Roadways in India

India being second most populous nation of the world need many basic infrastructural growth in order to show a well all-round and
sustainable growth. And roadways is one of the important infrastructural elements in the growth of any economy, it is not only used merely
for the means of transport by common people but is used in a large volume to transport goods from one places to another having great
economic presence. The road network in India is 2.3 illion km at present !uantitatively. And road density in India is ."" km per s!uare km
of land,which is relatively good when compared with #$ %&."'(,)hina %&.*"( and +ra,il%.2&(.
The above para only talks about the !uantity of road but in !uality wise, India is far behind the best in the -orld.India has a mi.ed type of
road with highly developed /ational 0ighways and on other side unpaved and narrow village roads. India has 1 km of road per *&&& of people
which is relatively very small when compared to #$ with having 2* km per *&&& people and 2rance with *' km per *&&& of its people. +ut
this is mainly so because India is very densely populated and so these figures may vary largely.
Importance of Road connectivity in Villages and far-flung areas
3oadways be it $tate 0ighways or /ational 0ighways or even less developed village roads plays important role in the socioeconomic
development of any country. In India a large population still live in villages and many a times far away from towns or cities and in a rugged
remote locations like in harsh 0imalayan ranges or in deep dense forest. In order to bring to them the basic needs of growth and
development to these people living in 4illages they must be connected with roads so as to provide them with some basic amenities of edical,
$chooling etc which further will help them in their social development. 0aving connected with roads these village people living far away from
towns and cities can easily transport their farm-produce to nearby processing units or markets for trading. oreover their are many farm-
products like fruits, vegetable etc which are perishable items and re!uires fast transport needs to nearby market so as to have good returns
and to maintains their nutritional values and !uality.
With the connectivity of roads to far remote places and also to the villages large movement of people will start from villages to
cities and towns which further will help in the development of these people. Now they can have easy access to medical
facilities which might not be available in their local villages, they can now use Bans and other financial institutions to
manage their funds which again will help them to strengthen their monetary growth. Will the connectivity of roads the
students with !rimary education from villages can have easy access to good professional universities and colleges for
their higher studies.
As discussed in the above two paragraphs development of roads in rural India as well as in places with rugged terrains and far-flung areas
road plays a two dimensional role i.e. bringing growth to these areas in both socially as well as economically. This enhances the overall living
conditions of the people belonging to these places.
Importance of Road in economic development
3oadways provide a ma5or connectivity of goods from places of its production or produce to places of trade like markets in cities or with ports
for their e.port. 3oads provide door to door delivery of goods which is the most important feature of it and which cannot be possible with any
other means of transport. 3oads help in easy and fast delivery of goods from places to places especially the perishable items transport. The
!uantity as well as !uality of roads of a country greatly contributes to economy and is a ma5or indication of growth. And this is due to these
reasons this needs to looked upon with e.tra care. oreover roads play an important role in communication, linking people with people living
in different areas physically separated from rugged and harsh terrain.
3oadways as compared to waterways and air transport is very important as it reaches large geographical dimensions as compared to other.
There are many means of transportation i.e. land, water and air transport. In 6and transport roadways, 3ailways and 7ipelines are ma5or
categories. There are many advantages and disadvantages of one over the other, but in this section we are talking about roadways so, listed
below are some of the advantages which roadways have over other means of transport.
"dvantage of Roadways as a means of #ransport
)onstruction )ost is much lower
3oads can traverse comparatively more dissected and undulating topography
3oads can negotiate higher gradients of slopes and as such can traverse mountains such as 0imalayas
3adio transport is more economical in transportation of few people and relatively smaller amount of goods over short distances
7rovides door-to-door service, thus the cost of loading and unloading is much lower
#sed as a feeder to other means of transport, such as they rovide link between railway stations, air and sea ports
Classification of Roads in India
India as compared to other nations of the world has the largest road network with
a total aggregating to about 33 Lakh Km. Depending upon the capacity of roads Indian
roads can be classified mainly in the following six categories
GOLDEN QUADRILATERAL SUPER HIGHWAYS
NATIONAL HIGHWAYS
STATE HIGHWAYS
DISTRICT ROADS
OTHER ROADS
BORDER ROADS
Depending upon the type of material used for the construction of roads these are
classified into metallic and nonmetallic roads. !he metallic roads are all"season roads and
is of high #uality in comparison to nonmetallic roads which mainly worn"out or tear"
out $ery easily during rainy seasons.
Golden Quadrilateral Super Hi!"a#$
!hese roads are built and maintained by the Central %o$ernment off India and
links the ma&or cities like Delhi"Kolkata"Chennai"'umbai"Delhi through six"lane (uper
)ighways. !hese also includes the *ast"+est corridor running from (ilcher in ,ssam to
-orbander in %u&arat and .orth"(outh corridor running from (rinagar in /0K to
Kanyakumari in !.. !he ma&or ob&ecti$e of building these (uper )ighways is to shorten
the road"link between big ma&or cities of India ha$ing both social and economical
perspecti$es. !hese (uper )ighways i.e. the %olden 1uadrilateral2 .orth"(outh Corridor
and *ast"+est corridor roads are built and maintained by .),I under the Central
%o$ernment of India.
National Hi!"a#$
!hese .ational )ighways are the second most important road network in India
linking the most extreme parts of the country. !he prime ob&ecti$e of these .ational
)ighways is to bring in closer the extreme terrain and far flung areas in terms of
geographical locations to bring about mo$ement of people and goods. !hese .ational
)ighways are built and maintained by Central -ublic +orks Department 3C-+D4. In
order to gi$e boost to the economic de$elopment of the country2 the %o$ernment has
embarked upon a massi$e .ational )ighways De$elopment -ro&ect 3.)D-4 in the
country. !he .)D- is the largest highway pro&ect e$er taken in the country. !he .)D- is
being implemented by .ational )ighways ,uthority of India. 3.),I4
State Hi!"a#$
(tate )ighways are mainly built to link (tate Capital with the $arious District
)ead#uarters and is built and maintained by (tate -ublic +orks Di$ision 3-+D4 in
(tates and 5!s. !hese roads are $ery for the de$elopment of a particular state or 5!s as it
connects the District with (tate Capital mo$ing goods and people to capital.
Di$tri%t Road$
!hese Roads connects the District )ead#uarters with the other places within the
district. !hese roads are maintained by 6ila -arishad.
Ot!er Road$
!hese roads include those which are used mainly to connect the rural areas
and $illages with towns or cities. !hese are $ery important and significant in 7illages as
this helps in socioeconomic de$elopment of the rural India. !hese helps in bringing the
basic necessities to and from from the $illages to the towns or cities moreo$er it helps
them to market their farm produce much more easily to the bigger markets located in
nearby towns and cities. !here are many Central or (tate run schemes which helps in
de$elopment and maintenance of such roads and one such important scheme in the
-radhanmantri %rameen (adak 8o&na.
Border Road$
!hese 9order Roads are maintained and de$eloped by 9order Road
:rgani;ation39R:4 under the undertaking of the Central %o$ernment of India. !he main
aim of these border roads is to pro$ide strategic support for both the armed forces and the
people who are located along the $ast and rugged borders of India. Indian borders are
mostly located in the .orth and .orth"*astern borders of India and mainly ha$e $ery
rugged climatic conditions ranging from extreme hot climatic conditions of Ra&asthan to
cold harsh climatic condition of Ladakh and dense forest and rugged terrains of .orth"
eastern India. 9R:2 which is a %o$ernment of India undertaking established in <=>? has
been gi$en the responsibility to built and maintain these roads.
IRC classification of the Roads@highways in India
IRC3Indian Roads Congress4 has classified the roads in the India in the following
A categories
3a4 .ational )ighways
3b4 (tate )ighways
3c4 'a&or District Roads
3d4 :ther District Roads
3e4 7illage Roads
.ational )ighways3.)4 .ational highways are the ma&or arterial roads
spanning in the length and breadth of the country and connects the Capital to the $arious
state capitals of the country or with the neighboring countries. !hey also connect the
famous tourism places of the country. .ational highways are numbered and written as
.)"<2 .)"B etc. !hey ha$e the highest design specifications.
*xample .) "< Delhi",mbala",mritsar2 .)"B< Chandigarh" 'andi" 'anali.
(tate )ighways3()4 (tate highways are the roads which connect the state capital
to other states and to the district head#uarters in the state. !hey ha$e design
specifications similar to those of the .ational )ighways because they carry enough
traffic.
'a&or District Roads3'DR4 !hese roads connect the district head#uarters to the
main town centers in the district2 and to the head#uarters of the other districts also. !hey
also connect these ma&or town centers to the other state highways of importance. !hey
ha$e lower design specifications as compared to the .) and ().
:ther district roads3:DR4 !hese roads connect the rural areas town centers to the
ma&or district roads of higher importance.!hey pro$ide the facilities for the transportation
of the raw materials or the goods mainly of agricultural products from the rural towns to
the higher markets and $ice"$ersa.
7illage Roads37R4 !hese roads connect the rural $illages with one another and
to the nearest higher le$el road or to the nearest town center. !hey ha$e lower design
specifications and many of them are not e$en metaled.
CL,((ICIC,!I:. :C R:,D( I. I.DI,
,s per the .agpur -l2 the roads are classified as
i4 .ational highways
ii4 (tate highways
iii4 District highways
a4 ma&or district roads
b4 minor district roads
i$4 $illage roads
.*C*((,R8 :C CL,((IC8I.% R:,D(" !o plan a road network for efficient
and safe traffic operation 2 and for knowing the clear information of a particular root in a
country2 the classification of roads is necessary.
a. .,!I:.,L )I%)+,8(" !hese are the important roads of the country. !hey
connect state capitals2 ports and foreign highways. !hey also include roads of military
importance. !hey are financed by the central go$ernment.
b. (!,!* )I%)+,8( " these are the important roads of a state. !hey connect
important cities and district head #uarters in the state 2 national highways 0 state
highways of neighbouring states. !hey are financed by state go$ernment roads and
buildings department of the state go$ernment constructs 0 maintain these roads.
c. DI(!RIC! R:,D( " these are the roads within a district . they are financed
by ;illaparishads with the help of grants gi$en by state go$ernment.
d. !)* ',/:R DI(!RIC! R:,D(" !hey are roads connecting district head
e. #uarters2 taluk head #uarters and other important town in the district production
and
market centers with each other and with state 0 national highways 0 railways.
f. :!)*R DI(!RIC! R:,D( " !hey are district roads of less importance
g. 7ILL,%* R:,D(" they connect $illages with each other and to the nearest
district road. !hey are financed by panchayats with the help of ;illaparishads and
state go$ernment.
, typical hill road 3%haghas to (himla" )imachal -radesh4 " in B?<3

Ref )ighway *ngineering " by ( K Khanna 0 C * /usto
Functions of IRC, CRRI, and Roads wing of Surface Transportation
Hello there,
Roads wing of ministry of surface transport:
The roads wing of the ministry of Surface Transport handles the road matters of the Central Govt. It is headed by a
Director General. The Director General is assisted by two additional Director Generals(one for roads and one for
bridges) a numbers of Chief !ngineers Superintending !ngineers !"ecutive !ngineers and #sst. !"ecutive
!ngineers. The roads wing has a chief !ngineer for the $orth%!ast region posted at Guwahati and a &iaison%cum%
Inspectorate organi'ation consisting of S.!(s and !.!(s in the various states. The functions of the roads wing of
Surface Transport are)
(a) To control funds approved by Central Government for the development of $ational *ighways.
(b) To control the central road fund.
(c) To prepare plans for development and maintenance of $ational *ighways in consultation with state +,D(s.
(d) To oversee technically the -uality of wor.s e"ecuted by the agencies.
(e) To administer matters regarding road research.
(f) To e"amine technically the pro/ects of roads and bridges prepared by the +,D(s.
(g) To administer the central road program other than $ational *ighways in the 0nion Territories.

Highway Geometrics- (Camber, Land Width, Carriage way,
Sight Distance, Super Eleation, Gradient!
Hello, How you doing"
Highway Geometric# This is the branch of the highway engineering which deals with the geometrical elements of the
roads like, land of width, formation width, carriage way, side slopes, shoulders, kerbs, sigh distance, super elevation and highway
curves
Land Width# It is total width of the land ac!uired by the "ovt along the road for the construction and maintenance of
the roads #o other buildings by public can be constructed on the land width $and width depends upon the following factors%
&a' It depends on the type of the road to be constructed, like #H re!uire more width as compare to the lower level highways
&b' It depends on the anticipated future increase in the traffic on the route or the economic or industrial development of the areas
which it aligns along its route
Carriage Way#
Carriae "a# and &or'ation "idt!
It is the width of the road which is used by the traffic for moving on it It is generally central portion of the total land width and is
paved and surfaced with the bituminous concrete for service to the road users (idth of the carriage way depends on the number
of the lanes in the road which again depends on the class of the highway If it is higher level road like #H then it will need more
numbers of lanes and therefore the carriage way width will be more
Camber#
Camber is the transerse slope proided to the road sur$ace $or the drainage o$ the rainwater $or the better
per$ormance o$ the road% Camber can be written as & in n or '(%
)rainage of the rainwater is necessary
&*' To maintain the safe value of the friction between the road surface and the tyres
&+' To maintain the strength and durability of the surface concrete
&,' To maintain the durability and strength of the sub-grade soil which can be harmed if the infiltration of the water takes place to
it
There are generally three types of the cambers% &a' Straight Camber &b' .arabolic Camber &c' /i0ed Camber
!ypes of Camber
(a! Straight Camber# This type of camber is provided by meeting two straight surfaces at the crown Crown is the central and
top most point on the surface of the road The edge shape produces in-convenience to the traffic so it is not used in general
(b! )arabolic Camber# .arabolic camber is provided by providing a parabolic shape to the surface of the road It is also not
used in general because it has steep slopes towards the edges, which can create the outward thrust to the vehicles
(c! *i'ed Camber# /i0ed camber is formed by use of the straight surfaces at the edges but parabolic surface at the centre It is
mostly used for the road construction because both the problem of the earlier two are solved if we use this camber
Gradient# It is the slope provided to the surface of the road in the longitudinal direction for the vertical alignment of
the road There are three kinds of gradients%
, $ehicle on ascending gradient
&a' Ruling "radient &b' $imiting "radient &c' 10ceptional "radient &d' /inimum "radient
+uling gradient is the design gradient, so it is used to design the road in the vertical alignment
Limiting and e'ceptional gradients are provided in the limited stretch of the roads where necessary and in case
of the emergencies or e0ceptional cases when such need arises respectively
*inimum gradient is the gradient which is re!uired as the minimum from the drainage point of view in case of the
plane areas
Sight Distance# Sight distance at any instance is the distance along the center line of the road which is visible to the
eye of a driver at an height of *+ m from the road surface such that an obstruction of height 2*3 m is visible to him The heights of
the eye of the driver and the obstruction is standardi4ed by the Indian Roads Congress
(ight Distance
/ost important sight distance which are necessary to be studied here in the design point of view are%
&a' Stopping Sight distance
&b' 5vertaking sight )istance
* Stopping sight distance(SSD!# SS) is the sight distance which is necessary for a driver to stop a vehicle from the
design speed to the 2 speed without any collision with the obstruction on the road It is also known as the absolute minimum sight
distance so this much sight distance is provided at all the cross section of the road
,er--a.ing Sight Distance(,SD!# 5S) is the sight distance which is necessary for a vehicle running at the design
speed to overtake a slower moving vehicle without collision with the vehicles coming from the opposite direction "enerally It is
not possible to provide the 5S) at every cross section of the road so, it is provided after a stretch of the road
Super- Eleation# The outer edge of the road with respect to the inner edge of the road is raised in case of the
hori4ontal curves, this is called super-elevation Super-elevation is necessary to counter-act the centrifugal force due to the radius
of the curve and speed of the vehicle
(uper"ele$ation
e6f 7 v8+9 gR
where e7 super elevation
f 7 value of the friction
v 7 )esign speed in m9sec
R 7 Radius of the hori4ontal curve in meters
Construction of (:/ roads, (// - (et mi0 macadam - Transportation
1ngineering
Hi, Here we are going to discuss the construction o$ the W/*
and W** roads in brie$%
+9' and +'' roads
(0! - W/* (Water /ound macadam! roads construction#
The water bound macadam road construction techni!ue was given by the ;ohn /acadam This techni!ue in present day is used as
given below
For (:/ construction we use three materials%
* <ggregates
+ Screeners
, :inders
1ggregates#
(e use the aggregates of different grades IRC&Indian Roads Congress' has classified the coarse aggregates into = grades,
according to their si4e
For the construction of the (:/ roads aggregates are used in the sub-base, base and surface course and so the aggregates are
divided into , grades according to their si4e
"rade * - particles of si4e =2 mm to >2 mm
"rade + - particles of si4e ?, to >2 mm
"rade , - particles of si4e 32 to +2 mm
The grade * aggregates having si4e of =2 mm to >2 mm are preferred for the sub-base material and grade + for the base and grade
* for the surface course However, if we only use the (:/ as the surface course, it gets deteriorated fast due to abrasion with the
traffic so, bituminous surfacing over the (:/ is general practice
Screeners are the aggregates of the smaller si4es, generally *+3 mm or *2 mm, for grade < and grade : They are of the same
chemical composition as of the coarse aggregates For economic considerations IRC has suggested non plastic materials such as,
crushed over burnt bricks, moorum, gravels, etc provided the li!uid limit of the material is less than +2@, plasticity inde0 is less
than ?2@ and the portion of fines passing 22A3 mm sieve is less than *2@ However if crush-able type of aggregates are used, use
of the screeners may be disposed off
/inders# :inders, are the layers of materials which are laid after the compaction of the aggregates and the screening materials
one after the another Bankar dust or lime stone dust may be utili4ed if locally available The binding material with plasticity inde0
value of >@ to =@ is used in surface course constructionC the plasticity inde0 of binding course material should be less than ?@ in
the case of the (:/ layers used as base course or sub-base course, with bituminous surfacing However if the screening used are
of crushable material like moorum or soft gravel, there is no need to apply binding material, unless the plasticity inde0 value is
low
(00! - W**(Wet mi' macadam! road construction%
<ggregates used are of the smaller si4es, varies between the >A3 mm to +2 mm si4es and the binders&stone dust or quarry dust
having PI(Plasticity Index) not less than 6%' are premi0ed in a batching plant or in a mi0ing machine Then they are brought to
the site for overlaying and compaction
The .I&plasticity Inde0' of the binding material is kept low because it should be a sound and non plastic material If the plasticity
inde0 is more then there are the chances of the swelling and more water retention properties So this value should be kept in mind
Comparison of the WBM and WMM road construction:
<lthough the cost of construction of the (// is said to be more than that of the (:/ sub-base and bases but the advantages
given below will compensate for that Here are the points of difference%
* The (// roads are said to be more durable
+ The (// roads gets dry sooner and can be opened for traffic withing less time as compare to the (:/
roads which take about one month for getting dry
, (// roads are soon ready to be black topped with the :ituminous layers
> (// roads are constructed at the faster rate
3 The consumption of the water is less in case of the (// roads
? Stone aggregates used in (:/ is larger in si4e which varies from =2 mm to +2 mm depending upon the
grade but in case of the (// si4e varies from >A3 mm to +2 mm
A In case of (:/, stone aggregates, screenings and binders are laid one after another in layers while in (//,
aggregates and binders are pre-mi0ed in the batching plants and then brought to the site for overlaying and
compacting
D /aterials used in the (:/ are the stone aggregates, screenings and binder material&Stone dust with water'
while in (// material used are only stone aggregates and binders
= Euantity of the (:/ is generally measured in cubic meters while that of the (// in s!uare meters
References% Highway 1ngineering by SB Bhanna and C1";usto
F (iki answers
Function of various pavement components
Hello ThereG
How you doingH Here is what you searched for but, after reading please leave a comment to improve the article
Functions of various components of Pavement:
(e know there are four pavement layers%
* Sub-grade
+ Sub-base
, :ase
> Surface course
Functions of each layer are described as below%
Sub-Grade :
The load is transferred by the sub-grade effectively to the earth mass. However
the locally available earth is used to construct the sub-grade but it becomes
necessary that the sub-grade should be of required strength.
This makes it necessary to check the strength characteristics of the sub-grade by
using the various methods. Here is the list of the tests that are employed to
check the strength of the sub-grade:
(a) alifornia bearing ratio test.
(b) alifornia resistance value test.
(c) Tri-a!ial shear test.
(d) "late load test.
California bearing ratio test is a kind of penetration test# in which we get the value
of the alifornia bearing ratio of the given soil sample. The test can also be
performed in the field to take the in-situ measurements.
The value is used to design the thickness of the fle!ible pavements by using
some empirical charts.This test is also used to calculate $% value for the other
layers too.
California resistance value is got by using the Hveem stabilometer. This test is
used in empirical methods of the fle!ible design methods# based on the soil
strength.
Tri-axial shear test: This test gives the value of the shear strength of the soil# but
it is not done# because the values obtained from this test are used only in a very
few theoritical methods of fle!ible pavement design.
Plate Load Test : &n this test we make use of the plates of some larger
diameter. &n this test we get the values of the elastic modulus of sub-grade.
These values are used in the methods of fle!ible pavement designs like that in
'cleaod method and in method of layer system approach for analysis by
$urmister.
The modulus of sub-grade reaction is also calculated for the rigid pavement
analysis by the (estergaard)s approach.
Sub-base and base course:
$ase course and sub-base course is used in the fle!ible pavement to disperse
the upcoming loads to large area through a finite thickness# so as to increase the
load bearing capacity of the pavement. The material used are the broken stones#
or gravels# or bound or unbound aggregates.
*ometimes the bricks can also be used as the sub-base and base materials. +enerally the sub-
base layers have the inferior quality of aggregates# than that used in the base course.
+enerally smaller aggregates are used because the larger gravels or aggregates
have the tendency to sink to the lose sub-grade soil under the heavy loading.
The function of the sub-base or the base layer in case of the rigid pavement is
to :
,. heck the pumping action.
-. "rotecting the sub-surface against the frost action.
The basic purpose of the sub-base and base layer is to transfer the load through
a dispersed.larger area to the sub-grade. *o it must of sufficient strength to do its
/ob.
These layers are evaluated using a suitable strength or stability tests like the
plate load test# california bearing ratio test# and the Hveem stabilometer test#
where each test has its own significance and importance.
Wearing course:
The top most layer serves as the smooth riding surface for the traffic# and it
wears all the abrading forces. The top most layer is constructed with the superior
quality of aggregates because it has to wear the ma!imum intensity of loads.
&t has to be water proof to stop the water penetration to the lower layers# so in
case of fle!ible pavements the bituminous concrete is used and it is well
compacted# and in rigid pavements the cement concrete is used and is well
compacted so that no water penetration takes place.
There is no direct test to check the stability of the surface course but the
bituminous concrete used in the fle!ible pavement is checked for its suitability.
'arshall stability test is used to determine the optimum content of the bitumen to
be used in the aggregate mi!# based on the stability density# 0'1 and 02$ of the
given grading of the aggregate mi!ture.
10pansion and contraction Ioints in Rigid .avements
Hello There,
How you doing? Here is what you searched for ut, after reading !lease leave a co""ent to i"!rove the article#
I have studied about the e0pansion and contraction Ioints In the rigid pavements, like the cement concrete pavements, the cement
slab is laid on the sub-grade The concrete changes its volume with the change in the temperature
If the natural temperature of the concrete is low ie concrete is laid down in the season of winter, then the chances are there that
concrete will undergo e0pansion in the summer season
*xpansion &oint
Similarly, if the concrete is laid in the summer season then natural temperature of the concrete is already high, so the concrete will
contract in the season of the winter
(hether the concrete is going to e0pand or shrink, one has to provide the e0pansion or the contraction Ioints respectively
Spacing o$ the e'pansion 2oints# The spacing of the e0pansion Ioint can be determined as below%
&e0pansion' e 7 co-efficient of thermal e0pansion J $s J &t+-t*'
we provide width of the Ioints double then KeK, 32@ allowance is provided for the filler material
Spacing o$ the contraction 2oints# The contraction of the concrete is opposed by the frictional force between the
sub-grade and the concrete
This frictional force should always be less than the ultimate strength of the concrete which resists the tensile forces developed in it
due the contraction force and the frictional force
Contraction &oints on rigid pa$ements
Frictional force is dependent on the surface area of the concrete&$J:', and the resisting force depends upon the &hJ:' of the
concrete, so we can get the minimum spacing re!uired if we e!uate the two forces
Reference: Highway Engineering by S.K.Khanna and C E usto
http:..transportationengineering-3,-onwards.blogspot.in.-3,4.34.e!pansion-and-contraction-
/oints-in.html
TL.1S 5F R5<) SI"#S
i' (<R#I#" SI"#S %- It is also called as cautionary signs These signs indicate to traffic where some precautions is re!uired for the safety traffic
1g %- ;unction , Shaped bend, hill or ghat road , school 4one etc,
ii' .R5HI:IT5RL SI"#S %- These signs indicate to the traffic, that the use of MMMMMMM is prohibited or parking at a certain place is prohibited 1tc,
1g%- no entry, speed limit , no N-turn , no parking etc,
iii' /<#)<T5RL SI"#S %- These signs indicate to the traffic to cornply with certain regulations of traffic
1g%- Halt , step , goslow , keep left etc,
iv' I#F5R/<T5RL SI"#S %- These signs convey certain information
1g%- Route Identification , directional signs etc,
v' T1/.5R<RL SI"#S %- These are signs which are used at the time of
construction of repair etc,
How to Select Site for <IR.5RT
<irport site selection
The selection of a suitable site for an airport depends upon the class of airport under consideration However if such factors as re!uired for the
selection of the largest facility are considered the development of the airport by stages will be made easier and economical The factors listed below are
for the selection of a suitable site for a maIor airport installation%
* regional plan
+ airport use
, pro0imity to other airport
> ground accessibility
3 topography
? obstructions
A visibility
D wind
= noise nuisance
*2 grading , drainage and soil characteristics
** future development
*+ availability of utilities from town
*, economic consideration
Regional plan% The site selected should fit well into the regional plan there by forming it an integral part of the national network of airport
<irport use% the selection of site depends upon the use of an airport (hether for civilian or for military operations However during the emergency
civilian airports are taken over by the defense There fore the airport site selected should be such that it provides natural protection to the area from air
roads This consideration is of prime importance for the airfields to be located in combat 4ones If the site provides thick bushes
.ro0imity to other airport% the site should be selected at a considerable distance from the e0isting airports so that the aircraft landing in one airport
does not interfere with the movement of aircraft at other airport The re!uired separation between the airports mainly depends upon the volume of air
traffic
"round accessibility% the site should be so selected that it is readily accessible to the users The airline passenger is more concerned with his door to
door time rather than the actual time in air travel The time to reach the airport is therefore an important consideration especially for short haul
operations
Topography% this includes natural features like ground contours trees streams etc < raised ground a hill top is usually considered to be an ideal site for
an airport
5bstructions% when aircraft is landing or taking off it loses or gains altitude very slowly as compared to the forward speed For this reason long
clearance areas are provided on either side of runway known as approach areas over which the aircraft can safely gain or loose altitude
Oisibility% poor visibility lowers the traffic capacity of the airport The site selected should therefore be free from visibility reducing conditions such as
fog smoke and ha4e Fog generally settles in the area where wind blows minimum in a valley
(ind% runway is so oriented that landing and take off is done by heading into the wind should be collected over a minimum period of about five years
#oise nuisance% the e0tent of noise nuisance depends upon the climb out path of aircraft type of engine propulsion and the gross weight of aircraft The
problem becomes more acute with Iet engine aircrafts Therefore the site should be so selected that the landing and take off paths of the aircrafts pass
over the land which is free from residential or industrial developments
"rading, drainage and soil characteristics% grading and drainage play an important role in the construction and maintenance of airport which in turn
influences the site selection The original ground profile of a site together with any grading operations determines the shape of an airport area and the
general pattern of the drainage system The possibility of floods at the valley sites should be investigated Sites with high water tables which may
re!uire costly subsoil drainage should be avoided
Future development% considering that the air traffic volume will continue to increase in future more member of runways may have to be provided for
an increased traffic
Surveys carried out for <irport Site Selection
Survey for site selection
Beeping in view the various factors which influence the site selection the types of surveys to be carried out at each site are summari4ed as follows %
Traffic survey % to determine the amount of air traffic including the anticipated traffic for future
/eteorological survey% to determine direction duration and intensity of wind rain fall fog temp and barometric pressure
Topographical survey % to prepare contour map showing other natural features such as trees streams etc
To prepare a map showing such constructed obIects as pole lines buildings roads etc
These maps will be helpful in the Iobs of clearing grading and drainage
Soil survey% to determine soil type and ground water table This assists in the design of runway ta0iway terminal building and the drainage system
)rainage survey% to determine the !uantity of storm water for drainage This can be obtained from the rainfall intensity and the contour maps To
locate possible outlets for drain water in the vicinity of the site To study the possibility of intercepting or diverting the natural streams of nallas
flowing to wards the site under consideration
/aterial survey% to ascertain the availability of suitable construction materials at a reasonable cost and the mode of transportation of these materials to
the site
(I#) R5S1
Wind rose# the wind data direction duration and intensity are graphically represented by a diagram called wind rose The wind data should usually
be collected for a period of at least 3 years and preferably of *2 years so as to obtain an average data with sufficient accuracy
(ind rose diagrams can be plotted in two types
* showing direction and duration of wind
+ Showing direction duration and intensity of wind
-ype 3 0# This type of wind rose is illustrated in fig the radial lines indicate the wind direction and each circle represents the duration of wind The
values are plotted along the north direction in fig similarly other values are also plotted along the respective directions <ll plotted points are then
Ioined by straight lines The best direction of runway is usually along the direction of the longest lone on wind rose diagram If deviation of wind
direction up to ++3P 6 **+3Pfrom their direction of runway is thus along #S direction of landing and take off is permissible the percentage of time in a
year during which runway can safely be used for landing and take off will be obtained by summing the percentages of time along ##(, #, ##1, SS1, S
and SS( directions This comes to 3A? percent The total percentage of the time therefore comes to 3A2 6 *,3 7 A23 This type of wind rose does not
account for the effect of cross wind component
-ype 3 00 # this type of wind rose is illustrated in fig the wind data as in the previous type is used for this case 1ach circle represents the wind
intensity to some scale The values entered in each segment represent the percentage of time in a year during which the wind having a particular
intensity blows from the respective direction The procedure for determining the orientation of runway from this type of wind rose is described below
)raw three e!ui spaced parallel lines on a transparent paper strip in such a way that the distance between the two near by parallel lines is e!ual to the
permissible cross wind component This distance is measured with the same scale with which the wind rose diagram is drawn the permissible cross
wind component is +3kph .lace the transparent paper strip over the wind rose diagram in such a way that the central line passes through the centre of
the diagram (ith the centre of wind rose rotate the tracing paper and place it in such a position that the sum of all the values indicating the duration
of wind within the two outer parallel lines is the ma0imum The runway should be thus oriented along the direction indicated by the central line The
wind coverage can be calculated by summing up all the percentages
:<SIC RN#(<L $1#"TH
/asic runway length#
It is the length of runway under the following assumed conditions at the airport
* <irport altitude is at sea level
+ temperature at the airport is standard *3Pc
, Runway is leveled in the longitudinal direction
> no wind is blowing on runway
3 <ircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity
? There is no wind blowing en route to the destination
A 1n route temperature is standard