates and
low natural recolonization rates. Their viability is enhanced by maintaining or recreating connectivity with
other reserves or blocks of natural habitat and also by surrounding them with land cover patterns that are
less contrasted to the natural habitat. For instance, a small forest reserve will fare better if linked to
plantations or agroforestry systems than if it is surrounded by grassland or cereal crops.

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5.7 Safeguard protected areas from excessive tourism impacts

Although tourism brings much-needed revenue to protected areas, tourism activities do have negative
impacts: too much disturbance, compacting of ground, and pollution of water systems can cause damage
to the very resource base the reserve was established to protect. Conduct impact assessments and plan a
zoning system or numerical limits to ensure that levels of tourism use remain within sustainable limits. One
simple way to reduce tourism impact without loss of revenue is to increase the entrance or user fees.

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5.8 Limit access roads into protected areas

Access roads may make the managers job a bit easier but it also makes it very much easier to abuse and
plunder the timber and wildlife resources of protected areas. They also make it economically more tempting to open up agricultural land inside the protected area. Resist the temptation to open up the reserve
with roads. Poor accessibility is natures best defense against unwelcome development. Site roads for
minimal impact.

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5.9 Develop suitable buffers or barriers to reduce incompatible boundary effects

Protected areas cannot always pick compatible neighbors. Adjacent land-use patterns may bring risks of
fire, invasive weeds, pollution, disturbance from domestic animals, human poachers or timber thieves.
Local communities may complain about wildlife pests coming out of protected areas to damage crops
and property. In some cases, use fences or moats to separate these incompatible neighbors. In others,
establish buffers such as timber plantations or plantations of economic crops of little interest to wildlife
(e.g. tea).
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5.10 Avoid construction of dangerous powerlines

High power lines are dangerous to large birds, some of which fly at night. Increase the lines visibility by
using colored plastic balls. Avoid putting power lines inside reserves and into reserve buildings or put
them underground in sealed tubes to avoid electrocution of primates, fruit bats and squirrels.

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6. Development in Rural and Urban Areas

Rural and urban areas constitute the living environment for most people and also the regions undergoing
the most intensive physical development. These are not the most suitable places for preserving biodiversity
but nevertheless there are sound reasons why we should make an extra effort to plan a little biodiversity
into our towns and villages. Green spaces are the lungs of our towns; the natural vegetation, birds,
butterflies and fish can add enormously to the quality of our lives, the health of our living environment
and the understanding of nature by our children.
Trees can transform the local microclimate, rendering our living space cooler in the summer heat and
warmer in the chill of winter. They also absorb much of the polluting sound of busy town life and trap
much of the dust of development. Much of our drinking water comes through pipes lying side by side with
drainage ditches, ponds and sewers leaking into the water table. The healthier we can maintain the entire
water system, the less likelihood of sickness and epidemic.

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6.1 Protect soil cover on construction areas

Grade and seed bare earth as soon as possible after construction. Allowing exposed topsoil to erode,
reduces the visual quality of the site, increases sedimentation and results in unnecessary expense in later
landscaping. Use local species for seeding to avoid the risks of alien invasives (see 7.1).

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6.2 Limit emission of SO2 and other dangerous gases

Industrial discharge of sulphur dioxide leads to acid rain that causes acid to drain into lakes and rivers,
killing fish and other aquatic life. Acid rain on vegetation and forests can kill trees. This can lead to
serious loss of biodiversity and agricultural productivity, threats to human health and decay of metal roofs,
automobiles and other equipment. Severely control industrial emissions and fine polluters.

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6.3 Ensure septic tanks do not pollute water systems

Septic tanks must be properly designed and constructed so as not to pollute local water systems. They
should therefore be large enough and dug deep enough to reach sand or permeable strata and as far
away as possible from water channels or sources of drinking water. They should not be placed below the
water table or close to steep land surfaces.

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6.4 Avoid development of hilltops

Hilltops should not be developed for any infrastructure especially buildings because exposure to wind
increases storm damage, the natural horizon is interrupted and buildings are highly visible. Buildings may
be constructed below hillcrests, which are more sheltered and the building less visible from distant viewpoints.

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6.5 Avoid any unnecessary earthworks in developing sites

Earthworks lead to an unnatural appearance and high levels of erosion aside from disrupting the natural
water flow lines of the landscape. Follow the natural land curves as far as possible to minimize the environmental disturbance and visual impact.

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6.6 Create green buffers in towns

Urban areas are stressful and unhealthy due to dust, smoke and noise pollution. To minimize the effects of
an unhealthy environment, use appropriate green buffers that absorb noise, trap dust, ameliorate climate,
provide a more attractive outlook and attract birds and other wildlife. Use local species that are regionally
acclimatized and do not require a lot of watering; Plant endemic species in order to add to biodiversity
value.

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6.7 Give trees breathing spaces

Do not cover the roots of trees with concrete or paving. Allow trees enough open space for air and water
to get to their roots and for soil organisms to recycle nutrients and create aeration and drainage needed
for healthy vegetation growth.

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6.8 Minimize the burning of leaf litter

Adopt ways to allow leaf and twig litter under urban trees and gardens to be decomposed or recycled into
the soil to improve fertility and quality. Burning these materials creates smoke pollution and deprives the
soil of recycled nutrients needed for fertility and health.

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6.9 Minimize dust pollution

Reduce unnecessary dust pollution. This is a nuisance and health hazard. Trees smothered in dust may
die. Sprinkle with water the access roads around construction sites. Create barriers of dustsheets around
physical works and cover wagons carrying dusty materials on the roads.

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6.10 Avoid building on steep slopes.

Construction on steep slopes causes excessive gully erosion. Structures are liable to collapse and landslides can result. Where construction is inevitable as in road development, considerable expense and
effort must be made to strengthen such slopes and reduce erosion. Site buildings at the bottom of slopes.

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6.11 Enhance biodiversity by urban greening

In designing the greening of urban areas, pay attention to attracting as much of the local biodiversity into
the towns. Plant a wide variety of local species to reduce the environmental contrast between town and
countryside. Select species that offer suitable food or shelter for wildlife. Leave natural wetlands instead of
creating concrete ponds and encourage breeding of birds through use of nest boxes. Leave wild corners
such as clumps of tall trees or bush-covered islands in lakes where wildlife feel safe from people and cats.

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7. Biosafety Issues
As the volume of international trade increases and our economy becomes globalized, the risks of alien
invasives become greater and greater. It has been estimated that every 30,000-tons of grain loaded into a
ship docking into port can bring in 120 tons of exotic weed seeds mixed in its cargo. Other plants are
brought in with little control such as ornamental plants, new vegetables for trial or trees for silvicutural
and forestry use. The ASEAN region import tons of exotic grasses for lawns and golf courses from other
parts of the world. We have large-scale forest plantations and reforestation projects that plant mostly
Eucalyptus, Acacia and other exotic species, rather than our own rich flora. People in the ASEAN region
love ornamental plants and fill their parks and gardens with attractive plants reared in local nurseries. But
why plant South American palms when Brunei and other countries of the ASEAN are the richest palm
centers of the world ?
Where such alien species are able to spread wild in the landscape of the ASEAN region, they pose risks to
local biodiversity and sometimes do great damage to the environment. Worldwide the spread of alien exotic
species has been recognized as the number one cause of extinctions even more serious than habitat loss and
over-harvesting. It is very important that ASEAN countries get on top of this problem, create greater awareness
of the dangers and implement stricter controls and procedures to limit and screen species introductions.
Even greater potential threats are possible with the advent of biotechnology and the development and
release of genetically-modified organisms (GMOs) into the field. These are completely new organisms for
which we have no history of their behavior. We need to establish special risk assessments and trials.
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7.1 Minimize the use of exotic species

The region is rich in natural germ-plasm. It is not necessary to risk introducing exotic species of grass,
shrubs, climbers or trees into the native ecosystem. Colonizer species or near relatives of local species are
the most likely to become alien invasives. Such pests are costing billions of dollars per year in other
countries. ASEAN countries should learn from the mistakes of others and not follow suit. Never use exotic
species if local species can do the job and unless they have undergone stringent biosafety tests.

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7.2 Control the introduction of genetically-modified organisms (GMOs)

Genetically-modified organisms (GMOs) often have superlative properties but there are several risks in
their introduction into the agro-ecosystem. Conduct strict safety trials before field releases are permitted.
Such trials should test for food safety, genetic stability, lack of ability to spread feral into wild ecosystems,
and inability to hybridize with local crops or wild species. Consult centralized GMO databanks in risk
assessment and apply firm regulations.

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7.3 Do not release species outside their natural range

When authorities confiscate illegally-caught animals, it is sometimes deemed suitable to release such
animals back into the wild. However, there have been cases where exotic animals have been released or
where animals have been released far outside their natural range area. Such releases are irresponsible
and cause serious damage to local populations through hybridization, feralisation or introduction of alien
invasives.

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7.4 Control the breeding of exotic animals

The accidental release or escape of exotic animals could similarly disrupt and threaten local biodiversity.
Maintain strict controls over any enterprises undertaking captive breeding of exotic species for display,
commerce (e.g. fur industry) or as exotic food items. Such controls should ensure registration of enterprises holding exotic species; registers of species and numbers held, bred and sold; quarantine checks
and checks on the physical security of the establishments. Western countries have faced disastrous consequences when animal rights supporters have broken into holding establishments and released large
numbers of unsuitable animals into the wild.
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7.5 Control the sale and eating of rare wildlife

Parts of ASEAN countries still have a thriving tradition of eating exotic animals and wildlife. Given the
potentially huge demand for such foods, this type of behavior cannot be sustained. The habit is endangering many wildlife species unnecessarily and giving those countries a bad name internationally. Local
authorities should take measures to discourage such outlets as markets and restaurants dealing in wildlife.

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THE ASEAN REGIONAL CENTRE

FOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
The ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation (ARCBC) is a joint project between the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the European Union (EU), which was established through
the Financing Agreement (FA) signed by the Commission of the European Communities and by the
Government of the Philippines (GOP), on behalf of the ASEAN, in July 1997. The project has a five-year
duration, 1999 to 2004.
The ARCBC shall strengthen the conservation of biodiversity in the ASEAN region by developing a network
of local agencies (National Biodiversity Reference Units or NBRUs) in each participating country. These
are:

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM
Forestry Department
Ministry of Industry
and Primary Resources

CAMBODIA
Department of Nature
Conservation and
Protected Areas
Ministry of Environment
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INDONESIA
Research and Development
Center for Biology
Indonesian Institutes of Sciences

LAO PDR
Science, Technology
and Environment Agency

MALAYSIA
Conservation and Environmental
Management Division
Ministry of Science, Technology
and Environment

PHILIPPINES
Protected Areas and
Wildlife Bureau
Department of Environment
and Natural Resources

SINGAPORE
National Parks Board
Ministry of National
Development

THAILAND
Office of Environmental Policy
and Planning
Ministry of Science, Technology
and Environment

VIETNAM
National Environment Agency
Ministry of Science, Technology
and Environment

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For more information about the project, please write or call:

The ASEAN and EC Co-Directors
ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation (ARCBC)
Headquarters:
P.O. Box 35015 College, Laguna 4031, Philippines
Tels.: +63-49.536-1739 or 536-3989 or 536-1659
Telefax: +63-49.536-3173 or 536-2865
E-mail: contact.us@arcbc.org.ph; git@arcbc.org.ph; jrm@arcbc.org.ph
Website: www.arcbc.org.ph