WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRIAL MINERAL DEPOSITS

PETER W. HARBEN
Once considered the dowdy country cousins of the glamorous
metallics, industrial minerals are shedding their old image. They are
neither common nor easy and their time has come in an age of
increasing specialization. Consider that of the 45 or so industrial
minerals and rocks listed in Table 1, almost three-quarters have ten
or fewer significant suppliers (i.e., those individual countries con-
tributing 2% or more of total world production); in more than half
the cases, 85% of world production is accounted for by only five
countries or fewer. Curiously, even materials that appear to be
virtually ubiquitous like crushed rock and common salt have sig-
nificant production vacuums. For example, there is a severe lack of
sound aggregates along the US Gulf Coast and common salt pro-
duction on a large scale is virtually absent in central Africa. These
examples all underline the obvious, but acute truism that "The
single most important fact about mineral resources is that they are
not distributed equally over the world" (Flawn, 1966).
Just as significant today is that human resources are not dis-
tributed equally over the world, and so arise some interesting
commercial incongruities. In certain regions raw materials are plen-
tiful but consumers are not, and without a market a mineral deposit
is merely a geological curiosity. Elsewhere, there may be a market
but no local raw material supply. For example, despite a huge
market there is no or virtually no commercial production of
chromite, diamonds, and manganese in the United States and Can-
ada, nor phosphate rock, diamonds, rutile, and zirconium minerals
in western Europe. In contrast, Australia with its small domestic
market is the world's largest supplier of bauxite, diamonds, il-
menite, natural and synthetic rutile, and zircon; the same is true for
South Africa which is a leading producer of chromite, manganese,
diamonds, andalusite, ilmenite, rutile, and zircon (Table 2). In the
commercial world, Nature's uneven distribution is counterbalanced
by deep sea international trade.
GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
Continuing with the obvious theme, Stanton (1972) concluded
that most ore deposits appear to be closely related to their geological
environments, and since these geological environments vary over
time, it follows that particular ores should have been conspicuously
concentrated in certain places at certain times. In the metallic world,
these places are known as metallogenic provinces (Govett and
Govett, 1976), a concept that can be applied to a more limited degree
to nonmetallics. Consequently, the basic distribution pattern of
mineral resources is obviously determined by geology. However,
the distribution of commercial production, that is reserves as op-
posed to resources, is influenced by a diverse host of factors. These
include mineral grade and consistency, amenability to mineral ben-
eficiation, geographic location, demographics, latior rates, tax and
investment incentives. ~olitical stabilitv. entre~reneurial skills.
. . < .
transportation, market demands, research and development, price
competitiveness, economic climate, environmental regulations,
government intervention, and timing. Natural and man-made fac-
tors have combined to produce the distribution pattern described
below.
PRODUCTION PATTERNS
The industrial minerals may be broadly placed into geological
pigeon holes (Table 3), although several find themselves residing
comfortably in several slots.
IGNEOUS INTRUSIVE
Olivine, Chromite, Nepheline Syenite, Diamonds
Both olivine and chromite deposits are closely associated with
ultramafic plutonic rocks. The bulk of chromite reserves occur in
the large laterally extensive stratiform or Bushveld-type form OC-
curring in stable shield areas as exemplified by the Bushveld Ig-
neous Complex in South Africa, the Great Dyke of Zimbabwe,
northern Finland, and Bahia State, Brazil. In contrast, the smaller
podiform or Alpine-type deposits occur in mobile belts such as the
Urals of the USSR, the Tethyian mountain chain of the Balkans,
Turkey, and Iran, and in the Circum-Pacific belt. Over@, signif-
icant chromite reserves and production are restricted to less than ten
countries, and nonmetallurgical grades to still fewer, namely South
Africa, the Philippines, Turkey, Greece, Finland, Albania, and In-
dia.
Commercial olivine and dunite deposits are common in the
Alpine-type ultrabasic terrains. A limited market restricts produc-
tion to Norway with 75% of world production; smaller producers
are Spain, Italy, Japan, and the United States. The modest US
production is from North Carolina and Washington state.
Nepheline syenite is a relatively common silica-deficient mag-
matic intrusive rock. However, commercial production is limited to
large operations in Canada, Norway, and the USSR due to the
limited market size, competition from feldspar, and the requirement
for a consistently low iron content. Production from Canada and
Norway is virtually all exported; this accounts for 70 and 30%
respectively of world production, excluding the USSR.
The primary geological habitat for natural diamond is kimber-
lite, an ultrabasic intrusive rock associated with stable shield re-
gions. Diamondiferous kimberlites are concentrated in southern
Africa, the Siberian Platform, Brazil, and Western Australia. Ages
range from Precambrian in South Africa to Recent in Tanzania.
Diamonds are also produced commercially from placer deposits
such as in Namibia (see the sedimentary section that follows).
Overall, Africa is a prime region for diamond production, in par-
ticular South Africa, Botswana, Namibia, Lesotho, Swaziland, and
INDUSTRIAL MINERALS AND ROCKS
Table 1. Distribution of World Industrial Minerals
Production (tons)
Table 1. Distribution of World Industrial Minerals
Production (tons) (cont.)
-
%
% world
world production
Production production cumulative
Asbestos 4 325 487
USSR 2 600 000 60 60
Canada
Brazil
Zimbabwe
China
South Africa
Greece
Barite
China
Mexico
USSR
Turkey
lndia
Morocco
United States
Germany
Bauxite
Australia
Guinea
Jamaica
Brazil
lndia
USSR
China
Suriname
Yugoslavia
Hungary
Greece
Bentonite
United States
USSR
Greece
Japan
ltaly
Brazil
Germany
Mexico
Romania
Beryl 8 bertrandite
United States
USSR
Brazil
Boron minerals
Turkey
United States
Argentina
USSR
Bromine
United States
Israel
USSR
United Kingdom
France
Japan
Chromite
South Africa
USSR
lndia
Finland
Albania
Turkey
- -
%
% world
world production
Production production Cumulative
Zimbabwe 570 000 5 94
Brazil 225 000 2 96
Diamond (carats)
Industrial, natural
Australia
Zaire
USSR
South Africa
Botswana
Gem, natural
Australia
Botswana
USSR
South Africa
Zaire
Namibia
Angola
Diatomite
United States
France
Romania
USSR
Spain
Korea
Denmark
Mexico
Germany
Feldspar
ltaly
United States
USSR
Germany
France
Korea
Thailand
Spain
Brazil
Mexico
South Africa
Romania
Fluorspar
China
Mexico
Mongolia
USSR
South Africa
France
Spain
ltaly
United Kingdom
Kenya
Morocco
Thailand
Fuller's earth
United States
Senegal
Spain
Garnet'
United States
lndia
China
WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRIAL MINERAL DEPOSITS
17
Table 1. Distribution of World Industrial Minerals
Production (tons) (cont.)
%
% world
world production
Production production cumulative
Australia 14 515 1 1 93
Norway 7 257 5 98
' capacity
Table 1. Distribution of World Industrial Minerals
Production (tons) (cont.)
%
% world
world production
Production production cumulative
Lithium' 12 000
United States 5 600 47 47
Chile 1 700 14 61
Graphite
China
Korea
USSR
lndia
Mexico
Brazil
Australia 1 300
USSR 1 089
China 730
Zimbabwe 730
Canada 500
Brazil 290
' capacity of lithium content
--
Czechoslovakia 25 000 4 86
Magnesite &
N. Korea 25 000 4 90 magnesia' 10 401 000
Madagascar 14 000 2 92 USSR
2 200 000 21
Turkey 13 000 2 94 N. Korea
1 250 000 12
Zimbabwe 1 1 000 2 96
United States 1 013 000 10
Gypsum
United States
Canada
Iran
China
Japan
France
Spain
Thailand
Mexico
Germany
Australia
China
Czechoslovakia
Greece
Austria
Japan
Brazil
Turkey
Yugoslavia
lndia
Spain
capacity in MgO
Manganese*
USSR
South Africa
Gabon
Australia
Brazil
China
lndia
metal content
1 010 000
700 000
612 000
576 000
485 000
345 000
285 000
240 000
229 000
205 000
equivalent
8 443 000
2 630 000
1 520 000
1 215 000
1 008 000
605 000
544 000
508 000
Iodine
Japan
Chile
USSR
United States
China
Natural iron oxide
India 145 000
United States 42 034
Spain 31 000
France 15 000
Cyprus 10 000
Austria 9 000
Chile 8 300
Brazil 6 000
Germany 5 000
reported producers only
Kaolin 25 669 083
United States 8 973 668
United Kingdom 3 140 000
USSR 2 000 000
Colombia 1 800 000
France 1 400 000
Korea 1 219 174
Brazil 846 200
Germany 825 000
India 755 000
Czechoslovakia 680 000
Kyanite and
related minerals 477 000
South Africa 270 700
United States 90 000
India 53 000
France 50 000
Mica
United States
USSR
Korea
lndia
Canada
France
Nepheline syenite
USSR
Canada
Norway
Nitrogen
(ammonia)
USSR
China
United States
lndia
Canada
Netherlands
Romania
Indonesia
Poland
Mexico
Olivine & dunite*
Norway
Spain
18 INDUSTRIAL MINERALS AND ROCKS
Table 1. Distribution of World Industrial Minerals
Production (tons) (cont.)
Table 1. Distribution of World Industrial Minerals
Production (tons) (cont.)
Yo
% world
world production
Production ~roduction cumulative
Japan 350 000 5 94
Italy 200 000 3 97
* estimated capacity
Perlite 1 777 000
United States 580 000
USSR 544 000
Greece 160 000
Turkey 145 000
Hungary 110 000
Japan 77 000
Italy 71 000
Czechoslovakia 43 500
Mexico 36 000
Phosphate rock' 50 488 000
United States 14 893 000
USSR 10 850 000
Morocco 8 000 000
China 4 100 000
Jordan 1 800 000
Tunisia 1 800 000
Brazil 1 290 000
Israel 1 231 000
Togo 1 208 000
South Africa 1 040 000
* P,O, content
- .
Potash* 29 789 000
USSR 10 500 000
Canada 7 458 000
Germany 5 440 000
United States 1 595 000
Israel 1 271 000
France 1 200 000
Jordan 790 000
Spain 745 000
* K,O equivalent
Pumice/pozzolan 10 964 348
Italy 5 225 000
Greece 1 600 000
Spain 900 000
Turkey 700 000
United States 443 000
France 400 000
Yugoslavia 400 000
Chile 290 000
Guadeloupe 220 000
Pyrophyllite 2 205 000
Japan 1 231 300
S. Korea 640 000
United States 83 301
Brazil 75 000
N. Korea 70 000
India 60 000
Rare earth
minerals* 70 000
United States 26 000
China 20 350
Australia 1 1 020
Malaysia 3 900
Brazil 2 200
India 2 200
USSR 1 500
'REO; excludes production from South Afl
the United States
37
29
16
6
3
3
2
rica and
37
66
82
88
91
94
96
monazite from
%
% world
world production
Production production cumulative
Salt 209 988 000
United States 38 856 000 19 19
China 30 850 000 15 34
Germany
USSR
Canada
lndia
France
Mexico
Australia
Poland
Romania
United Kingdom
Brazil
ltaly
Netherlands
Soda ash
United States
USSR
China
Germany
France
Japan
Bulgaria
lndia
United Kingdom
Poland
Romania
ltaly
Spain
Sodium sulfate
United States
Spain
USSR
Mexico
Germany
Canada
Japan
Belgium
Turkey
France
ltaly
Austria
Sweden
United Kingdom
Silica sand
United States
Netherlands
Argentina
France
Germany
Peru
ltaly
Japan
United Kingdom
Venezuela
lndia
Canada
Brazil
Belgium
South Africa
Yugoslavia
Australia
Spain
WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRIAL MINERAL DEPOSITS
Table 1. Distribution of World Industrial Minerals
Production (tons) (cont.)
Table 1. Distribution of World Industrial Minerals
Production (tons) (cont.)
%
% world
world production
Production Droduction cumulative
Strontium 244 300
minerals
Mexico 91 000 37 37
Turkey 59 000 24 61
Spain 40 000 16 77
United Kingdom 25 000 10 87
Iran
Algeria
Sulfur
United States
USSR
Canada
Poland
China
Japan
Germany
Mexico
Saudi Arabia
Iraq
Spain
France
Talc 8 steatite
United States
China
USSR
Brazil
lndia
Finland
France
Australia
S. Korea
Italy
Austria
Canada
N. Korea
Norway
Titanium minerals'
llmenite
Australia
Canada
South Africa
Norway
Malaysia
%
% world
world production
Production production cumulative
USSR 250 000 6 83
India 200 000 5 88
United States 210 000 5 93
China 90 000 2 95
Brazil 83 000 2 97
Sri Lanka 80 000 2 99
Rutile 520 000
Australia 260 000 50
Sierra Leone 120 000 23
South Africa 56 000 1 1
United States 26 000 5
India 19 000 4
Brazil 15 000 3
Sri Lanka 13 000 2
USSR 10 000 2
Synthetic rutile 580 000
Australia 250 000 43
lndia 138 000 24
United States 100 000 17
Japan 46 000 8
Malaysia 46 000 8
' capacity in TiO, content
Vermiculite 595 705
United States 304 000 51
South Africa 227 791 38
Argentina 22 267 4
Brazil 17 000 3
Japan 17 000 3
Zirconium
minerals 993 088
Australia 546 000 55
South Africa 160 000 16
United States 118 388 12
USSR 90 000 9
Malaysia 19 700 2
Brazil 19 000 2
India 16 000 1
China 15 000 1
Thailand 5 000
Sri Lanka 4 000
Source: Industrial Minerals HandyBook, 1 992.
20 INDUSTRIAL MINERALS AND ROCKS
Some pegmatites are rich in lithium minerals such as spo-
dumene, petalite, and lepidolite which are separated to form a
lithium concentrate plus byproduct feldspar, quartz, and/or mica.
The main production area is around Kings Mountain, NC, Bikita,
Zimbabwe, western Canada, the USSR, and Western Australia.
These pegmatitic sources of lithium, which account for over 70%
of the supplies, are being strongly challenged by lithium extracted
from brines (see following). Beryl is also associated with pegma-
tites as in Brazil, the USSR, and western Canada. Production of
bertrandite in Utah has increased to account for 60% of the world's
beryllium supply.
Fluorspar is a "persistent" mineral occurring in various ore
deposits including Mississippi Valley (leadzinc) type deposits,
hydrothermal veins, stratabound or Manto deposits, contact meta-
morphic terrains, and alkali rock complexes. Over 70% of world
production comes from China, Mexico, Mongolia, and South Af-
rica. Much of the production is exported. Mexico dominates the
North American industry since mines in the midwestern United
States and eastern Canada have closed. In Europe, significant pro-
duction comes from Spain, Italy, France, and the United Kingdom
whose combined total is 10% of world supplies. Other producers,
largely for export, include Thailand, Brazil, Morocco, and Kenya.
SURFICIALLY ALTERED
Sands, Kaolin, Bauxite, Manganese, Vermiculite
Feldspar-rich deposits subject to weathering break down to
form feldspathic sand deposits such as those exploited in the west-
ern United States and in Spain. Further weathering forms a mixture
of feldspar, silica, and kaolin such as that mined in Bavaria. Still
further decomposition through weathering and/or hydrothermal ac-
tivity eliminates much of the mica and silica and yields premier
quality deposits of kaolin such as those mined in Cornwall, Georgia
and the Carolinas in the southeastern United States, and in the
Amazon Basin of Brazil. The United States, plus the United King-
dom, produce almost 50% of the world's kaolin, and more signif-
icantly, virtually all the coating-grade material. Other supplie~s of
quality kaolin include France, Germany, Czechoslovakia, Brazil,
Malaysia, and Australia.
Vermiculite is a supergene alteration product formed by the
combined effects of weathering and circulating groundwater.
Large-scale commercial production is confined to South Carolina
and Virginia in the United States and the Palabora Complex in South
Africa which contribute 90% of world supplies. Minor quantities
come from Japan, Brazil, Argentina, and Kenya.
Since residual bauxite deposits result from the tropical weath-
ering of a variety of source rocks, their distribution is based on
climatology rather than lithology. Formation is encouraged by long
periods of tectonic stability permitting deep and thorough weath-
ering. Most bauxite deposits are post-Cretaceous in age and many
occur in modern tropical regions. Bauxite provinces have been
defined as follows:
A dozen countries contribute 95% of world production with
70% plus coming from Australia, Guinea, Jamaica, and Brazil.
Nonmetallurgical grades, that is for refractories, abrasives, chem-
icals, and aluminum cement, come from China, Australia, Guinea,
Brazil, Guyana, and Suriname.
Manganese is found in most geological environments; the more
important commercially being sedimentary and residual. Large
sedimentary marine deposits of manganese are exploited in the
Ukraine, the USSR, the Kalahari Basin of South Africa, Groote
Eylandt, Australia, and in Mexico. Residual deposits are important
in Ghana and Gabon in west Africa and in Amapri, Brazil. Over 90%
of world production comes from seven countries-the USSR, South
Africa, Gabon, Australia, Brazil, China, and India. Nonmetallur-
gical grades constitute a relatively small percentage of output from
these major suppliers, plus smaller tonnage producers such as
Ghana, Morocco, and Greece.
Iron oxides are generally associated with volcanic activity and
sulfide deposits combined with subsequent leaching and diagenic
alteration. The world's largest supplier with over 50% of production
is India, followed by the United States with an additional 15%. US
production is concentrated in Georgia, Virginia, and Missouri.
European production, accounting for over a fifth of world produc-
tion, is centered on Spain, United Kingdom, France, Italy, and
Austria (the latter being the main source of natural micaceous
oxide). Cyprus is noted for its variety of iron oxides including ocher
and umber.
Tripoli is a microcrystalline and friable high-silica (98 to 99%)
material formed from the weathering of siliceous limestone. The
only large-scale commercial producers are in the United States,
specifically the southwestern Missouri-northeastern Oklahoma re-
gion, southern Illinois, and the Ouachita Mountain region of Ar-
kansas. Deposits in the latter region are associated with novaculite.
Natural zeolites are formed through the reaction of pore water
with volcanic glass, clay, feldspar, and a variety of other rocks and
minerals. Although zeolites have been recognized in virtually all
parts of the world, large-scale commercial production is restricted
to the western United States, Cuba, Japan, and several eastern
European countries including Bulgaria.
VOLCANIC EXTRUSIVE
Pumice and Perlite
Because of their susceptibility to devitrification and alteration.
commercial deposits of extrusive volcanic rocks like perlite and
pumice are generally confined to younger geological terrains. Per-
lite deposits, which are rarely older than Oligocene, are exploited
in the western United States, Mexico, Greece, Turkey, Italy, west-
em USSR, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Japan. Between them, the
United States and the USSR account for over two-thirds of world
production. Pumice is common on volcanic islands such as Lipari
near Sicily, Yali and Nisisros in Greece, and the Canary Islands of
Spain. These three countries control over 70% of the world's pum-
iie supply. In addition, large deposits are worked in the western
United States, particularly California, Arizona, New Mexico, and
Guiana Shield of South America (Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam,
Nevada. smaller tonnages come from France, Yugoslavia, Chile,
Guiana, and parts of Brazil and Colombia)
and Guadeloupe.
Northern ~r ai i l i an Shield Province
Caribbean Shield Province (Costa Rica. Jamaica, Dominican
SEDIMENTARY
Republic, Haiti, and Puerto Rico)
Guinea Shield Province (Guinea-Bissau to Togo) Silica, Ball Clays, Titanium & Zirconium Minerals,
Cameroon Province (Cameroon, Zaire)
Rare Earths, Diamonds
Australian Province
European Province (France, Greece, Hungary, and Yugoslavia) Sedimentary deposits are formed through the erosion, transpor-
Others (United States, China, USSR, India, Malaysia). tation, and redeposition of minerals that can survive the rigors of
22 INDUSTRIAL MINERALS AND ROCKS
Table 2. Regional Distribution of Industrial Minerals Production (O/OWorld Production) (cont.)
EASTERN EUROPE
Albania Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Hungary Poland Romania USSR Yugoslavia Total
Asbestos 60 60
Barite 10 10
Bauxite 3 4 3 10
Bentonite 2 30 32
Beryl 26 26
Boron minerals 7 7
Bromine 15 15
Chromite 32 38
Diamond
industrial 13 13
gem 10
10
Diatomite 14 14
Feldspar 2 8 10
Fluorspar 7 7
Fuller's earth
-
Garnet
-
Graphite 13 17
Gypsum
-
Iodine 13 13
Iron oxide
-
Kaolin 8 11
Kyanite etc.
-
Lithium 9 9
Magnesite 2 1 2 30
Manganese 31 31
Mica 19 19
Nepheline syenite 77 77
Nitrogen 20 20
Olivine 8 dunite
-
Perlite 31 39
Phosphate rock 21 21
Potash 31 31
Pumice 4 4
Pyrophyllite -
Rare earths
-
Salt 8 14
Soda ash 15 24
Sodium sulfate 13 13
Silica sand 2 2
Strontium minerals
-
Sulfur 16 25
Talc 8 steatite 8 8
Titanium minerals
llmenite 6 6
Rutile 2 2
Syn. rutile
-
Vermiculite
-
Zirconium minerals 9 9
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24 INDUSTRIAL MINERALS AND ROCKS
Table 2. Regional Distribution of Industrial Minerals Production
(% World Production) (cont.)
NORTH AMERICA
Canada Mexico United States Total
Asbestos 16 16
Barite 10 5 15
Bauxite
-
Bentonite 2 32 34
Beryl 60 60
Boron minerals 37 37
Bromine 41 41
Chromite -
Diamond
industrial
-
em
-
Diatomite 37
Feldspar 17
Fluorspar 15
Fuller's earth 61
Garnet 48
Graphite 7
Gypsum 30
Iodine 9
Iron oxide 15
Kaolin 35
Kyanite etc. 19
Lithium 5 1
Magnesitelmagnesia 10
Manganese -
Mica 50
Nepheline syenite 16
Nitrogen 15
Olivine 8 dunite
-
Perlite 35
Phosphate rock 29
Potash 30
Pumice 4
Pyrophyllite 4
Rare earths 37
Salt 29
Soda ash 29
Sodium sulfate 33
Silica sand 2 1
Strontium minerals 37
Sulfur 35
Talc 8 steatite 20
Titanium minerals
llmenite 24
Rutile 5
Syn. rutile 17
Vermiculite 51
Zirconium minerals 12
WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRIAL MINERAL DEPOSITS 25
Table 2. Regional Distribution of Industrial Minerals Production (% World Production) (cont.)
SOUTH AMERICA & CARIBBEAN
Argentina Brazil Chile Colombia Guadeloupe Jamaica Peru Suriname Venezuela Total
Asbestos 5 5
Barite -
Bauxite 8 10 3 21
Bentonite 2 2
Beryl 12 12
Boron minerals 7 7
Bromine -
Chromite 2 2
Diamond
industrial -
gem
-
Diatomite -
Feldspar 3 3
Fluorspar -
Fuller's earth -
Garnet -
Graphite 5 -
Gypsum -
Iodine 26 26
Iron oxide 2 3 5
Kaolin 3 7 10
Kyanite etc. -
Lithium 2 14 16
Magnesite 3 3
Manganese 7 7
Mica -
Nepheline syenite -
Nitrogen -
Olivine & dunite -
Perlite -
Phosphate rock 4 4
Potash -
Pumice 3 5
Pyrophyllite 3 3
Rare earths 3 3
Salt 2 2
Soda ash -
Sodium sulfate -
Silica sand 8 2 3 17
Strontium minerals -
Sulfur -
Talc & steatite 7 7
Titanium minerals
llmenite 2 2
Rutile 3 3
Syn. rutile -
Vermiculite 4 3 7
Zirconium minerals 2 2
(cont.)
26 INDUSTRIAL MINERALS AND ROCKS
Table 2. Regional Distribution of Industrial Minerals Production ( O h World Production) (~0nt.1
AUSTRALASIA
North South
Australia China India Indonesia Japan Korea Korea Malaysia Mongolia Sri Lanka Thailand Total
Asbestos 4
4
Barite 31 7
38
Bauxite 37 4
41
-
Bentonite
-
Beryl -
Boron minerals
Bromine
3
-
Chromite
Diamond
industrial 34
34
41
41
gem
Diatomite 4
4
Feldspar 4
4 8
Fluorspar 30
2 36
Fuller's earth
-
Garnet 11 14 20
45
Graphite 32 9 4 16
71
Gypsum 2 8 6
6 22
Iodine 3 49
51
Iron oxide 51
51
Kaolin 3 5
8
Kyanite etc. 11
11
Lithium 11 6
17
Magnesite 10 2 4 12
28
Manganese 12 6 6
24
Mica 10
21
-
Nepheline syenite
Nitrogen 17 7 3
27
Olivine 8 dunite 5
5
Perlite 4
4
Phosphate rock 8
8
-
Potash
-
Pumice
Pyrophyllite 56 3 29
88
Rare earths 16 29 3 6
54
Salt 4 15 5
24
Soda ash 9 3 4
16
Sodium sulfate 6
6
Silica sand 2 3 4
9
-
Strontium minerals
Sulfur 8 4
12
Talc 8 steatite 3 12 6 2 3
26
Titanium minerals
llmenite 26 2 5
Rutile 50 4
Syn. rutile 43 24
Vermiculite
Zirconium minerals 55 1
WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRIAL MINERAL DEPOSITS
27
Table 2. Regional Distribution of Industrial Minerals Production (% World Production) (cont.)
MIDDLE EAST
Cyprus Iran Iraq Israel Jordan Saudi Arabia Turkey Total
Asbestos -
Barite
8
Bauxite
8
-
Bentonite -
Beryl -
Boron minerals 47
Bromine
47
Chromite
28
Diamond
5 5
industrial -
gem -
Diatomite -
Feldspar -
Fluorspar -
Fuller's earth -
Garnet -
Graphite
Gypsum
2
-
Iodine -
Iron oxide
Kaolin
3
-
Kyanite etc. -
Lithium -
Magnesite 3
Manganese -
Mica -
Nepheline syenite -
Nitrogen -
Olivine & dunite -
Perlite
8
Phosphate rock
Potash
7
Pumice
7
Pyrophyllite
6
-
Rare earths -
Salt -
Soda ash -
Sodium sulfate
Silica sand
4
-
Strontium minerals
Sulfur
33
Talc & steatite
2
-
Titanium minerals
llmenite -
Rutile -
Syn. rutile -
Vermiculite -
Zirconium minerals -
Source: lndustrial Minerals HandyBook, 1992.
28 INDUSTRIAL MINERALS AND ROCKS
Table 3. Geological Classification of Industrial Minerals sedimentary deposit may undergo metamorphism and recementing
(Adapted From Harben and Bates, 1984) to produce quartzite. Sand and gravel for construction use is ex-
tremely common, and production is more dependent on local mar-
Primary commercial environment
kets than availability. However, certain areas are noted for the
Alternative sources
IGNEOUS
production of industrial sand sufficiently pure to be used in the
lntrusive
manufacture of glass, ceramics, sodium silicate and the like. Ex-
Olivine Sedimentary (placer)
amples include the midwest region of the United States, Badgeley
Chromite Sedimentary (placer)
Island, Ontario, Canada, Cheshire in northwest England, the Loch
Nepheline syenite Aline area of Scotland, areas of Belgium and the Netherlands, Cape
Granite Flattery Island, Queensland, Australia, and Sarawak, Malaysia. In
Pegmatitic & hydrothermal
many cases, the use of local sand is based on price rather than
Feldspar Alterationlsedimentary (sand) quality. The United States and the Netherlands are the largest
Mica producers of industrial sand, each accounting for over one-fifth of
Quartz crystal Synthetic
world production. Production of flint is much more restricted, based
Lithium minerals Evaporate
largely on the chalk deposits of southern England and northern
Beryllium minerals
France.
Fluorspar
Several clays composed mainly of kaolinite are of sedimentary
Extrusive
origin. Premier deposits of ball clay, the carbon content of which
Basalt & related rocks
indicates that it was deposited in swampy conditions, occur in the
Pumice, pumicite, & scoria
Perlite
Kentucky-Tennessee area of the United States, Devon in southwest
SEDIMENTARY
England, and in Czechoslovakia. Flint clay, as produced commer-
Clastic
cially in the United States, China, Israel, Australia, and Argentina,
Sand & gravel
is generally derived from the weathering of soil and deposition in
Sandstone
shallow basins. Fire clay or refractory kaolin is a kaolinite material
Clays common in many parts of the world, particularly in association with
Titanium & zirconium minerals Intrusive
coal deposits. A 400-km belt of kaolinite-rich rocks extends from
Rare-earth minerals Intrusive
Aiken, South Carolina, to Eufaula, Alabama, and includes areas
Diamonds Intrusivelsynthetic
supplying high- and medium-quality kaolin and refractory kaolin.
Biogenetic
Another belt of kaolin, bauxite, and bauxitic and kaolinitic clays
Limestone & dolomite
extends from western Tennessee into northeastern Mississippi.
Diatomite
Other areas include southwest England and over the Channel into
Phosphate
Sulfur Hydrothermallbyproduct
France (kaolin and ball clay), various parts of Czechoslovakia
(kaolin and ball clay), Spain, the Amazon Basin in Brazil (bauxite,
Chemical
Barite
kaolin), Japan (kaolin, refractory clay, roseki, and toseki), and
Alterationlsedirnentary
Salt
eastern Australia (bauxite, kaolin).
Sodium carbonate Synthetic
Volcanic ash deposited as part of a sedimentary sequence even-
Sodium sulfate Byproduct
tually forms sodium or calcium bentonite. Important bentonite
Nacholite & dawsonite
deposits occur in the United States in the Wyoming and Montana
Gypsum Byproduct region (sodium-based bentonite) and in the Mississippi-Texas re-
Potassium minerals gion (calcium-based). Over 30% of the world's bentonite produc-
Borates
tion is from these and some smaller deposits in the United States.
Celestite
More modest tonnages are produced over the borders in Mexico and
Nitrates
Bromine
Canada. In Europe, bentonite is mined on Milos Island, Greece,
Iodine
Cyprus, Turkey, Sardinia, Bavaria, southern England, and Spain. In
SURFlClALLY ALTERED
Asia production is centered on Japan, India, and China. Attapulgite
Vermiculite
and sepiolite (fuller's earth) are more restricted, being produced in
Manganese minerals
Georgia and Florida in the United States, Germany, the United
Bauxite Kingdom, Senegal, and Spain.
Iron oxide Placer and pal ae~- ~l acer mineral deposits are important sources
Tripoli & novaculite
of heavy minerals such as ilmenite, rutile, and zircon. Monazite and
Zeolites
xenotime, rare earth sources, are invariably associated with the
METAMORPHIC
mineral sands deposits. Many titanium/zirconium/rare earth min-
Marble
Slate
era1 deposits are Tertiary and Quaternary in age since this was a
Asbestos
period of geological uplift which provided the correct conditions for
Magnesite & magnesia Igneous/sedimentary/synthetic
accumulation plus the fact that older examples have been destroyed.
Graphite Synthetic
Important areas include the east and west coasts of Australia, parts
Corundum & emery Synthetic of Florida and Georgia in southeast United States, around Richards
Garnet Sedimentary (placer) Bay, South Africa, and Sierra Leone in Africa, the coastal areas of
Wollastonite Synthetic
Tamil Nadu and Kerala states in southern India extending into
Sillimanite minerals
eastern Sri Lanka, and the coastal areas of Brazil. Consequently,
Pyrophyllite
supplies are dominated by Australia, South Africa, United States,
Sierra Leone, India, and Brazil. Hard-rock ilmenite deposits are
exploited in Quebec, Canada, and in Norway. The sole commercial
transportation. The most common is silica which forms a number source of baddeleyite (ZrO,) is as a byproduct of phosphate and
of materials including silica sand, sand and gravel, and flint. The copper production at Palabora, Transvaal, South Africa. Except for
precursor is igneous quartz (for example, in granite), and then the the United States, most of the production is exported.
Synthetic
Sedimentary
WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRIAL MINERAL DEPOSITS
Major diamondiferous beach placers extend along the south-
west coast of Africa and are exploited in South Africa and Namibia.
BIOGENIC
Limestone/Dolomite, Diatomite,
Phosphate Rock, Sulfur
Limestone is an extremely common rock formed as shell beds
on a shallow sea floor. Purity depends on the environment of
deposition and the subsequent mineralogical and tectonic history
which may include metamorphism to marble. Limestone is ex-
ploited for uses ranging from construction aggregates and railroad
ballast through cement and lime manufacturing, glassmaking to
functional fillers in paper, plastics, and paint. The relatively modest
price even for the high-calcium and high-brightness grades (less
than $200/ton) means that consumption is generally close to the
point of production, i.e., a local or regional market. In the United
States, for example, crushed limestone is produced in all states
except for Louisiana (which does produce shell), includes over
2 500 quarries, and accounts for some 66% of the nation's crushed
stone output. High-quality filler-grade calcium carbonate produced
in Vermont, Massachusetts, and Maryland serves the northeast,
Georgia and Alabama the southeast, Illinois the midwest, Texas the
south and south-central region, and California the west. In Canada
production is in Ontario and British Columbia. In western Europe
chalk is important in the United Kingdom, France, and Belgium,
whereas crushed marble is often used in Italy and Greece.
Dolomite has many of the uses outlined for limestone, plus
several others including refractories, seawater magnesia and mag-
nesium metal production, and as a dimension stone. Although less
common than limestone, dolomite production, particularly for ag-
gregates, is extremely widespread. In the United States some 136
dolomite quanies operating in 25 states contribute 4% of the coun-
try's crushed rock output. Nonaggregate production is concentrated
in California, Ohio, Michigan, Alabama, Texas, Connecticut, and
Pennsylvania. Europe has an active dolomite industry where it is
used extensively as a raw material for refractories and seawater
magnesia production. The main producers are Spain, the United
Kingdom, Belgium, France, Germany, Norway, Sweden, and Fin-
land.
Diatomite deposits are formed through the accumulation of the
frustules of diatoms, small animals that thrived after the Cretaceous
period. Diatoms require marine or freshwater rich in nutrients like
phosphates, nitrates, and silica, but relatively free of sediment. In
many cases the diatomite is associated with volcanic activity which
may be the source of silica. Important diatomite production sites
include the western United States--especially California, Nevada,
Washington, and Oregon. More than three-quarters of the world's
production comes from the United States, France, Romania, and the
USSR, with lesser amounts from Denmark (mainly moler, an im-
pure diatomite product), Spain, Germany, Italy, Iceland, and Korea.
The bulk of commercial phosphorus-based compounds is de-
rived from marine sedimentary phosphate rock deposits with much
of the rest derived from igneous deposits. Sedimentary phosphate
deposits are concentrated in two main belts, the trade-wind belt
aligned north-south from the Equator to SO0 and the Equatorial belt
oriented west to east in low latitudes. Examples include:
Trade-wind belt
Southeast and northwest United States
Florida, North Carolina, Idaho
Baja California, Mexico
Sechura Desert, Peru
Caribbean Sea
Equatorial belt
North Africa
Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Togo
Middle East
Jordan, Israel, Syria, Senegal, Iran
USSR
Venezuela
Colombia
Some two-thirds of the world's phosphate rock production
comes from the US, the USSR, and Morocco, the latter being the
leading exporter. There are a series of middle-range producers
including China, Jordan, Tunisia, Brazil, Israel, Togo, and South
Africa. The production in the USSR, Brazil, and South Africa is
largely derived from igneous deposits which may also yield rare
earths, vermiculite, andlor copper.
EVAPORITE MINERALS
Barite, Salt, Sodium Carbonate, Sodium Sulfate,
Gypsum, Potassium Minerals, Borates, Celestite,
Nitrates, Bromine, Iodine, Lithium, Magnesia
Certain minerals are found dissolved in seawater and various
other brines; evaporite deposits form when the concentration
reaches saturation and precipitation occurs. This process requires
favorable conditions such as a barred basin or broad shelf envi-
ronment, plus a hot dry climate that encourages evaporation. Once
formed, the fragile deposit needs to be preserved through subse-
quent geological events such as burial. Halite, gypsum, and anhy-
drite, often interbedded with limestone and dolomite, are the most
common minerals present in marine evaporites which often extend
over hundreds of square kilometers and attain a thickness in excess
of several thousand meters. In rarer cases other evaporite minerals
are present such as potassium minerals, borates, and strontium
minerals.
Common salt lives up to its name by being ubiquitous in most
brines and many evaporate deposits. It is exploited commercially
from seawater where the modern climate allows evaporation, for
example in Western Australia, Mexico, Bahamas, Netherlands An-
tilles, Sri Lanka, India, Brazil, Italy, and Spain. Large buried rock
salt and salt dome deposits are important in the northeastern, south-
ern, and the midwestern areas of North America, central and north-
ern Europe, parts of the USSR, and the Middle East. Saline lakes
are worked in the western United States, for example the Great Salt
Lake in Utah (which yields or has yielded sodium sulfate, potassium
minerals, magnesium chloride, bromine, and lithium as well as salt)
and Searles Lake in California (sodium sulfate and borates). Despite
its widespread production, three-quarters of the world production
is accounted for by just ten producers.
In some cases, potassium minerals are found associated with
salt. During the Permian period in Europe, for example, the
Zechstein Basin extended from northern Britain through the Neth-
erlands, Denmark, Germany, to Poland. This was a shallow stable
sea that allowed thick evaporite sequences to accumulate resulting
in the large potash and salt deposits exploited today. To the east in
the USSR, three basins contain vast reserves of potash-Stebnikl
Kalush in the Ukraine near the border with Poland, Soligorsk near
Minsk in Byelorussia, and SolikamsWBerezniki west of the Urals.
In western Canada during the Silurian to mid-Devonian period, the
land subsided to form a large basin stretching southward into the
United States. This allowed vast thicknesses of evaporites to be
formed including the potash resources of Saskatchewan, Canada. A
large potasNsalt rich basin identified in Thailand has potential for
commercial production. Despite its strategic importance as a fer-
INDUSTRIAL MlNERi 9LS AND ROCKS
tilizer, large-scale potash production is fairly restricted with just
eight countries-the USSR, Canada, Germany, the United States,
Israel, France, Jordan, and Spain-accounting for 97% of world
production.
In addition to salt, other sodium-rich minerals are concentrated
in modem brines or evaporate deposits. Vast deposits of natural
sodium carbonate or trona around Green River, Wyoming, yield
over 10 Mtpy of refined soda ash and form a soda feedstock for a
variety of chemical products. Smaller deposits are known in China
and Turkey. Sodium carbonate is also extracted from saline lakes
in the western United States, Mexico, China, the USSR, and in
Africa. Lake Magadi, Kenya, which has been producing sodium
carbonate for most of this century, is one of numerous sodium-rich
lakes in the 6 030-km rift valley stretching from Turkey through
Arabia and East Africa to Tanzania. This valley also includes the
Dead Sea (dividing Israel and Jordan) which currently produces salt
and potash and has the potential to produce sodium carbonate,
magnesium oxide, and bromine. Natural soda ash production con-
stitutes almost 30% of total world production (virtually all from the
United States) with the balance produced in Solvay plants using a
salt and limestone feedstock.
Sodium sulfate is a common coproduct in brine-based opera-
tions. In addition, natural sodium sulfate is exploited on a large scale
from lakes in Saskatchewan and Alberta in western Canada, Cal-
ifornia and Texas in the US, Mexico, the USSR, and Turkey. Buried
deposits are mined in Spain. Sodium sulfate is also a byproduct of
several industrial processes including rayon manufacture. Although
production is broadbased, over 50% is in the US, Spain, the USSR,
and Mexico.
There are three important commercial sulfate minerals-gyp-
sum (calcium), celestite (strontium), and barite (barium). In North
America, large deposits of gypsum occur in the northeast (New
York in the United States and Ontario and the Maritime Provinces
in Canada), midwest (Michigan, Iowa, and Indiana), the southwest
and west (Oklahoma, Texas, Kansas, New Mexico, and California).
In the US Gulf Coast region accumulations of salt, gypsum, and
sulfur stretch into Mexico. Overall, the three countries in North
America account for 30% of world gypsum production. In Aus-
tralasia, China, Japan, Thailand, and Australia contribute over 22%
of world production, and in Europe the large evaporate deposits
outlined previously also contain gypsum with the main suppliers
being France, Spain, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Several
countries such as Germany produce gypsum as a byproduct from
FGD or phosphoric acid plants competing with the natural product
in the marketplace. Despite its low unit value, gypsum is often
exported on a large scale from coastal locations in Mexico, Canada,
and Spain to the United States.
Some 98% of the world's celestite is mined in just six countries.
In northern Mexico the output from several mines accounts for more
than one-third of world production; Turkey contributes a further
quarter, with Cyprus, Iran, and Pakistan being smaller producers in
the Middle East-Asian region. Production in Europe, particularly
southwest Spain (associated with barite and gypsum), southwest
England (correlated with gypsum), and smaller deposits in Italy,
contribute another quarter.
As outlined above, barite may be associated with evaporate
minerals such as celestite and gypsum. In addition, barite is also
found as a hydrothermal vein filling associated with stratiform
massive sulfide deposits and as a residual deposit. China has
emerged as the world leader in barite production, accounting for
over 30% of the world total. In contrast, barite production in the
United States has declined to 5% of world production because of
the availability of imports from China, Mexico (10% of world
production), and even Morocco (6%). Production is largely centered
in Nevada and to a lesser extent Missouri and Georgia. In Europe
the main suppliers are Germany, France, Italy, the United Kingdom,
Eire, Romania, and the USSR.
About 85% of the world's production of borates is controlled
by the United States and Turkey, with Argentina and the USSR
supplying most of the balance. Part of the production is based on
brines and encrustations in Searles Lake, California, as well from
small concentrations along a stretch of the Andes Mountains en-
compassing Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. The major source
of borate minerals is a buried mass of sodium borate at Boron in
the Mojave Desert of California. Other buried and surface borate
deposits occur in Death Valley, including the Billie colemanite
deposit which was mined until the mid- 1980s. In Turkey borates are
concentrated in six areas-the most important being the Emet and
Kirka areas (both sodium borate) and the Bi gadi ~ area (calcium
borates).
In addition to hard-rock deposits, lithium is found concentrated
in brines. Large-scale production occurs at Silver Peak, Nevada, and
there is potential from several of the western United States saline
lakes already described. This output combined with the pegmatitic
deposits described above contributes 47% of world production.
Commercial production is being developed in the salt-encrusted
playas or "salars" in South America, in particular Bolivia, Ar-
gentina, and Chile. This last country is the most important with 14%
of world production.
In addition to magnesite, dolomite, and olivine, magnesia is
concentrated in subterranean and seawater brines. Magnesium-rich
brines are exploited on a commercial scale in Michigan in the
United States, Mexico, the Netherlands, and Israel. Magnesia is also
extracted from seawater in Japan, South Korea, the United States,
Mexico, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Eire, Norway, and the
USSR.
Natural nitrate production is now confined to an area of north-
ern Chile which has an annual rainfall of less than 1 cm. In addition,
iodine is coproduced from the caliche ore. Elsewhere, commercial
iodine production is based on brines largely in Japan, the United
States (Oklahoma), China, and the USSR. Bromine is also extracted
from well brines in Arkansas and Michigan in the United States, the
Dead Sea in Israel, potash brines in Germany and France, and from
seawater in the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Japan.
METAMORPHIC
Asbestos, Talc, Graphite, Corundum and
Emery, Garnet, Wollastonite, Sillimanite
Minerals, Pyrophyllite
Metamorphism produces a range of minerals, many of which
have unique properties that are utilized commercially. Asbestos is
found in several metamorphic environments usually associated with
ultramafic rocks and serpentinization. Large deposits are exploited
in Quebec and Newfoundland, eastern Canada, and over the border
in Vermont, United States, in the Transvaal and Cape Province of
South Africa, as well as Swaziland and Zimbabwe in Africa, the
USSR, Italy and Greece in Europe, New South Wales in Australia,
Brazil, and India.
The United States and Canada account for around 20% of world
talc production with output from the asbestos areas of Vermont,
upstate New York, Montana, Texas, and California in the United
States, and Quebec and Ontario in Canada. In Australasia, China.
India, North and South Korea, Japan, and Australia are the major
suppliers, with a combined output representing some 26% of world
production. In Europe significant talc producers include France,
Italy, Austria, Finland, and Norway, along with the USSR. In South
WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRIAL MINERAL DEPOSITS
America, Brazil is the largest producer and the fourth largest pro-
ducer worldwide after the US, China, and the USSR.
Wollastonite is formed through the metamorphism of rocks
containing silica and calcium. Major producing areas of high-
quality wollastonite include the Adirondack Mountains of upstate
New York in the United States, southeastern Finland, several prov-
inces in China, India, and the USSR. Garnet is associated with some
wollastonite deposits including one at Willsboro, New York. In the
same area of the state a large-scale hard-rock garnet mine is in
operation. Elsewhere in the United States, although there are hard-
rock garnet deposits in Maine and Nevada, the most important
commercially are placer deposits in Idaho. Garnet is also produced
as a byproduct of mineral sand operations in Western Australia,
India, and Sri Lanka.
The kyanite group of minerals occurs in aluminous metamor-
phic rocks and their weathered derivatives. Production is restricted
to a handful of countries including South Africa, the USSR, the
United States, France, India, Sweden, Spain, China, and Zimbabwe.
Like garnet, some are found associated with placer mineral sand
deposits-particularly in India. Weathering may form sericite or
pyrophyllite, the hydrous aluminum silicate. The main pyrophyllite
deposits, however, are formed through the hydrothermal alteration
of acidic volcanic rocks. This is particularly well developed in areas
of Japan and Korea-between them accounting for 85% of world
production. Smaller producers include Canada, the United States,
India, China, Thailand, Australia, Brazil, and Argentina. Natural
corundum is another alumina-rich mineral formed through meta-
morphism. The main producers are Zimbabwe and South Africa, the
USSR, and India. Production of the impure form, emery, is re-
stricted to Turkey and Greece.
When certain organic matter is metamorphosed, deposits of
graphite may form. However, world production is concentrated in
fewer than 20 countries, with over 60% in Asia--China, Korea, Sri
Lanka, and India. In the Americas, Mexico and Brazil are well
established producers, and Canada is emerging as a major supplier.
In Europe, the main producers are Germany, Austria, Czechoslo-
vakia, Norway, Romania, Turkey, and the USSR, and in Africa,
Zimbabwe and Madagascar.
THE EMERGING PATTERN
The uneven distribution of industrial rocks and minerals pro-
duction counters the concept of a group of common, low priced
commodities destined for local markets. Granted local markets are
the most important for some industrial minerals, especially for
developing countries which should adopt simpler approaches to
exploiting their domestic resources. Nevertheless, the overall view
of industrial minerals is an international one of intriguing com-
plexity.
For instance, production of borates, beryl, iodine, nepheline
syenite, celestite, and vermiculite is restricted to just a handful of
countries, and essential materials such as titanium, zirconium, and
rare earth minerals, sulfur, graphite, phosphates, and potash are
extremely active in deep sea trade. Even relatively common ma-
terials enter international trade as consumers demand higher and
more consistent quality (feldspar and silica sand) or find it more cost
effective to import (soda ash, salt, barite, gypsum, and fluorspar).
The international supply and demand pattern is dynamic as new
producers and markets come and go. A decade ago Australia's
diamond industry was a kimberlite pipe dream, today it accounts for
over one-third of world production. Twenty years ago celestite was
used solely for pyrotechnics, today the much larger market is
dominated by color TV screen glass. The pattern can be influenced
by political events such as the opening up of trade with China, which
promptly became a dominant force in world markets for magnesite,
talc, barite, bauxite, rare earths, and graphite. This shifting pattern
of supply and demand will continue to offer future opportunities and
challenges to the increasingly sophisticated industrial minerals in-
dustry. The streets of this century and the next are paved with
industrial minerals not gold. There will be more of them, and the
traffic promises to be heavy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES
Anon., 1990, US Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook Preprints, various
chapters.
Brobst, D.A., and Pratt, W.P., eds., 1973, United States Mineral Resources,
US Geological Survey Professional Paper 820, 722 pp (various chap-
ters).
Flawn, P.T., 1966, Mineral Resources, Rand McNally, Chicago, IL, 406 pp.
Govett, G.J.S., and Govett, M.H., eds., 1976, World Mineral Supplies:
Assessment and Perspective, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company,
Amsterdam, 472 pp.
Harben, P.W., and Bates, R.L., 1984, Geology of the Nonmetallics, Metal
Bulletin Inc., New York, 392 pp.
Harben, P.W., and Bates, R.L., 1990, Industrial Minerals Geology and
World Deposits, Industrial Minerals Division, Metal Bulletin Plc, Lon-
don, 3 12 pp.
Harben, P.W., 1992, Industrial Minerals HandyBook-A Guide to Markets,
Specifications, and Prices. Industrial Minerals Division, Metal Bulletin
Plc, London, 160 pp.
Stanton, R.L.. 1972, Ore Petrology, McGraw-Hill, New York, 713 pp.