FST - 223

CHAPTER: 1 FOOD QUALITY, ITS ROLE IN INDUSTRY AND FACTORS
AFFECTING QUALITY

Definition:

Food:
Food means any substances, whether processed, partially processed or
unprocessed, which is intended for human consumption and includes primary food
to the extent as defined, genetically modified or engineered food or food containing
such ingredients, infant food, packaged drinking water, alcoholic drink and any
substance including water used in to the food during manufacture but does not
include any animal feed, live animals unless they are prepared or processed for
placing on the market for human consumption, plants prior to harvesting, drugs
and medicinal products, cosmetics, narcotic or psychotropic substances.

Quality
Quality is a measure of the degree of excellence or degree of acceptability by the
consumer. By quality, one can differentiate the individual unit of a product from the
other units and can determine the degree of acceptability of the individual unit by
the consumer.
International organization for standardization defines quality is the totality of
features and characteristics of a product that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or
implied needs.
The quality may also be defined in term of end use and may vary depending upon
consumer's perception and need. Quality is the combination of attributes or
characteristics of a product that have significance in determining the degree of
acceptability of the product to the user. For industry, quality is the measure of
purity, strength, flavour, colour, size, maturity, workmanship and condition or any
other distinctive attributes of the product.

According to Code of Federal Regulations "Quality is the inherent properties of any
processed product which determine the relative degree of excellence of such
product and includes the effect of preparation and processing and mayor may not
include the effects of packaging or added ingredients/ additives" .

Quality includes size, color, shape, texture, cleanness, freedom from defects, and
other more permanent physical properties of a product which can affect its market
value. The following terms, when used in conjunction with quality, are interpreted
as meaning:

Fine: Better than good. Superior in appearance, color, and other quality factors.

Good: In general, stock which has a high degree of merchantability with a small
percentage of defects.

Fair: Having a higher percentage of defects than good. from a quality.

Role of quality attributes (determinants) in food industry

Mass-volume-arearelated properties are one of five groups (acoustic, mass-
volume-arearelated, morphological, rheological, and surface) of mechanical
properties. These properties are needed in process design, for estimating other
properties, and for product characterization or quality determination.

The geometric characteristics of size, shape, volume, surface area, density, and
porosity are important in many food materials handling and processing operations.
Fruits and vegetables are usually graded depending on size, shape, and density.

Impurities in food materials are separated by density differences between
impurities and foods. Knowledge of the bulk density of food materials is necessary
to estimate floor space during storage and transportation.

When mixing, transportation, storing and packaging particulate matter, it is
important to know the properties of bulk material.

Surface areas of fruits and vegetables are important in investigations related to
spray coverage, removal of residues, respiration rate, light reflectance, and color
evaluation, as well as in heat transfer studies in heating and cooling processes.

In many physical and chemical processes, the rate of reaction is proportional to the
surface area; thus, it is often desirable to maximize the surface area.

Density and porosity have a direct effect on the other physical properties. Volume
change and porosity are important parameters in estimating the diffusion coefficient
of shrinking systems. Porosity and tortuosity are used to calculate effective
diffusivity during mass transfer processes. Mechanical properties of agricultural
materials also vary with porosity.

Factors Influencing Quality of Food: There are mainly four factors which are
affecting the quality of food and these are depicted as shown below:

1. Genetic
2. Pre-harvest
3. Harvest
4. Post Harvest

Genetic Factors: Selection of cultivars and rootstock: Not all varieties of fruits and
vegetables are suitable for processing purposes. The choice of proper cultivar is
perhaps the most important single factor for preparation of quality product. Specific
recommended cultivars for one area of the country or even within the state may
not apply to another area. Although high visual quality is desirable for most
processing methods, the composition of the fruit in relation to flavour, texture,
colour and nutritional value is of paramount importance.

Pre-harvest Factors: These include climate / environmental, cultural and
harvesting
factors.

Environmental Factors:

Factors Quality affected
Temperature Maturity, colour, sugar, acidity. High temperature reduces the quality
of citrus, radish, spinach, cauliflower and increase the quality of
grapes, melon, tomatoes. Low temperature causes chilling and freezing
injury
Light Essential for anthocyanin formation. Fruits exposed to light develop
lighter weight, thinner pee, lower juice and acids, higher TSS than
shaded fruits
Rains Cracking of grapes, dates, litchi, limes, lemon, tomatoes and sweet
potatoes and reduces sweetness
Wind Bruising, scratching and corking scar on the fruits
Humidity High humidity reduces colour and TSS, increases acidity in citrus,
grapes and tomatoes, increases the quality of banana, litchi and
pineapples.

Nutritional factors and others:

Mineral
Nutrition:

Nitrogen High nitrogen reduces ascorbic acid content, TSS / acid ratio and
keeping quality but increases vit B1, B2 and carotene, Deficiency
reduces fruit size
Phosphorous High P decreases size, weight, vit C. Deficiency causes poor
appearance in fruit
Potassium Increases size, weight and vit C. Deficiency causes uneven
ripening
Calcium Increases firmness of many fruits like apple, mango and guava.
Boron Deficiency causes flesh browning in fruits and gummy
discoloration of albedo in citrus fruits
Copper Due to deficiency irregular blotch occurs in citrus fruits and spoil
the appearance
Rootstock In citrus, Troyer and Carrizo rootstock produces the fruits of
excellent quality of oranges, mandarins and lemons.
Irrigation Excess irrigation causes high acidity and deficiency of moisture
reduces fruit size, juice content and increases thickness of peel
Maturity All vegetables except potatoes and onion are of higher quality
when less mature. Ripen fruits are of better quality when
harvested at proper maturity stage
Mechanical injury Reduces appearance and source of infection.

Harvesting factors: Stage of maturity, ripeness and physiological age are
important
factors affecting quality.

Maturity All vegetables except potatoes and onions are higher
quality when less mature. Ripen fruits are of better
quality when harvested at proper maturity stage.
Physiological age /
Horticultural maturity

It is the stage of development when a plant or plant part
will continue ontogeny (further development) even if
detached.

Post harvest treatments / Factors: Environmental factors, handling methods,
processing times and storage methods.

Temperature Higher temperature causes off flavour, weight loss and
wilting particularly of GLV and reduces vit C content. Low
temperature reduces the appearance of fruits by
checking carotenoid development and chilling injury
(below optimum).
Heat of respiration Deteriorate quality, increased spoilage during storage
and transport
Relative humidity Low RH causes weight loss and wilting, High RH causes
growth of microbes
Cleaning and Washing Improves appearance, removes microbes and dirt.
Chemical treatment Treatment with oil and wax reduces weight loss and
maintains freshness. Treatment with ethephon and Alar
increases colour and reduces astringency. GA, Cytokinin,
MH, CCC retard colour
development
Transportation Ambient temperature transport weight loss, spoilage.
Refrigerated
transport reduces / nil weight loss and spoilage.
Storage The temperature during storage affects the length of
storage and the
quality of fruits or vegetables.

CHAPTER: 2 QUALITY ATTRIBUTES : CLASSIFICATION OF QUALITY
ATTRIBUTES

Characteristics of Quality:

External or sensory
Internal
Hidden Characteristics
Quantitative Characteristics

There are three types of the quality characteristics viz. external, sensory, hidden
and quantitative by which quality of food can be judged . So, the quality criteria for
the consumers depend upon various attributes like appearance, texture, flavour,
nutritive value and safety.

External Internal Hidden
Appearance Odor Wholesomeness
Feel (touch) Taste Nutritive value
Defects Texture Safety

External attributes

It includes appearance, feel and defects which the consumer can evaluate with his
senses. External quality attributes are those that are observed when the product is
first encountered. They play an important role in a consumers decision to purchase
produce.

Appearance / Colour: It is more important than taste and odour. It (colour)
increases the attractiveness of the product. It is the prime factor which also
determines the flavour, texture, nutritive value and wholesomeness. By the sense
of sight, size, shape and colour of the food and other characteristics such as
transparency, opaqueness, turbidity, dullness and gloss could be perceived.
Judgment of the ripening of the fruits is also influenced by colour. The strength of
coffee and tea is also judged on the basis of the colour of the beverage. Appearance
is first important attributes in selection of food. Appearance of any food commodity
can be judged by the eye. Appearance may be in term of colour, size, shape
uniformity and absence of defects. The second important attribute for sensory
evaluation of food is kinesthetic i.e. texture and consistency.

Texture: It is overall assessment of the feeling by mouth and hand or it is sense of
touch by hand and mouth. Mouth feeling include lips (hairy / smooth), tongue
(soft/mushy), teeth (rigidity) and ears. Objective instrumental methods are
available for measurement of these attributes which could be correlated to the
consumer's preferences. Mouthfeel is a product's physical and chemical interaction
in the mouth. It is a concept used in many areas related to the testing and
evaluation of foodstuffs, such as wine-tasting and rheology. It is evaluated from
initial perception on the palate, to first bite, through mastication to swallowing and
aftertaste. In wine-tasting, for example, mouthfeel is usually used with a modifier
(big, sweet, tannic, chewy, etc.) to the general sensation of the wine in the mouth.
Some people, however, still use the traditional term, "texture". Mouth feel is often
related to a product's water activity, hard or crisp products having lower water
activities and soft products having intermediate to high water activities.

Flavour: Flavour is a combination of taste, smell/aroma and feeling (astringency,
bite etc. especially in spices, wine and coffee) in short it is the combination of taste
and aroma. Flavour embraces the senses of taste, smell and a composite sensation
known as mouth feel. Taste is due to sensation felt by tongue. Taste is limited to
sweet, sour salty and bitter. The dimension of these can be measured chemically
and can be related to the consumer's preferences. Smell /odour, an important
factor in flavour can be estimated by gas chromatography and related to flavour
acceptability. Aroma is due to stimulation of olfactory senses with volatile organic
compounds. Aroma may be fragrant, acidic, burnt, pungent, enzymatic, spoilage.

Internal quality characteristics:
They are not perceived until the product is cut or broken.

Hidden Characteristics: Nutritive value and toxicity (toxic compounds) present in
food comes under hidden characteristics.

Quantitative Characteristics: Crop yield and finished product yield are the
quantitative characteristics for determination of food quality. The ratio of weight of
raw material to the weight of the pre-packaged finished product is known as
shrinkage ratio. Higher the ratio, greater will be the unit cost. So, low shrinkage
ratio is desirable.

Various methods used for determination of the quality in food industry

Subjective Method: In this method, individual is required to give his opinion about
qualitative/quantitative values. This method is also referred as sensory method. It
is by experience of the individual. Different subjective methods are used for
estimation like: 9 -point Hedonic Scale, Triangular test or Composite test.

Objective Methods: These are based on recognized standardsd scientific tests to
any sample of the product without regard to its previous history. They represent
the modern idea in quality control (QC) because the human element has been
excluded. This method divided into three groups:
(a) Physical methods
(b) Chemical methods
(c) Microscopic methods

Tests used for Objective Evaluation:
Physico-chemical methods
Measurement of hydrogen ion concentration can be found by the use of pH meter.
It utilizes a glass indicating electrode and a reference electrode to complete the
electrical circuit.
Digital salt meter:
This refractometer has electrodes built in the measurement unit and it indicates
salinity percentage in digits in three seconds with one ml sample dripped on it.
Brix or Balling hydrometer:
Sugar concentration can be found by refractometer. It gives directly the percentage
of sugar by weight in the syrup. It is always necessary to make a temperature
correction since the hydrometers are usually calibrated at 20C. Each instrument
used by canners usually covers a range of only 10 Brix, e.g. 10 - 20, 20 - 30, 30 -
40, 40 - 50, 50 - 60
0
Brix respectively and are graduated in 1/10th divisions. Brix is
defined as percent sucrose measured by a Brix hydrometer.
Polariscope is used for quantitative analysis of sugar.
Butyrometer: It is an instrument consisting of a calibrated glass tube for
measuring the butter content of milk. The milk is mixed with a certain volume of
ether which dissolves the butter. Then an equal volume of alcohol is added. The
butter floats on the surface in the form of an oily layer and its thickness, measured
by the graduation of the tube, clearly shows the proportion of butter.
Physical methods:
Weight:
Weight of a food indicates the quality like in case of apple or egg.
Volume:
Liquid volumes can be measured by using measuring cups.
Solid food volume can be found by displacement method.
Specific volume:
Measurement of bulk volume in a porous and spongy product like idli is difficult.
The volume may be measured by displacement with solvents like kerosene.
Specific volume = Bulk volume/Wt. of the substance
Index to volume:
It can be found by measuring the area of a slice of food with a planimeter. It is
important to use a slice that is representative of the product such as a centre slice.
Index to volume is a measurement made by first tracing detailed outline of a cross
section of the food. This tracing can be done with a sharply pointed pencil or a pen
or by making a clear ink blot of the cross section. The ink blot is made simply by
pressing the cross section of the sample lightly onto an inked stamp pad and then
making the imprint of the inked sample on paper.
Specific gravity:
It is a measure of the relative density of a substance in relation to that of water.
The measurement is obtained by weighing a given volume of the sample and then
dividing that weight by the same volume of water. This technique is used for
comparing the lightness of products physically unsuited for volume measurements
e.g., egg white foams.
Moisture:
Press fluids: Initial weight of the sample is noted. After the appropriate pressure
has been applied for a controlled length of time, the sample is again weighed. The
difference between the two weights represents the amount of juice contained in the
original sample
e.g. juiciness of meats, poultry and fish.
Drying :
The weight of the original sample is determined and then the food is dried until the
weight remains constant.
Moisture content(%) = Initial - dried weight/Initial weight X 100
Size :
This can be found by using photography or ink prints with stamp pad or sand
retention e.g. idli. Cut the idli into 2 pieces and take one piece and press it on the
stamp pad and take an impression on the paper. Ink prints may be less clear but
satisfactory for some purposes.
Physical factor Test Description
Colour Colour difference meter Measures differences in
tri-stimulus values
Munsell colour system Based on colour standards
Spectrophotometry Measure light reflectance
at different wavelengths
Viscosity Ostwald Viscometer Flow through a capillary
tube
Rotating Spindle A rotating cylinder is
immerged in the fluid and
stress measured.
Falling weight Measures the time
required for a weight to
fall through a tube
containing the sample.
Texture/Tenderness Finger feel Test of firmness and
softness
Mouth feel Test of chewiness,
fibrousness and grittiness
Texture value (texture
meter, Penetrometer)
Indication of texture,
firmness, tenderness and
shear value
Size and shape Weight, volume and
vacuum
Gross, net, drained weight
Seal integrity Seal evaluation
Length, breath and
diameter (Vernier
Callipers)
Uniformity and
classification.

Chemical methods -These are standard food analysis methods. These are used
for quantitative evaluation of nutritive value e.g. moisture, specific gravity, fat, oil,
protein, carbohydrates, fibre, enzyme, vitamin and pH. Some chemicals are
estimated in food spoilage like peroxides in fats. Adulterants in food e.g., presence
of starch in milk, metanil yellow in turmeric powder and loss of nutrients during
cooking can be estimated

Common chemical tests used for food products:

Chemical factor Test Description
Moiture Drying Measures weight loss due
to evaporation
Solids Hydrometer Concentration of dissolved
solids
Specific gravity Titration Reaction of water with
specific chemicals
Total soluble solids (TSS) Refractive index Measures TSS and
indicates the sugars
Ascorbic acid Dye method Measures Vit C content
Fat-oil Ether extraction Dried, ground material
extracted in petroleum
ether
Protein Kjeldahl method Total N2 determined and
N2 * 6.25 = Protein
Carbohydrates Molisch general test Colour reaction with
Naphthol
Fibre NaOH extraction residue Measures organic residues
including cellulose and
lignin
Ash / Minerals Burns at 550 0C in Muffle
Furnace
Determines total ash by
weight of residue after
incineration
Enzymes Catalase, peroxidase Chemical reaction with
H2O2 or indicators
Vitamins Bioassays for each vit Vitamin analysis using
analytical procedures
pH, acidity pH meter or titration Measures alkalinity or
acidity of samples
Chlorine Chemical titration Measurement of chlorine
residue

Microscopic methods: These methods are excellent in quality control. It is used
for detection of contaminants in foods. So, these methods prevent food from
adulteration and contamination.

CHAPTER: 3 COLOUR ROLE OF COLOUR IN QUALITY, DIFFERENT
TYPES OF COLOR MEASURING SYSTEMS

THE SENSE OF SIGHT:
Stimuli visible light
Perception-sight, vision, appearance
Receptor- retina of the eye.

Optical properties:
Vision:
Vision is a complex phenomenon consisting of several basic components. A
stimulus, light, from an external source interacts with the object and is brought to
focus on the retina of the eye. The retina is the receptor of vision and contains two
types of cells. The rods are responsible for vision in dim light and the cones are
responsible for colour vision. Light incident on these cells causes a photochemical
reaction that generates an electrical impulse which is transmitted to the brain via
optic nerve.

Light:
Visible light is that part of is electromagnetic spectrum which radiates between
wavelength of 380-770nm
Different wavelengths produce different colors
380-450 nm - Violet
450-475 nm - Blue
500-570 nm - Green
575-590 nm - Yellow
590-770 nm - Red

Light object interactions
Light incident on an object may be absorbed, reflected, transmitted, and refracted.
The relationship between and within each of these components is responsible for
the colour and gloss characteristics of the food. The main light / object interactions
produced are
Lightness/value
Color/hue
Chroma/purity
Gloss

Physical form
The second class of product appearance is physical form that can be subdivided into
three parts.
Shape
Surface texture
Visual consistency
Shape and size are important from a food technologists point of view because
these can be altered during the manufacture of processed products. Eg. sliced
,chunked ,cut up parts.
Surface texture can indicate product texture Eg. Open dry structure of meat,
wrinkling of peas.
Visual consistency can indicate product viscosity as in
Setting of jelly
Syrups of different concentration

Factors that should be considered in evaluating product appearance
include:
Use of standard conditions
Light source
Background
Style of presentation
Selection of appearance attributes
Use of colour charts / standard help rating.

Color

Colour is the first quality attribute a consumer perceives in food. Change of colour
is generally accompanied by flavour changes. It is one aspect of appearance; a
stimulus based on visual response to light, consisting of the three dimensions of
hue, saturation, and lightness.

Gloss
An additional parameter to consider when determining a color standard, along with
hue, value, chroma, the texture of a material and whether the material has metallic
or pearlescent qualities. Gloss is an additional tolerance that may be specified in the
Munsell Color Tolerance Set. The general rule of evaluating the gloss of a color
sample is the higher the gloss unit, the darker the color sample will appear.
Conversely, the lower, the gloss unit, the lighter a sample will appear.

Glossmeter
An instrument used to measure the amount of gloss (a term used to describe the
relative amount of mirror-like (specular) reflection from the surface of a sample).
These instruments measure the light reflected at select specular angles, such as 20
degrees from the perpendicular, 45, 60, 75, and 85 degrees. Results obtained are
very dependent on instrument design, calibration technique used, types of samples,
and so forth.

Role of color in qulity:

Many circumstances exist where some form of colour measurement is necessary to
quantify and assess a products colour or where colour is an indirect measure of
product quality or processing performance:

To Ensure Uniformity of Colour in Production
If the colour of a product varies from one batch to another, it may be perceived as
being an inferior product.

To Achieve Aesthetic Quality
Presentation of an acceptable and consistent colour is of tremendous importance to
consumers.

As a Performance Indicator
For example, to assess the performance of decolorising materials or to determine a
products suitability for a particular purpose.

To Indicate Product Condition
For example, as an indication of the level of purity, the degree of deterioration over
time, adverse growing conditions experienced by natural raw materials or the
condition of used product.

To Indicate the Level of Refining/Processing Undergone
In oil refining processes, the colour provides a good indication of the degree of
refinement and allows optimisation of the refining process.

As a Content Indicator
There is often a correlation between colour and chemical/physical content (for
example, the amount of chlorophyll in oil). In these cases, colour measurement
may offer a simple alternative to more complex means of testing.

Color measurement systems:

Three main things required to see the color

A light source
An object
An observer

Light

Visible light is a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The wavelength of light
is measured in nanometers(nm). One nanometer is one-billionth of a meter. A plot
of the relative energy of light at each wavelength creates a power distribution curve
quantifying the spectral chararcteritics of the light source. A light source is a real
source of light. An illuminant is a plot, or table, of relative energy versus
wavelength that represents the characteristics of different types of light sources.
Light is the basic stimulus of colours, it is important to consider the electromagnetic
spectrum. Visible light forms only a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum,
with a spectral range from approximately 390 nm (violet) to 750 nm (red). The
sensitivity of the eye varies even within this narrow visible range. Under conditions
of moderate-to-strong illumination, the eye is most sensitive to yellow-green light
of about 550 nm.

There are three characteristics of light by which a colour may be specified: hue,
saturation, and brightness. Hue is an attribute associated with the dominant
wavelength in a mixture of light waves, i.e., it represents the dominant colour as
perceived by an observer. Saturation refers to relative purity or the amount of
white light mixed with a hue. Brightness is a subjective term, which embodies the
chromatic notion of intensity. Hue and saturation taken together are called
chromaticity. Therefore, a colour may be characterized by brightness and
chromaticity.

Colour Dictionaries: The dictionary of Maerz and Paul is most commonly used.
The dictionary consists of 56 charts. Seven main groups of hues are presented in
order of their spectra. For each group there are 8 plates. In place of colour
dictionary, colour reproduced on secondary standards such as painted test panels,
rings, discs or plastic models may be used. A mask of neutral grey having two
openings is used. The size of each opening should be equal to the size of the
individual colour patch in the sheet. An opening should be placed over the sample
and the other over different patches on the chart until a match is achieved and the
colour is noted.

Disc colorimeter: Here the discs have radial slits so that a number of them may
be slipped together with varying portions of each showing. The discs are spun on a
spindle at about 2700 rpm so that the colours merge into a single hue without
flickering. The test sample is placed adjacent to the spinning disc under controlled
illumination and both are viewed simultaneously.

Colored chips: A simple method is to match the colour of the food with the colour
chips or colour glass, chart or colour tiles. This method is not very small block of
colour or the chart. The data are difficult to tabulate and analyse also.

Spectrophotometer: Visual matching of colours is subject to shortcomings of
human observers. To overcome this spectrophotmeter can be used. In this, tube
with the liquid is placed in a slot and light of selected wavelength is passes through
the tube. This light will be differentially absorbed depending upon the colour of the
liquid and the intensity of the colour. Two liquids of exactly the same colour and
intensity will transmit equal fractions of the light directed through them. If one of
the liquid is a juice and the other is the juice diluted with water, the latter sample
will transmit a greater fraction of the incoming light and this will cause a
proportionately greater deflection of the sensing needle on the instrument. Such an
instrument can also measure the clarity cloudiness of a liquid depending on the
amount of light the liquid allows to pass.

CIE System

The Commission Internationale de lEclairage (CIE) defined a system of describing
the colour of an object based on three primary stimuli: red (700 nm), green (546.1
nm), and blue (435.8 nm). Because of the structure of the human eye, all colours
appear as different combinations of these. The amounts of red, green, and blue
needed to form any given colour are called the tristimulus values, X, Y, and Z,
respectively. Using the X, Y, and Z values, a colour is represented by a set of
chromaticity coordinates or trichromatic coefficients, x, y, and z, as defined below:

x = X/X+Y+Z; y = Y/ X+Y+Z; z = Z/ X+Y+Z

It is obvious from the equations above that x + y + z = 1.

The tristimulus values for any wavelength can be obtained from either standard
tables or figures.
Sometimes, tristimulus systems of representation of colours are not easily
understood by the users in terms of object colour. Other colour scales therefore
were developed to relate better to how we perceive colour, simplify understanding,
improve the communication of colour differences, and be more linear throughout
colour space. This gave the birth of opponent colour theory, which states that the
red, green and blue responses are re-mixed in opponent coders as they move up
the optic nerve in human brain. Based on this theory a 3-dimensional rectangular L,
a, b, colour space was evolved, in which at L (lightness) axis 0 is black and 100 is
white, a (red-green) axis positive values are red; negative values are green and
zero is neutral, and b (blue-yellow) positive values are yellow; negative values
are blue and zero is neutral. All colours that can be visually perceived can be
plotted in this L, a, b, rectangular colour space. There are two popular L, a, b colour
scales in use today Hunter L, a, b, and CIE L*, a*, b*. They are similar in
organization, but will have different numerical values. Hunter L, a, b and CIE L*,
a*, b* scales are both mathematically derived from X, Y, Z values . Neither scale is
visually uniform, Hunter scale is over expanded in blue region of colour space, while
CIE scale is over expanded in yellow region. The current recommendation of CIE is
to use L*, a*, b*.

Munsell System and Atlas

The Munsell colour system divides hue into 100 equal divisions around a colour
circle. This is similar in approach to the Newton colour circle except that the circle is
distorted by assigning a unit of radial distance to each perceptible difference in
saturation (called units of chroma). Since there are more perceptible differences for
some hues, the figure will bulge outward to 18 for some hues compared to only 10
for others. Perpendicular to the plane formed by hue and saturation is the
brightness scale divided into a scale of value from zero (black) to 10 (white). A
point in the colour space so defined is specified by hue, value, and chroma in the
form H, V and C. The Munsell colour-system is
therefore a way of precisely specifying colours
and showing the relationships among them.
Every colour has three qualities or attributes:
hue, value, and chroma. A set of numerical
scales with visually uniform steps for each of
these attributes has been established. The
Munsell Book of Colour displays a collection of
coloured chips arranged according to these
scales. Each chip is identified numerically using
these scales. Comparing it to the chips under
proper illumination and viewing conditions can
identify the colour of any surface. The colour is then identified by its hue, value,
and chroma. These attributes are given the symbols H, V, and C and are written in
a form H V/C, which is called theMunsell notations. Using Munsell notations, each
colour has a logical relationship to all other colours. This opens up endless creative
possibilities in colour choices, as well as the ability to communicate those colour
choices precisely. The Munsell system is the colour order system most widely
quoted in food industry literature. Food products for which the US Department of
Agriculture (USDA) recommends matching Munsell discs to be used include dairy
products such as milk and cheese, egg yolks, beef, several fruits, vegetables, and
fruit juices. Other colour atlases and charts are available for use in the food

industry, such as the Natural Colour System and Atlas, Royal Horticultural Society
Charts, etc. These atlases and charts are used for comparison of a product colour
with that of a standard colour diagram, which is also commonly practiced in the
food industry. The evaluation of potato chip colour is a very good example. Other
colour scales, such as the RGB, CMY, HSI, HSV, HLS etc. also exist, but are very
similar to the CIE system. RGB system is generally used in analysis of colour of an
image, while others are now not in much use for measurement of colour of food
items.

The lovibond tintometer :

The lovibond tintometer is a visual colorimeter used widely in the oil industry. The
instrument has as set of permanent glass color filters in the three primary colors
red, yellow, and blue. The colors are calibrated on a decimal scale in units of equal
depth throughout each scale. The oil sample is placed in a glass cell and the filters
are introduced into the optical system until a color match is obtained under
specified conditions of illumination and viewing. Color of oils is measured with
transmitted light. Either transmitted light for molten waxes and fats or reflected
light against a white background for solid samples is used. Attachments to the
lovibond tintometer provide means of converting the readings from lovibond units
into trichromatic coordinate values. In addition, modifications for determining the
color of liquid, solid, powder, or paste materials are available.

CHAPTER: 4 VISCOSITY AND CONSISTENCY ROLE OF VISCOSITY AND
CONSISTENCY IN FOOD QUALITY

Rheology:

Rheology is the science of flow and deformation of matter and describes the
interrelation between force, deformation and time. The term comes from Greek
rheos meaning to flow. Rheology is applicable to all materials, from gases to
solids. Fluid rheology is used to describe the consistency of different products,
normally by the two components: viscosity and elasticity. By viscosity is usually
meant resistance to flow or thickness and by elasticity usually stickiness or
structure.

The science of rheology deals with the measurement of various mechanical
properties of foods. A study of rheological properties of foods is important for two
reasons.
1. To determine the flow properties of liquid food stuffs.
2. To ascertain the mechanical behavior of solid foods when consumed and
during processing.

Viscosity/consistency:

Viscosity or consistency is an important factor in influencing the quality of a large
number of food products. The more important among these are cream style corn,
salad creams, tomato products, jellies, jams, mayonnaise, syrups, and fruit pulps
where the acceptability largely depends on their having proper consistency or
viscosity. Measurement of this factor for the raw material or the product at various
stages of manufacture serves as an aid in checking or predicting the consistency of
the final product. Further, such quality control measurements also serve as
indicators in calculating the amount of an ingredient (thickening agent, etc.) that
should be added in a particular food product. Duration and amount of heat applied
in a process may also be suitably regulated to some extent by viscosity
measurements as heat penetration and consistency are closely interrelated

Viscosity is the resistance to deformation or flow. It is the measure of the internal
friction of a fluid. Different fluids deform at different rates under the same shear
stress. The greater the friction, the greater the amount of force required to cause
this movement, which is called shear. Shearing occurs whenever the fluid is
physically moved or distributed, as in pouring, spreading, mixing, etc. highly
viscous fluids, therefore require more force to move than less viscous materials.

Kinematic viscosity is a measure of the rate at which momentum is transferred
through a fluid. It is measured in stokes . Dynamic viscosity is a measure of the
ratio of the stress on a region of a fluid to the rate of change of strain it
undergoes. It is measured in pascal-seconds or poises.

Role of viscosity and consistency in food quality:

Viscosity is more easily measured than some of other properties that affect it,
making it valuable tool for material characterization.

Viscosity is essential in the evaluation of food that will be subjected to temperature
variations in use or processing, such as starch, paste, vegetable oils.

Aging phenomena: Gradual changes in the viscosity of many materials can occur
overtime even though the material is not being sheared. Food materials will
undergo changes in viscosity during the process of chemical reaction.

The composition of a material is a determining factor of its viscosity. When this
composition is altered, either by changing the proportions of the component
substances, or by the addition of other materials, a change in viscosity is quite
likely.

CHAPTER: 5 SIZE AND SHAPE WEIGHT AND VOLUME WEIGHT AND
VOLUME RATIO LENGTH AND WIDTH DIAMETER
SYMMETRY CURVATURE AREA

Volume:

Volume is defined as the amount of space occupied by a three-dimensional object
or region of space. Volumes are expressed in cubic units.

Boundary volume: It is the volume of a material considering the geometric
boundary.

Pore volume: It is the volume of the void or air inside a material.

Density:

Density is the mass of a material per unit volume. The density of a substance is the
quantity of matter contained in a unit volume of the substance.
Mass density, is defined as the mass of substance per unit volume. SI Unit: kgm
-3

In the case of non homogeneous materials, such as foods, consisting of solid,
liquid, and gaseous phase(s), a number of different forms of density have been
defined for the sufficient relation between mass and volume.

True density (t): It is the density of a pure substance or a composite material
calculated from its components densities considering conservation of mass and
volume.

Material density (m): It is the density measured when a material has been
thoroughly broken into pieces small enough to guarantee no closed pores remain. It
is also known as substance density.

Particle density (p): It is the density of a particle that has not been structurally
modified and includes the volume of all closed pores but not the externally
connected pores.

Apparent density (a): It is the density of a substance including all pores remaining
in the material.

Bulk density (b): It is the density of a material when packed or stacked in bulk
and is defined as the mass of the material per the total volume it occupies. The
bulk volume of packed materials depends on the geometry, size, and surface
properties of the individual particles.

The density of food materials depends on temperature and composition. Mass-
volume-area properties are needed for process design, estimation of other
properties, and product characterization.

CHAPTER: 6 DEFECTS CLASSIFICATION AND MEASUREMENT OF
DEFECTS

Classification of Defects:

Defect - Deterioration/spoilage affecting the appearance or
usability of the produce.

Based on extent of deterioration:

Slight defect - Does not have a major impact on the acceptance of the
produce by the consumers. Slight defects include: bruising, blemishes, and other
non extensive outside defects.

Major defect - Without being critical, major defects do have a
considerable impact on the acceptance of the produce by the consumers. Produce
may show evidence of pests or disease, scabs, and similar blemishes not affecting
the flesh.

Critical defect - The defect on the flesh of the produce is
likely to cause rejection by the consumer. It may consist in severe cases of pest
attack or disease, unscarred blemishes and other damage affecting the flesh.

Defective unit - Unit showing one or several defects

Minor defective unit - Unit showing one or several minor defects, while
being free of major or critical defects

Major defective unit - Unit showing one or several major defects, in
addition to minor ones, although none of a critical nature

Critically defective unit - Unit showing one or several critical defects, in
addition to major and minor ones

Based on causative agent

Genetic physiological - Due to hereditary abnormality or to unfavorable
environmental conditions during growth and development

Entomological - Due to actions linked to insect feeding,
spawning and biting

Microbiological - Due to fungal, bacterial, yeast, or viral action

Mechanical (Extraneous) - Due to inappropriate manipulation of the produce
during and after harvesting

Meteorological - Due to a variety of natural atmospheric phenomena
such as hail, rain, wind, and frost

Commonest defects in fruits and vegetables:

Deformation - Anomaly in the shape of the produce measured
against those typical of species and variety.

Color variation - Evident in superficial areas showing a color not
corresponding to the produce, in terms of maturity, species, or variety.

Damage caused by citrus red spider mite - This particular damage occurs
in pomegranate, avocado and especially citrics. It is caused by several species of
Tetranychus attacking the skin cells of the produce. Produce attacked by
Tetranychus sexmaculatus (Riley) show white or silvery areas, while those attacked
by Brebipalpus californicus show dark areas with scarred corky plates.
Sooty mould - Damage produced in citrics by the Phylocoptruta
oleivora mite, which bites the epidermic cells of the produce. Cells take on a
reddish (brownish gray blackish) hue due to the oxidization of the oils exuded by
the attacked cells. Sometimes, the fumagina caused by fungi of the genus
Capnodium (see 2.5.3.7) is also called Sooty mould.
Anthrachnose - Fungal disease which, after attacking the
stem, leaves, and fruits of a variety of plants, causes typical brown or darker
colored necrotic lesions likely to cover wide areas. It is caused by fungi pertaining
to Colletotrichum, Glomerella, Gloesporium, Gnomonia, Marssonina,
Mycosphaerella, Neofabrae and Pseudopeziza genuses.
Powdery Mildew
A variety of diseases caused by certain fungi, which after developing on the surface
of the infested tissue, produce very thin layers of powder-like spots.
Fumagina
Disease attacking the surface of certain tropical and subtropical fruits, caused by
fungus Capnodium sp. The mycelia affix on the skin surface forming a thin film with
the appearance of soot layers.
Melanosis
Disease common in citrics, and caused by fungus Diaporthe citri Wolf. At the
beginning, the skin shows small stains or gummy cells clusters irregularly
scattered, which are likely to form dark rough scabs.
Rot
Destruction and decay of fruit cells and flesh, paired with extraneous odor and taste
due to microorganism invasion.
Dry rot
Rot by fungal infection.
Soft rot
Rot by bacterial infection.
Peduncular rot
Fungal or bacterial rot attacking the fruit from the stem cavity and often
penetrating into the flesh to reach the seeds of the fruit.
Crusts
Scabs on the surface of the fruit.
Bruising
Softened areas or spots on the skin or flesh of the fruit, caused by blows, packing,
tight ties in package or other reasons.
Bites
Variably deep lesions either mechanically caused or inflicted by predators such as
birds, rodents or others.
Limb rub
Injuries caused by violent friction on the skin of the fruit. Cover irregular areas.
Scarred lesion
Areas of fibrous tissue replacing normal skin after destruction of some of the
dermis.
Unhealed lesion
Any kind of penetrating injury with no regenerated tissue and showing raw flesh
unprotected from the environment.
Oleocelosis
Occurs on citrus skin when the flavedo oil cells break. The defect is usually due to
harvesting at the wrong hours or rough handling. Hardly detectable on the first day,
oleocelosis usually becomes apparent by the next day.
Cracks
Fissure on fruit surface, caused by mechanical, physiological, or meteorological
actions. They may or may not be healed.
Sunburns
Discoloration in some area of the fruit surface due to over exposure to sunrays.
Latex burns
Discoloration caused by latex dripping on the skin of certain fruits. The affected part
takes on a darker shade.
Hail damage
Produced by the action of hail, multifarious damage can be seen on the surface
and/or flesh.
Frostbite
May be due to deficient refrigerating, and have different effects such as
discoloration, external or internal flesh darkening, softening, etc.
Extraneous matters
Presence of any kind of extraneous matter on the fruit, such as mud, stems, leaves,
animal excrement, or other impurities.

Measurement of defects:

Macroanalytic methods

Microanalytic methods

Macro analytic methods:

Macroscopic analysis of a product refers to an evaluation of the substances through
the use of the unaided senses of an individual. There are several advantages to the
use of macro analytical procedures. They are inexpensive and require little
specialized equipment. They generally permit the analysis of a large quantity of
product in a relatively short period of time and thus allow the analyst to assess the
overall condition of the lot quite rapidly. The analyst can quickly identify and isolate
those portions of the lot which may contain defects and thus limit the amount of
material which may need a more detailed, microscopic evaluation.

Microscopic Methods:

Microscopic methods of analysis involves the detailed examination of a very small
portion of the sample. These procedures have been designed to provide a different
type of information than macroscopic methods. They are used to describe and
quantify defects on a different scale than macroscopic methods and to identify
hidden defects that cannot be detected through a gross evaluation of the sample.
Imitations of microscopic methods are they tend to be more time consuming and
more expensive and they require more specialized equipment. These tests are
limited to the analysis of very small sample, the results are not always
representative of the overall condition of the lot.

Sorting / Screening:

Sorting/ Screening is the separation of raw materials and/or food slurries into
categories on the basis of shape, size, weight, image and color. The size sorting is
especially important for food products which have to be heated or cooled, as large
differences in size might lead to an over-processing or under processing of the
product. Sorting also allows the separation at first sight of some (undesirable)
addition of material (eg. Leaves, stones) or inappropriate raw material (immature
or rottled berries), and aims at ensuring that only good quality material is
preserved and passed through for further processing.

Size sorting:

Various types of screens and sieves, with fixed or variable apertures can be used.
The screens may be stationary, rotting or vibrating.
Shape sorting can be accomplished manually or mechanically with same
equipments eg: belt roller sorter.

Weight sorting:

Weight sorting is a very accurate method and is therefore used for more valuable
foods.

Image processing:

Image processing is used to sort foods on the basis of length, diameter and
appearance i.e surface defects and orientation of food on a conveyer colour sorting
can be applied at high rates using microprocessor or controlled colour sorters.

Electronic sorting:

CHAPTER: 7 FLAVOR: DEFINITION AND ITS ROLE IN FOOD QUALITY,
TASTE QUALITIES, RELATIVE INTENSITY, REACTION TIME,
EFFECT OF DISEASE, TEMPERATURE, AND TASTE MEDIUM
ON TASTE, BASIC TASTES, INTERACTION OF TASTES

THE SENSE OF TASTE

Stimuli soluble chemicals which are solubilised during chewing
Receptors taste buds in mouth
Perception taste, flavour

Taste/flavor is a combination of taste, smell, touch, temperature. Strictly speaking
taste involves only those sensations mediated by gustatory nerve fibers and these
sensations have basic qualities

Salt
Sweet
Bitter
Sour
Umami
Taste stimuli
Taster response requires an aqueous solution of the substance to contact the taste
buds. Therefore, saliva secretions are important in terms of ensuring contact
between the product and the taste buds. The tongue is important as it brings the
food into contact with the taste buds and also provides a mixing action which
enables or even distribution of food about the taste buds as well as preventing the
development of concentration gradients.
Taste receptors
The receptors for taste are the taste buds and these are mounted on papillae. The
area of greatest response is the top of the tongue, other areas in the mouth and
throat.
Taste buds are mainly located at the tip, sides and rear of the tongue. There is little
response in the centre of the tongue.
Different areas of the tongue are most responsive to different sensations.
Tip-sweet
Sides-salty, sour
Rear bitter
The taste cells constantly degenerate and regenerate their life cycle is 10 days and
they are easily destroyed by heat.
A basic taste is one for which specific taste buds have been identified as being
physiologically responsible for the particular taste sensation.

Sourness
This is the simplest taste as only acids produce sourness and as the H
+
ions
increases the sourness increases. However there are some exceptions to this:
organic acids are more acidic than expected
sourness of aliphatic organic acids relates to chain length.
some amino acids are sweet(aspartame).
picric acid is bitter.
sugar may enhance or depress sourness.
sourness is also affected by pH and acid.
presence of buffer affects sourness.
Sweetness
The common substances that produce sweet taste are the sugars and other
hydroxyl compounds such as alcohols and glycols. Other substances such as Lead
salts, amino acids, proteins, non nutritive sweeteners (cyclamates, saccharin,
aspartame) also taste sweet.
Saltiness
Many crystalline water-soluble salts yield a salty taste, but only sodium chloride
gives a pure salty taste.

Bitterness
Many chemically different compounds have a bitter taste however bitterness is
mainly associated with alkaloids such as caffeine, strychnine, nicotine and quinine.
It was thought that bitterness was an indication of danger. However many alkaloids
are used as drugs eg.codeine and many other bitter substances are harmless
eg.glycosides, esters, aldehydes, tannins in wine and tea.

Umami
It is the taste that has been associated with substances that contain glutamate.
MSG is well known as a flavor enhancer and can cause adverse reactions in some
sensitive individuals. Many foods contain naturally high levels of glutamate.

Taste thresholds and sensitivity:
There is a great variability between individuals in their levels of sensitivity.
Sensitivity is affected by
Temperature
Sleep
Hunger
Age
Sex

Absolute threshold and recognition threshold will vary between individuals. Most
people can detect taste within 0.2 to 0.6 seconds and therefore if there is no
response within this time the level is sub-threshold.
Salt - 0.3 sec vision 0.02 sec
Sweet - 0.4 sec Hearing 0.01 sec
Sour - 0.5 sec Touch 0.005 sec Bitter 1.0 sec

Reaction times also relate to retention times for example bitterness has the longest
reaction time (1.0 sec) and the sensation lingers considerably after tasting.

CHAPTER: 8 ODOUR : DEFINITION, CLASSIFICATION, NEUTRAL
MECHANISMS, OLFACTORY ABNORMALITIES, ODOR
TESTING, TECHNIQUES, THRESHOLDS, ODOR INTENSITIES,

THE SENSE OF SMELL

Stimuli volatile chemicals
Receptors olfactory cells in the nose
Perception smell, odour, aroma.

Smell is one of the four primate senses. The human nose is capable of detecting
thousands of different odour substances. Smell is detected both before and during
eating. Smell is an important aspect of flavour. There are 20x10
6
olfactory
receptors but only about 1000 taste receptors. Odour description requires the
development of an odour/memory. This is the basis of flavour/odour memory
development by graders. Individuals vary a great deal in their sensitivity to
different odour/aroma.

Olfactory intensity
Human nose is about 10- 100 times more sensitive to odours than any physico
chemical analysis eg. Gas chromatography. It has been demonstrated that human
nose is capable of detecting ethyl mercaptan of a concentration of 0.01mg/230 m
3

of air, which is equivalent to about 8 molecule/ receptor.

Olfactory threshold
Detection threshold is the concentration where smell is detected. Recognition
threshold is the concentration where the smell is recognized.

Olfactory interactions
Nature of the response may change with concentration eg. Perfumes.
Interaction of odours are
Additive increase intensity
Suppressive decrease intensity
Blending when new odour unrelated to originals

Olfactory adaptations:
Initial sensation may be strong but weakens and makes identification difficult. This
is due to adaptation of olfactory receptors.
In testing we therefore need to allow for this by
Taking first impression of odour
Waiting between tests to allow receptors to recover.

CHAPTER: 09 VISUAL, AUDITORY, TACKLE AND OTHER SENSES, VISION,
AUDITION, ORAL PERCEPTION OTHER THAN TASTE

THE HUMAN SENSES IN SENSORY EVALUATION

The sensory properties of food are related to three major attributes
Appearance - colour, size, shape
Flavour - odour, taste
Texture - mouth feel, viscosity and hearing.
Human possess about 30 different senses. However the sensory properties of food
are perceived through the senses of sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing.

Stimuli:
A stimulus is any chemical or physical activator that causes a response in a
receptor E.g. eye is receptor for light. An effective stimulus produces a sensation
the dimension of which are
Intensity/strength
Extent/separation
Duration/retention
Hedonics/like or dislike.

Receptor:
Receptors are the stimuli detecting cells of the sensory organs
Eg: taste buds on tongue

Perception:
Perception is the psychological interpretation of sensations determined by
comparison with past experience.

THE SENSE OF HEARING

Stimuli Physical movement of sound waves in a medium.
Receptor Ear drum
Perception Hearing, sound.

Hearing:

Sound is the perception by humans of vibrations in a physical medium. The sound
of food when it is being eaten is an important aspect in the determining quality.

Positive aspects:
Snap, crackle, pop
Fizz of champagne or beer
Crispiness of lettuce or celery
Tapping a melon for quality

THE SENSE OF TOUCH:

Stimuli - Physical contact between the food and body tissue.
Receptors - Muscles and nerves in mouth and fingers.
Perception -Touch, feel, texture, viscosity.

Texture usually relates to solid food while viscosity relates to homogeneous liquid
foods and consistency relates to non-homogeneous liquid foods.

FINGER FEEL:
Firmness/goodness indicates the eating quality of some food product.
Ripeness level of fruit such as mango
Crumb texture of bread
Firmness of cheese
Spreadability of butter
Juiciness can be used as subjective quality index.

MOUTH FEEL:
Liquids:
Viscosity - thin to viscous eg. Milk, cream.
Consistency - thin to thick eg. Fruit, yoghurt.
Solids:
Classification of textural characteristics assessed mainly by chewing
Hardness - soft, firm, hard. eg. Fruit ripeness, chesse maturity
Brittleness - Crumbly,crunchy,brittle. Eg. Biscuits.
Chewiness -Tender, chewy,tough eg.meat
Grittiness - gritty, grainy,coarse eg.Storecells in fruits, sand in icecream.
Fibrousness- fibrous, cellular eg. Fibre in vegetable
Moistness -Dry, moist, wet eg.watermelon
Oiliness -oily,greasy,fatty eg.chips
Analysis of texture
Objective evaluation:
Methods of evaluating food quality that depend on some measure other than the
human senses are often called objective methods of evaluation.
Advantages:
Confidence can be gained as they are reproducible.
The results would be accurate. Human sensitivity is not involved. Minute differences
can be noticed by doing objective tests.
They are less subjected to errors when compared to sensory methods.
These methods provide permanent record so that comparison can be made over a
period of time.
They are not affected by factors other than the one being measured.
Emotional burdens and individual ability can be overcome.
Disadvantages:
It is time consuming.
It is expensive.
Technical knowledge is required.
Instruments may not be available sometimes.
Some aspects of food cannot be evaluated by objective methods e.g.flavour.
Usually both sensory and objective methods are done. Objective evaluation
supplements or reinforces the data obtained subjectively through sensory
evaluation.
Instruments used for texture evaluation:
Various instruments are used to measure the texture of liquids, semi solids and
solids.
Rheology is defined as the science of deformation and flow of matter. It has three
aspects-elasticity, viscous flow and plastic flow.
Instruments used for testing Viscosity:
The resistance or internal friction to the flow of liquids is normally known as
viscosity.
Stormer viscometer:
It is used to measure the viscosity or consistency of certain food products and to
give an index of the resistance of the sample to flow. The number of seconds
required for the rotor to make 100 revolutions has been used to measure the
consistency of some food samples.
Percent Sag: The depth of a sample such as jelly is measured in its container by
using a probe. The product then is unmolded onto a flat plate. The greater the
percent sag, the tenderer is the gel.
Percent Sag = depth in container - depth in plate/depth in container x 100
Brookfield Synchrolectric Viscometer:
This is based on measurement of resistance to rotation of a spindle immersed in the
test material. This can be used successfully in measuring the consistency of
custards, pie fillings, tomato products, mayonnaise, salad dressings and dairy
products.
Bostwick Consistometer:
This is used for measuring the consistency of tomato ketchup and sauce. The
Bostwick consistometer consists of a channel (2x12") with sides which are 2" high.
It has triggered gate on one side. A centimeter scale is etched on the floor of the
channel. The use of this instrument is based on the theory that the length of flow
is proportional to consistency.
Efflux-Tube Viscometer: It measures the time necessary for a quantity of fluid to
pass through an orifice or capillary under standard pressure, e.g. tomato puree.
Adams Consistometer:
While this Consistometer was designed primarily for measuring consistency of
cream style com, there are possibilities of using it in measuring the consistency of
other products like tomato puree, apple sauce and fruit pulps. The Adams
consistometer has been designed and constructed to accommodate a greater mass
and measure the unrestrained flow in all directions by means of concentric circles.
It consists of a large metal disc upon which are engraved 20 concentric circles,
increasing 0.25 inch in radius.
A steel truncated cone, which can be lifted vertically, fits tightly against the disc so
that the circumference of the cone coincides with the inner most circle.
Fill the cone with the sample to the level. Then raise the cone quickly and after 30
seconds, measure the consistency of the cream style com by recording the extent
of flow of the product at four equidistant points as indicated on the calibrated disc.
Average the four values thus determined to obtain an average consistency value for
the product. A simpler version of this principle is used in Line spread test.
Penetrometer:
A Penetrometer also may be used to measure tenderness of some foods. This
device consists of a plunger equipped with a needle or cone that is allowed to
penetrate the sample by gravitational force for a selected period of time. The larger
the reading the longer the distance the more tender is the product. Gels and many
baked products are particularly well suited to tenderness measurements using the
penetrometer The Bloom gel meter is a special type of penetrometer in which lead
shot drops into a cup which forces a plunder into the sample. When sufficient
weight has been added to the cup to move the plunger a set distance, the test is
completed and the amount of shot required is determined as the measure of the
test.
Brabender Farinograph:
This is used to measure the plasticity of wheat dough for preparing bread products.
It is designed to study the physical properties of the dough by recording the force
required to turn the mixer plates through the dough. The force required increases
as the solution develops during mixing and later decreases as solution is slowly
broken down by over mixing.
Instruments used for solids: Food texture can be termed as measurements of
resistance to force.
If we squeeze food so that it remains as one piece this is called compression, e.g.
bread.
If we apply a force so that one part of the food slides past another it is shearing,
e.g. chewing gum.
If the force goes through the food so as to divide it like in cutting.
If the force is applied away from the material, the food pulls apart by which we
measure tensile strength, e.g. chapatti
Magness-Taylor Pressure tester (compression):
It consists of a plunger of variable diameter which is pressed into the fruit to a
given depth. The sprint attached to the plunger contracts and measures the
compression force,
e.g. peas (suitability of peas for the harvest or to find out the correct stage of
ripening of a food).

Succulometer (compression):
This instrument is used to measure the maturity of com and storage quality of
apples as determined by the volume of juice extracted under controlled conditions
of pressure and time.
Tenderometer (compression and shearing):
This is an example of an instrument based on shearing force in which compression
is preceded by shearing action, e.g. suitability of peas for preservation.
Fibrometer:
This is based on the cutting principle and used to differentiate mature stocks from
the tender stocks, e.g. green beans.
Christal texturometer (cutting):
This is designed with series of rods which are pushed into the meat sample. The
harder the meat more force is required to penetrate.
Compressimeter:
The Compressimeter is related to the shear press, but it measures only
compressibility not shear strength. The usual technique for operating the
compressimeter is to apply pressure until the sample has been deformed specific
amount and then to measure the force that is required to accomplish this amount of
deformation. The greater the force required, the firmer the product.
Warner-Bratzier Shear:
It is a device used to measure the tenderness of meat. The instrument consists of a
stainless steel blade having a hole, with an equilateral triangle circumscribed
around a circular hole. It is generally used to measure the tenderness of meat by
knowing the maximum force encountered during the cutting action.
Shear press:
The shear press, a related device, is a machine that compresses, extrudes an,
shears the sample at the same time. This is a suitable method for measuring
textual characteristics of some fruits and vegetables.
Universal Testing Machine: The Universal testing machine can provide a record
showing seven aspects like texture from various food samples These are
cohesiveness, adhesiveness, hardness, springiness, gumminess, chewingness and
fructurability.
Classification of textural characteristics
Mechanical characteristics
Primary parameters Secondary parameters Popular terms
Hardness Soft -> Firm -> Hard
Cohesiveness Brittleness Crumbly -> Crunchy - >
Brittle
Chewiness Tender -> Chewy ->
Tough
Gumminess Short -> Mealy -> Pasty
Gummy
Viscosity Thin -> Viscous
Springiness Plastic -> Elastic
Adhesiveness Sticky -> Tacky Gooey

Geometrical characteristics
Class Examples
Particle size and shape Gritty, Grainy, Coarse, etc.
Particle shape and orientation Fibrous, Cellular, Crystalline, etc.

Other Characteristics
Primary parameters Secondary parameters Popular terms
Moisture content Dry -> Moist -> Wet ->
Watery
Fat Content Oiliness Oily
Greasiness Greasy

Definitions of mechanical parameters of texture
Physical Sensory
Primary properties
Hardness Force necessary to attain
a given deformation
Force required to compress a
substance between molar
teeth (in the case of solids)
or between tongue and
palate (in the case of semi-
solids).
Cohesiveness Extent to which a material
can be deformed before it
ruptures.
Degree to which a substance
is compressed between the
teeth before it breaks.
Viscosity Rate of flow per unit force. Force required to draw a
liquid from a spoon over the
tongue.
Springiness Rate at which a deformed
material goes back to its
un deformed condition
after the deforming force
is removed
Degree to which a product
returns to its original shape
once it has been compressed
between the teeth
Adhesiveness Work necessary to
overcome the attractive
forces between the
surface of the food and
the surface of the other
Force required to remove the
material that adheres to the
mouth (generally the palate)
during the normal eating
process.
materials with which the
food comes in contact
Secondary Properties
Fracturability Force with which a
material fractures a
product of high degree of
hardness and low degree
of cohesiveness
Force with which a sample
crumbles, cracks, shatters
Chewiness Energy required to
masticate a solid food to a
state ready for
swallowing: a product of
hardness, cohesiveness
and springiness
Length of time (in sec)
required to masticate the
sample, at a constant rate of
force application, to reduce it
to a consistency suitable for
swallowing.
Gumminess Energy required to
disintegrate a semi-solid
food to a state ready for
swallowing: a product of a
low degree of hardness
and a high degree of
cohesiveness
Denseness that persists
throughout mastication;
energy required to
disintegrate a semi-solid food
to a state ready for
swallowing.

Classification of mouthfeel terms
Category Typical words
I Viscosity related terms Thin, thick, viscous
II Feel on soft tissue Surfaces Smooth, pulpy, creamy
III Carbonation related terms Bubbly, tingly, foamy
IV Body-related terms Heavy, watery, light
V Chemical effect Astringent, burning, sharp
VI Coating of oral cavity Mouth coating, clinging, Fatty,
oily
VII Resistance to tongue movement Slimy, syrupy, pasty, sticky
VIII Afterfeel Mouth Clean, drying, lingering,
cleansing
IX Afterfeel Physiological Refreshing, warming, thirst
quenching, filling
X Temperature related Cold, hot
XI Wetness related Wet, dry

CHAPTER: 10 FACTORS INFLUENCING SENSORY MEASUREMENTS

FACTORS AFFECTING SENSORY MEASUREMENT

Unlike the instruments, human judgments can easily be affected by psychological
and physiological factors. We have to be aware of these factors and ensure that the
chosen procedure or experimental design eliminate or reduce such bias.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS:

Expectation error
Knowledge of experimental objectives or the sample to be evaluated can influence
an assessors judgment. People tend to find what way they expect to find. For
example codes such as A or 1 or round numbers can be associated with higher
score.
Strategies for reducing such errors:
Provide assessors with minimum amount of information required to perform the
test.
Use codes such as random three digit numbers and not letters or colours.
Do not include people with product knowledge on the panel.
Do not disclose information regarding the samples unless if necessary for ethical
procedures.

Suggestion effect
Comments or noises made out loud, eg, urghh or mmmm!., can influence sensory
judgment.
Isolate assessors during sample evaluation e.g. use of sensory booths.
Discourage assessors from discussing samples before or after evaluation.

Distraction error:
Assessors can be easily distracted from the taste in hand, either by stimuli in the
test environment, e.g. radio or by personal preoccupations, time pressure.
Ensure that the test area is quiet.
Create an environment that encourages professionalism amongst the assessors.
Prohibit the use of electronic devices.

Stimulus or logical error:
Stimulus error occurs when assessors use additional information to make a
judgment about the samples under assessment. When this stimulus is logically
associated with one or more of the characteristics under evaluation this is called
logical error. E.g., products of a deeper colour or larger size are presumed to be
more flavour intense; using more luxurious containers may lead assessors to think
that the product is of higher quality.
Ensure sample characteristics are consistent and/or mask irrelevant differences
where possible.e.g, use of colored lighting, blindfolds, nose clips and ear
defenders where appropriate.

Halo effect and proximity error:
Judgments concerning the rating of one attribute may influence the rating of
other attribute when assessor are asked to judge several attributes at
once.
E.g. sweeter sample maybe rated as softer or stickier.
Where possible evaluate one or at least a limited number of attribute, at
a time
Where possible use trained assessors,
Where appropriate, randomize the order of attribute evaluation, if several
attributes have to be rated at once.

Attribute dumping:
If assessors are not given the opportunity to rate all the attributes they
perceive as changing in the products under evaluation, they may still record
this observation using the scales available. For (e.g.) if products are changing
in terms of sweetness but no sweetness scale exists, they may register
these changes on a flavor intensity scales such as strawberry flavor. This is
known as attribute dumping.
Enable assessors to all attributes which vary or indicate that opportunities to
rate all varying attributes will be given.

Habituation:
Assessors can develop a habit of assigning similar scores each time rather than
scores which truly represent the samples when they evaluate similar products on a
regular basis.
Vary products or introduce spiked samples from time to time.

Order effect:
The score assigned to a sample can be influenced by the sensory character
of the preceding products. For example, a sample may be rated as less sweet if it
follows one of greater intensity.
Randomize or balance the order of presentation of samples.
For affective tests, use a dummy sample in position one.

Contrast and convergence effects:
If the products in the sample set are strikingly different, assessors may exaggerate
their ratings of this difference (contrast). If similar products are rated as part of a
widely varying sample set, then the difference between may be rated smaller than
actually it is (convergence).
Randomize or balance the order of presentation of samples.

Central tendency error:
When using scales, assessors tend to avoid the extremes and confine their ratings
to the middle of the scale. This is more likely to occur with untrained assessors are
not familiar with the product range.
Train assessors in the use of the scale expose them to a wide products range
where possible.
Use large enough scale to differentiate between the products, particularly with
untrained assessors.

Motivation error:
A motivated panelist will learn better and, ultimately perform more reliably. If
assessors do not respect the panel leader or product manufacturer, they may rate
samples based on how they feel.
Respect assessors.
Give regular feed back to the assessors.
Carryout tests in a professional manner.

PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS:

Adaptation:
Continued exposure to a stimulus results in a decrease in sensitivity to that
stimulus or a change in sensitivity to other stimuli. They are known as carryover
effects.
Remedies:
Limit the number of samples presented.
Ensure appropriate time intervals between samples to allow the sensory system
to recover.
Ensure assessors take adequate breaks between single and sets of samples.
Provide assessors with appropriate palate cleansers, which ensure removal of
any sample lingering in the oral cavity.

Perceptual interactions between stimuli:
Certain stimuli can interact to cause the following:
Enhancement (potentiation)-The presence of one substance increases the
perceived intensity of another. (e.g.) salt increases perceived intensity of
chicken flavor.
Synergy: The intensity of mixture is greater than intensity of the sum of the
individual components. E.g. sweetness and sourness impact on strawberry
flavour.
Suppression: The presence of one substance decreases the perceived intensity
of another. E.g. sourness reduces peach flavor.
Remedies:
Employ careful experimental design to ensure that the effects of combined and
individual stimuli are understood.

Physical condition:
Health and nutritional disorders, together with the drugs prescribed to treat them,
can affect sensory performance. Age and stress can also impact on sensory
characteristics.
Remedies:
Screen assessors prior to testing or remove assessor if medical conditions or
associated drugs affect the sensory performance.
Instruct assessors to refrain from eating for at least an hour before sensory
sessions.
Schedule sessions for around a similar time each day.

Cultural factors:
When working with assessors from different cultures or geographical location,
the sensory professionals needs to be aware of the impact the cultural effects can
have on sensory data. In addition, literal translations of questions and scale
terminology may result in loss or change of meaning.
Remedies;
Be sensitive to coding issues.
Clarify translations of sensory scales or questionnaires into other languages.
Build up information on cultural norms from different cultures or countries.
Be aware of cultural tendencies.

CORRELATION OF SENSORY WITH CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL
MEASUREMENTS
Sensory response to a product of concern to the developer, it is essential to
knowhow any chemical or physical method used compares with the human senses
that is the panels ability to detect and quantify sensory characteristics. Descriptive
test methods with trained panelists are generally used for this purpose.

CHAPTER:11 QUALITY MEASUREMENTS: LABORATORY MEASUREMENT

SENSORY TESTING METHODS:

There are two main types of testing.
1) Affective which involves consumer preference or acceptance.
2) Analytical which are involved with analyzing specific product attributes in
terms of
i) Discrimination or difference
ii) Description
Classification of methods by function
Analytical Test:
Analytical tests are used for laboratory evaluation of products in terms of
differences or similarities and for identification and quantification of sensory
characteristics. There are two major types of analytical tests discriminative and
descriptive. The interest of sensory analyst is to find out the differences among the
treatments, products or samples the panels being the means of measurement. The
quality attributes of the products are assessed keeping the same panel. This test
employs inexperienced or trained panelists.

Affective tests:
These are based on tendency and are entirely different from analytical tests and are
also termed as consumer tests. These tests are used to evaluate preference and/or
acceptance of products. These panelists are not trained but are selected at large to
represent target or potential target populations.

Difference tests:
Difference tests may be subdivided into two classes.
Simple difference test
Simple difference tests are those that have no direction or characteristics
associated with the difference between its products. The judge indicates whether
there is a difference between the samples. The judge is told beforehand that the
sample in each trial set to be tested maybe identical or different. Complete
randomness of presentation is essential so that the panelists response to each set
independently.
Examples of different tests are:
Triangle test
Duo trio test
Difference from control

Directional difference test:
Directional difference tests are those that have a direction or characteristics
associated with the difference between products. Examples of directional difference
tests are:
Paired comparison test
Ranking
Rating
Two out of five test
A not A
The judge chooses the sample within each pair that has the greater amount of a
specified characteristic. A forced choice is required.

Paired comparison test:
Used to determine how a specific sensory property differs between the samples. It
can be applied to determine a directional difference (e.g. which sample is sweeter).
A paired comparison tests has numerous applications in product or process
development. It can also be used to determine a more advanced sensory test
should be applied. It can be used for multiple comparisons but this result in a large
number of pairs to assess which uses a lot of sample and can cause sensory
fatigue.
The most common paired comparison tests are two sided (bilateral) where there is
no prior expectation of the result. Conclusions that can be drawn are that there is
no evidence of a difference or that one sample has a greater intensity of chosen
attribute is preferred.
One sided tests (unilateral) also exist when there is prior expectation of the
direction of difference. Conclusions to be drawn include that there is no evidence of
a difference or that the previously declared sample is greater in attribute intensity
is preferred. Bilateral and unilateral score sheets are different. The chance of
probability of selecting one sample over another within individual pairs is one half.
The panel members receive several pairs of samples. These may be different or the
same samples in each pair. Samples are always given in code numbers. Different
samples are given in each pair which differs in the intensity of one characteristic,
e.g. sweetness, bitterness or rancidity. In each pair the sample with more or less
intense taste will have to be picked out.

Duo trio test:
This test employs three samples, two same and one different. One sample is
identified as the standard and presented first followed by two coded samples one of
which is identical to the standard. The judge is required to identify the sample
which matches the standard. The sample used as standard may be constant are
alternated. Trained or untrained panelist can be used. With the paired comparison
and triangle tests a forced choice is required and statistics may be applied to
determine significance. The chance of probability of selecting the matching sample
is one half.

Triangle test:
This test employs the coded samples two identical and one different presented
simultaneously. None of the sample is identified as the standard. Controlled and
experimental treatments are systematically varied so that each is presented odd
and identical sample positions on equal number of times. The judge must determine
which of the three samples (odd sample) presented differs from the other two. A
forced choice is required. Statistical analysis is used to determine whether a
significant difference between treatments exists. Probability of choosing the
different or odd sample by chance alone is one third.

Two out of five test:
It is used to determine whether there is a sensory difference between two samples
and to select and monitor panelists. It is statistically very efficient as the probability
of guessing correctly the different two samples from its five samples presented is
low. It can be useful when only a small number of panelists are available. However
sensory fatigue memory effects may affect the test.
As with the triangle and duo trio tests, assign 3- digit random codes to the
samples & then make up the score sheets, taking to prepare the samples in
identical fashion. There will be 20 possible combinations. Panelists are instructed to
assess each product from left to right, then select the two samples that are
different from the other three samples.

A not A test:
It is used to determine whether the test samples in a series are the same as or
different from the reference sample. It is especially used where triangle and duo
trio test cannot be used. It is also used to determine assessors sensitivity to a
stimulus.
Initially panelists require familiarization with reference or A sample. They are
then presented with a series of samples, some of which are reference sample A
and some are not A. Generally the panelists do not have access to the reference
sample A while evaluating the samples. The panelists must determine whether the
samples is the same A or different from A . So it is a forced choice test. Only one
type of not A sample exists per test series. Panelists may test 1, 2, or up to 10
samples in a series. These samples are presented randomly with a three digit code
& one at a time. All samples are prepared in an identical way & are representative
of the product.

Rating tests: These tests give more quantitative data than difference tests and
can be used for the analysis of more than two samples at the same time.

Ranking tests:
This test is used to make simultaneous comparisons of several samples on the basis
of a single characteristic (It is used to determine how several samples differ on the
basis of a single characteristic). A control need not be identified as test samples are
coded. Samples are presented simultaneously and ranked according to intensity of
characteristics designated. No ties are allowed. Rank totals or average ranks are
obtained for each sample. Differences are interpreted through statistical analysis of
the data. In consumer analysis, the panelists are asked to rank the coded samples
according to their preference.

Single Sample (Monadic) Test: This test is useful for testing foods that have an
after taste or flavour carry over which preclude testing a second sample at the
same session. The panelist is asked to indicate the presence or absence and/ or
intensity of a particular quality characteristic. With trained panelists, the completed
analyses of two or more samples evaluated at different times can be compared.
Also, in market and consumer analysis, the results of different samples evaluated at
different times by a different set of untrained panelists can be compared.

Two Sample Difference Test: This test is a variation of the paired comparison
test and measures the amount of difference. Each taster is served four pairs of
samples. Each pair consists of an identified reference and coded test sample. In two
pairs, the test sample is a duplicate of the reference sample. In the other two pairs,
the test sample is the test variable. The panelist is asked to judge each pair
independently as to the degree of difference between the test sample and standard
on a scale of '0' representing no difference to '3' representing extreme difference.
Additional questions on direction of difference can also be asked. The panelist is not
to guess and he is panelised for guessing through the coded duplicate standards in
two pairs.

Multiple Sample Difference Test
In this test, more than one test variable can be evaluated per session but with
reduced reliability. Each panelist is served 3-6 samples depending upon the number
of test variables. One sample is a known standard. The panelist compares each
coded sample with the known standard. One coded sample is a duplicate of the
standard. Whatever score the panelist assigns to the blind standard is subtracted
from the score he assigns to the test variables. The panelist does not guess.
Direction and degree of difference is also to be judged.

Hedonic Rating Test: Hedonic rating relates to pleasurable or unpleasant
experiences. The hedonic rating test is used to measure the consumer acceptability
of food products. From one to four samples are served to the panelist at one
session. He is asked to rate the acceptability of the product on a scale, usually of 9
points, ranging from 'like extremely' to dislike extremely'. Scales with different
ranges and other experience phrases could also be used. The results are analysed
for preference with data from large untrained panels.

Numerical Scoring Test: One or more samples are presented to each panellist in
random order or according to a statistical design. The panellist evaluates each
sample on a specific scale for a particular characteristic indicating the rating of the
samples. The panelists are trained to follow the sensory characteristics
corresponding to the agreed quality descriptions and scores. Without this
understanding the rating will not be of any use.

Composite Scoring Test: The rating scale is defined so that specific characteristic
of a product are rated separately. The definition of the rating scale is weighed so
that the most important characteristics will account for a large part of the total
score. The resulting scores are compounded for anyone panelist to arrive at a
composite score. This method is helpful in grading products and comparison of
quality attributes by indicating which characteristic is at fault in a poor product. It
gives more information than the straight numerical method. The panelists are
trained to evaluate the dimensions of the individual quality characteristic critically,
and in the use of the weighed scale.

Rating difference or Scalar difference from control:
This test may be used when a control sample is available for comparison with one is
more experimental samples. Judges receive all samples simultaneously identified
controlled and coded experimental treatments. The control may be introduced as
unknown sample. Category scales ranging from No difference from control to
Very large difference from control are typical. Stastical analysis of the data is
used to show whether the degree of difference from the control is significant.

Sensitivity tests: Sensitivity tests are done to assess the ability of individual to
detect different tastes, odours and feel the presence of specific factors like
astringency or hotness (pepper). These tests are used to select and train panel
members for evaluating the quality of products containing spices, salt and sugar,
e.g. tomato ketchup or sauce. For this purpose threshold tests for the recognition of
basic tastes (sweet, sour, bitter and acid) are employed for selecting the panel
members.

Sensitivity threshold test:
Threshold Value is defined as a statically determined on point the stimulus scale at
which transaction in series of sensation or judgment takes place. it is also defined
as a number which is denominator of dilution where its odor or flavor is recognized
. There are three types:
1. Stimulation threshold:
It is a magnitude of stimulus at which transition occurs from no sensation to
the sensation.
2. Identification threshold:
It is the minimum concentration at which a stimulus correctly identified.
3. Termination / saturation threshold :
It is a magnitude of a stimulus at which no increase in the perceived intensity
of stimulus takes place.
Threshold value is an important tool to find out the minimum detectable difference
of an additive or off flavor. It is numerically expressed by scoring pattern.

Dilution test:
It is employed basically to determine the quantity of unknown material developed
as substitute of a standard product such as margarine, in butter. Upper & lower
limits of substances can be detected using preliminary testing. Series of mixture
with upper & lower limits are prepared for testing by dilution tests. The quality of
the test material is represented by the dilution number which is the percent of the
test material in the mixture of the standard product such that there exists adjust
identifiable difference in odour and taste between them. The bigger the dilution
number the better is the quality of the test material.

Affective tests:

Paired preference test:
It is used to establish whether there is a preference between two samples. A pair of
samples is presented to each assessor and is asked to choose the samples they
prefer. This is a forced choice test i.e. they must select one sample as being more
preferable. Responses indicating no preference are not permitted. A preferred to B,
B preferred to A.

Ranking for preference:
Judges are asked to 2 or more samples in order or preference i.e. most preferred
sample is ranked first. It is a forced choice test i.e. no ties are allowed.

Rating for preference:
Assessors are asked to evaluate 1 or more samples & indicate degree of liking for
the product or some characteristic of the product.

Descriptive test:
Descriptive test is used to identify and provide a picture or profile of the
important sensory characteristics of a product. In this testing method more than
two samples can be assessed simultaneously. This type of test interprets whether
or not there is a difference between samples but also the nature and magnitude of
these differences. Appearance, odor, flavor, and texture can be assessed in this
way and the characteristics can be quantified using various techniques and scales.

Applications:
Tracking changes in the sensory characteristics of a product over time
for sensory evaluation.
Examining the sensory properties of a target product for new product
development.
Examining sensory characteristics of different variety of a product.
Sensory diagnostics of ingredient, processor packaging changes.
Correlation with instrumental methods.

Flavor profile method:
Flavor profiling was developed by Arthur. D Little Co in 1949. Aroma, flavor
and mouth feel are assessed in terms of quality intensity on a 5 point absolute
degree of intensity category scale, order of appearance, after taste and overall
impression. This is conducted by using 4-6 trained panelists. Panelists are selected
by screening for sensory acuity, interests, attitude and availability. The trained
assessors assess samples individually and then discuss their evaluations as a group
to determine a consensus score. The scales used with this technique involve the use
of numbers and symbols and therefore cannot be analyzed statistically. This
method is therefore a qualitative descriptive test. The main disadvantage with this
type of test is that a dominant panel member or the panel leader could easily
influence the panels decision.

Profile attribute analysis:
The flavor profile method was renamed the profile attribute analysis with
the introduction of numerical scales. Mean score could be calculated and the data
statistically analyzed.

Texture profile method:

This method was developed at general foods in the 1960s. It was based on
the principles of flavor profile method to assess the textural characteristic of a
product. Textural characteristics are categorized into three groups, mechanical,
geometrical, and other characteristics.

1. Mechanical- Relating to the reaction of food to stress e.g. hardness,
chewiness, and adhesiveness.
2. Geometrical charateristics - Relating to size, shape and orientation of the
particles within the food e.g. grainy, fibrous and aerated.
3. Other charateristics - Relating to the perception of the moisture and fat
content of the food.
The order in which the characteristics are assessed is also very important.
The order of assessment is first bite, chewing or masticatory second and
residual or third phase. Panelists are selected on their ability to discriminate
between textural differences in the product area. Size two to ten panelists is
suggested.
Standardized terminology and rating scales are used for the
assessments and each scale point is anchored with a specific food. A panelist
each make their own individual judgment and then depending of the type of
scale used, a consensus decision is reached on statistical analysis is
performed on the data.

QUANTITATIVE DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS:
It was developed at the Stanford research institute by stone and to provide
descriptive data that could be analyzed statistically, in contrast to the methods
described earlier. It can produce a full qualitative and quantitative sensory
description. Assessor (8-15) selected for their ability to describe and discriminate
products in the category to be studies, agree on a list of qualitative attributes on a
line scale with indented anchors. The panel leader facilitates discussions rather than
leads them. Assessments are made in replicates of 2-6 repeat evaluations, data are
translated into mean scores and statistically analyzed using ANOVAs, individual
assessors performance is monitored and compared to that of the panel, and results
are presented graphically in spider plots.

SENSORY PANELS AND THEIR TRAINING

CONSUMER AND SPECIALISED PANELS

CONSUMER PANEL
Information on consumer likes and dislikes. Preferences and requirements for
acceptability can be obtained with the help of consumer oriented testing. Consumer
panel may consist of 100 or more number of persons representative of the target
population of potential product users. This testing can be conducted at any central
location such as market. Community centre, retail shop or at consumers homes. A
true consumer panel test requires selection of a panel representative of target
population which is both costly and time consuming. Therefore, in-house consumer
panels are commonly used to provide initial information on product acceptability
and are generally conducted prior to true consumer test. An in-house consumer
panel usually consists of 30-50 untrained panelists selected from the personnel
working in the organization. They should be similar to the target population of
consumers. This type of panel can indicate the relative acceptability of the product
and can identify the product defects.

SPECIALISED PANEL
Specialized or product oriented panel testing uses small number of trained panelists
who function as testing instruments. Such panelists can easily identify difference
among similar products or intensities of flavor, texture, appearance etc..,because
they are selected on the basis of their sensory ability and specially trained for such
a task.

TRAINED PANEL
They are carefully selected and trained but need not be expert panelists. They are
used to establish the intensity of a sensory character or overall quality of a food.
The trained panels should be small in number, varying from 5-10 and may be used
in all developmental and processing studies. A small but highly trained panel will
give more reliable results than a large untrained panel.

SEMI TRAINED PANEL:
This type of panel is constituted from amongst the persons normally familiar with
quality of different classes of food. Such a panel is capable of discriminating
differences and communicating the differences or their reaction, though it may not
have been formally trained. The panel should normally have 25 to 30 members and
is used for preliminary screening program to select a few products for large scale
consumer trails.

REQUIREMENT FOR A GOOD PANELIST:
Should be in good health.
Capable to response to the changes in the taste, smell or other sensory
function.
Have motivation and interest in the sensory program.
Should be emotionally balanced state.
Should refrain from smoking, chewing gum, eating or drinking for at least 30
minutes before the test.
Should remain available for evaluation.

RESOURCES NEEDED FOR SENSORY TESTING:

Sensory team:
A sensory team typically includes the following notes: manager, sensory analyst,
panel leader, technician, consumer researcher, statistician and assessors.
All the sensory staff must have the appropriate knowledge about how to conduct
sensory testing e.g. methods, practices, procedures, data analysis, reporting and so
on.
How to work with sensory and consumer assessors, e.g. motivation,
professionalism, confidentiality, safety, ethics, adverse event procedures and so on.
How to work in a sensory laboratory, e.g. quality (SOP) safety and hygiene.
How to work with clients and project team, e.g. presentation skills, professionalism
and project management.
The sensory is highly specialized and technical requiring knowledge of many
disciplines including psychophysics, psychology, experimental design, statistics,
food technology, physical chemistry etc In addition the sensory professional needs
to have the ability to work well with clients often from diverse backgrounds and
organizational skills to manage projects to time and cost.

DESIGN OF A SENSORY TESTING AREA:
The main considerations to keep in mind when preparing an area for sensory
testing concern the requirement for an atmosphere conducive to concentration,
where conditions can be controlled.
Sensory panelists need comfortable and free distractions, product characteristics
can be markedly affected by temperature and humidity and appearance is affected
by lighting intensity.
The conditions should be controlled in order to
Reduce bias
Improve accuracy
Improve sensitivity
International standard(ISO 8589-1988) looks at the design of the testing area for
both new and existing buildings.
It also specifies which recommendations are considered essential and which are
only desirable.
Important points summarized from the standard are listed below total area should
include:
Testing area with individual booths and a group area
Preparation area/kitchen
Office
Cloak room
Rest room
Toilets
General testing area:
Easily accessible but in quiet position
Location Close proximity to preparation area, but separate entrance, and with
complete close-off capability.
Temperature and relative humidity - Constant, controllable and comfortable.
Noise - Keep to a minimum, sound proof area as much as possible.
Odours - Keep area free from odours, use odourless materials in construction and
decoration, use odourless cleaning agents.
Decoration- Use neutral, light colours for walls and furniture (eg.off white, light
grey)
Lighting- Ambient lighting must be uniform, shadow- free and controllable.
Booths:
Number - Minimum three, normally 5-10.
Space - Allow sufficient space for movement of tasters and for serving samples
Setup - Permanent booths recommended, temporary acceptable. It adjacent to
preparation area include openings in the wall to pass samples through. Size and
shape specified. Consider space for samples, utensils, spittoons, rinsing agents,
score sheets, pens, and computerized equipment include comfortable seats.
Lighting - Uniform, shadow free, controllable, adequate intensity for assessing
appearance. Devices to mask appearance (eg.dimmer, colour light/filters)
Group work area:
General - Necessary for discussion and training purpose. Include large table and
several chairs. It also includes board for discussion notes etc.

Preparation area:
General-located close to assessment areas but no access to testers. Design for
efficient work flow. Well ventilated, flexible services.

Equipment:
Depending on testing required. Include working equipment, working surface, sinks,
refrigerator, freezers, dish wash etc.. Storage space for crockery, glass wares etc
for serving sample.
Testing area:
Comfortable chairs for panelist, minimum space for four panelist. Table which can
be easily divided into booths if required, well placed efficient lighting.
Office area:
General - separate but close to testing area, reasonable size, desk, filling
cabinet, computer, book case, photo, copying services.
Additional areas:
Useful to include rest room, cloak room, toilets. Sensory area should contain
minimum of three areas. Preparation area requires adequate storage for utensils
and equipment. Adequate working surfaces to set out the samples. Washing up
facilities-minimum double sink with hot and cold running water. Refrigerator-
minimum two door with separate freezer. Cooking-depending on sample
requirement. Rubbish bin- large with liner bags. Source of boiling water, cold water
and hand washing facilities.

TESTING FACILITIES:

GENERAL CONSIDERATION:
The scope of the sensory testing program will determine the type and size of
facilities needed.
Experimental conditions are carefully controlled and experiments are carefully
designed.
Several functional areas including a sample preparation area, a serving area, an
assessment area with booths, a discussion / training area, staff offices and a
storage area.
Food samples need a hygienic flow to avoid cross contamination between freshly
prepared samples and waste. Ideally, the sample preparation area should be a
separate room from the assessment area to avoid bias due to strong odours, noise
and overhead conversation related to testing. The facilities should be designed to
accommodate disabled assessors.
LOCATION:
The facilities should be in a location that is odour free and quiet, e.g.
avoiding sites that are adjacent to odorous and nosily, busy roads and so on. There
should be adequate parking available at the times when assessors arrive for testing
section.

MATERIALS:
In order to minimize bias, the facilities need to be as neutral as
possible. The colour and content and patterns used for decoration may cause
distraction and bias, potted plant may generate odour and branded display items
may introduce bias. Use non odorous materials, e.g. surfaces, paint and neutral
colours (pale grey) throughout the facility.
AIR HANDLING:
Appreciate air handling is particularly important to ensure temperature
control and minimize odour build-up. Air handling should be sufficient to counter
internal sources of heat, such as computer, lighting and with external sources of
heat, such as extreme heat in summer. It should be able to clear strong odours
such as those generated by cooling or fragrances. An odour filter is necessary to
clean both incoming and outgoing air. Humidity control also necessary.

LIGHTING:
All testing areas need appropriate and adequate lighting. The
recommended intensity of light is between 755 to 1070 lux. Care should be taken
to ensure that avoids shadowing in the test area. Coloured lights may be necessary
to disguise appearance of sample. For tests to be carried out safely, the intensity of
light needs to be at least 300 lux. Light contamination from computer monitors and
open serving batches should be minimized.
FUNCTIONAL AREAS:

RECEPTION / WAITING AREA:
This is where assessors register their arrival. Care should be taken to
ensure assessors leaving a test do not influence / bias assessors arriving for a test.
Ideally there should be minimal contact between the two.
SAMPLE PREPARATION AREA:
This is the area where samples are prepared for assessment. Preparation typically
includes making many small identical portions of samples in/on cups, bowls, plates,
pots etc. and laying them out in serving order on trays. It is important that there is
adequate working surface to do this. Adequate space should also be available for
preparation equipment example: Cookers & storage.
For laboratories testing food the area must be designed to strict hygiene including
hygienic materials (example: filling) and construction (example: sealing of cracks
and gaps.
Ideally there should be an area at the entrance for storing protective clothing.
Lockers may also be useful for storage of personal items that cannot be brought
into the lab such as jewelry.
Hand washing facilities must be present at the entrance.
For laboratories testing both food and non food products and those testing meat
and dairy food samples separate areas must be allocated for sample preparation to
avoid cross contamination.
SAMPLE SERVING AREA:
This is a space adjacent to the booth area from which samples can be served to
the booths. Depending on how serving is to be accomplished it may need to be
wide enough to accommodate trolleys and have enough work space to lay out
samples and equipments necessary to keep samples at certain temperature. It is
more convenient to have the height of the serving counter at the same height as
the booth counters.

Ideally, serving area should not be visible from the booth area to minimize bias
through knowledge of the test and samples. It may be necessary to keep lighting at
lower intensity than the booth area and use the same color lighting used in the
booths.

CHAPTER: 12 QUALITY MEASUREMENTS: CONSUMER MEASUREMENT

CONSUMER MEASUREMENT:
Although the fate of a food product has always rested on acceptance by the
consuming public, formal studies of consumer preference are a comparatively
recent development. Consumer reactions are difficult to measure but the necessity
for such studies will continue to grow as competition for the consumer food
increases.
We must distinguish carefully between studies of consumer preference and studies
of consumer practice. Those who prefer may not be those who buy, preference
studies are designed to determine consumers subjective reactions to external
phenomena, and their reason for having them.
Practice studies are designed to determine what consumers actually do under given
circumstances, such as the numbers of ripe and under ripe peaches purchased
when ripe peaches cost certain amounts more.
The techniques for these two types of studies are usually quite different, although
some approaches can be used for both types. Both acceptance and preference are
primarily economic concepts.
Acceptance of food varies with standards of living and cultural background, whereas
preference refers to selection when presented with a choice Preference are
frequently influenced by prejudice, religious principles, group conformance, status
value, and snobbery, in addition to the quality of the food.
FACTORS INFLUENCING ACCEPTANCE AND PREFERENCE:
Many complex factors combine to influence the publics acceptance and selection of
food as indicated. The extent to which the sensory properties modify the selection
and utilization of a food is difficult to ascertain since all of these factors interact and
influence the consumers decisions.
Attributes of the food product
1. Availability
2. Utility
3. Convenience
4. Price
5. Uniformity and dependability
6. Stability, storage requirements
7. Safety and nutritional value
8. Sensory properties
Attributes of the consumer
1. Regional preference
2. Nationality, race
3. Age and Sex
4. Religion
5. Education, socio-economics
6. Psychological motivation
Symbolism of food
Advertising
7. Physiological motivation
a. Thirst
b. Hunger
c. Deficiencies
d. Pathological conditions
d. Temperature
e. Pain
Appearance probably has the greatest initial influence. Once the food has been
tasted, color and texture become secondary to flavour. Flavour is mentioned by an
overwhelming proportion of consumers as the reason for over-all preference and
continued use of a product. The reason cited most often for disliking a given food is
that it does not taste good. It is possible that degree of liking and flavour quality
are synonymous in the minds of many consumers, but that would be difficult to
measure.
Preference in Relation To Cost: Price is an important limitation on the freedom
with which the consumer selects foods. Consumer buying behavior for 'canned
pears indicated that 68% of 179 families said selection of a specific brand was
made on the basis of flavour whereas 59% of the 128 families who purchased eight
minor brands did so because of lower price.
Regional preferences:
Some regional food preferences exist for specific food such as coffee (variation in
roasts and blends), eggs white vs. brown shells, wieners, and the many interesting
food items associated with nationality and ethnic groups. it is generally believed
that in the United States most regional or national or nationality preferences for
specific food items are diminishing because of
1. Population mobility and intermarriage.
2. Standardization of processing.
3. Increased use of partially prepared food and decreased consumption of dishes
Prepared from scratch.
4. Greater availability as result of refrigeration controlled ripening development
varieties, improved distribution.
5. Impact of national advertising via television, newspapers, radio.etc
Age:
The age of the consumer has been reported to influence preferences for some food
products Children under 16 and adults over 50 preferred sweeter canned fruit than
did the participants in the middle age group. A definite preference for 3% sucrose
in rose wine was shown by all consumers tested, regardless of frequency of
consumption, and the preference increased with the age of the consumer.

Sex:
Difference in personality, sensory acuity and likes and dislikes are usually more
pronounced between people of the same sex than between the two sexes as
groups. There are, however, group differences between the sexes which can be
used effectively in
planning and conducting marketing campaigns.
Other Factors:
Interest, motivation, discrimination, intelligence and many other attributes of the
consumer undoubtedly influence responses to food the role of the sensory
stimulation of food is not completely understood. The nutritional value of food as
well as sensory properties like appearance, flavour and texture properties are
considered.
OBJECTIVES OF CONSUMER PREFERENCE STUDIES
Determination of market potential: Whether consumers will purchase a product
at a rate commensurate with the supply and at a price high enough to ensure a
continuous flow of the product into the market is of constant concern to the
producer. An awareness of market conditions may be of greater interest to
producer of convenience food, specially items and new product than to distributors
of standard staple and product, but all food producers benefits from studies of
market potentials for their products.
Differentiating between total sales and repeat sales can yield useful information.
Differentiation between food fads and food trends is difficult but may mean the
difference between success and failure for an item. This is always an unpredictable
amount of risk involved in applying results from market surveys. This is
complicated by the time lapse between the survey and the actual marketing of the
product.
The producers may follow these:
1. Dont change a product until it has been product tested, market tested and
actively promoted.
2. Build a different feature into the product which can be promoted.
3. Pioneer a new field rather than imitate successful leaders.
4. Enter market that are growing
5. Seek rapid acceptance through products featuring convenience in preparation,
performance or packaging.
6. Design a reliable test program of ample sample size adequate cross section with
proper collection and interpretation of the data.
7. Be patient, testing takes time.
Introduction of New Products:
Years ago a manufacturer could maintain a loyal clientele for a product of
acceptable quality through advertising and special services. Increased competition
has infringed upon brand loyalty, necessitating development of new products to
attract consumer attention and to meet the needs of constantly changing society.
Quality Control of Existing Products:
When a specific brand of foods has enjoyed popularity as indicated by repeated
sales over the years, there is reluctance to change the product unless the alteration
increases sales. Consumer testing can serve as a quality- control measure to assure
uniformity and to maintain standards. As a check on quality, a processor may
conduct consumer studies on his product against that of his nearest competitor
where the identity of the sample is not known to the consumer.
Establishment of specific factors to the consumer:
A food product may sell well because of quality, price size, packaging, promotion,
availability or a combination of all or any of these factors.
The processor may wish to study consumer criteria for selection groups of foods in
order to concentrate on influential characteristics:
(a) What is the maximum price the consumer will pay?
(b) What is the minimum quality the consumer will tolerate?
(c) How great a deviation in colour, size, texture, uniformity, or flavour can a
product has and still have good acceptance?
(d) How important are the sensory properties of a production relation to other
characteristics?
(e) Where will consumers purchase specific items in what quantities, and how
often?
(f) How often do consumers switch brands and why?
(g) Which items are planned purchases and which are selected on impulse?
(h) How do changing socio-economic pattern influence food selection?
Effects of Advertising Campaigns and Educational Programs:
Survey research groups are actively involved in evaluating the effectiveness of
promotional campaigns and programs by government and industry to educate
consumers in wise use of their money. Population may be interviewed and oral
and/or written responses obtained, other behaviour of consumers in the market is
observed directly. Whenever possible, both the magnitude and duration of the
influencing medium are measured. Producers may investigate market
conditions to eliminate less popular food items.

Methodological and Statistical studies:
Consumer may be surveyed to test the adequacy of sampling methods, type of
interview, and length and wording of the questionnaire, or to compare the opinions
of laboratory panels with those of the public pilot testing, i.e. pretesting of the
methodology prior to the distribution of samples, can orient the participants to the
method and check on the clarity of the questions. A large number of reactions may
be collected to test the sensitivity of various statistical methods of analyses.
Assure of this nature is sometimes included as part of another study of food habits
or preferences
INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM CONSUMER STUDIES:
Past behavior of consumers:
Information may be obtained on food selection and preparation, meal planning,
quantities consumed, use of leftovers, or amount of waste. A consumer may not be
able to recall accurately the quality and quantities of food selected and consumed.
The questionnaire must be carefully worded to avoid influencing the type of
response; since many consumers will give what they consider to be correct or
desirable" answer rather than describe the true situation. All survey methods are
limited by the inability of the subject to remember, to generalize and to identify
motives, by biases and by desire to please the interrogator.
Present behavior of consumers:
The consumer's behavior in the grocery store may be observed, oral or written
opinions may be recorded, specific preferences obtained between two experimental
food products. In each case the past experience of the consumer influences the
response, and there is no assurance that retesting in the future will give the same
response.

Estimate the Future Behavior:
It would be presumptuous to state that consumer preferences of the future can be
adequately predicted. Estimates of future consumption patterns are based on past
behavior under known conditions and extrapolations made to fix expected market
conditions of the future. However, a more accurate estimate would be of great
value to the food industry.
FACTORS INFLUENCING RESULTS FROM CONSUMER SURVEYS
Population sampled: The reasons for conducting a survey of course, determine
the methodology selected, the population sampled, and the type of questions asked
in evaluating results obtained by consumer sampling, it is well to consider what
population the investigators used for their consumer panel.

Amount of pilot testing: Pretesting of the questionnaire, the commodity or the
population can yield important information that can save time and money.
Ambiguous and misleading question can be eliminated from the questionnaire,
antagonistic or apathetic can be determined from the sample or the experimental
sample may be modified in packaging size or method of presentation to
accommodate unanticipated condition of testing.
In pilot testing the emphasis is on the inherent properties of the products aroma,
flavor, texture, shape, colour and consistency. There is no effect of marketing
factors such as brand, label, price, packaging, distribution or advertising, one
important use of pilot testing in the food industry is to provide an estimate of the
relative importance of the flavor of the product in comparison with other properties
such as convenience storage stability, or brand identity.
To test first impressions, the consumer may be given only enough of the samples
for a single use the single exposure method. This method is a valuable tool when
the amount of sample to be tested is limited, when time and money are limited,
when few consumer are available, or when only an estimate of consumer
preference, is desired. Single exposure tests can be given in supermarkets, mess
halls, fairs, conventions, or other public gatherings.
Method of sampling, amount of replication, size of statistical error:
Techniques employed in consumer preference studies are often deficient because of
failure to define the universe samples or the use of inadequate sampling methods
which gives immeasurable degrees of error. If the population is small, it is
sometimes convenient to sample the entire population to obtain the desired
information. Usually time and money can be saved by studying only a sample
portion of the population.
Method of collecting and analyzing data : Carefully worded questionnaires are
frequently used to obtain consumer reactions on a multitude of topics related to
selection and use of commodities. The questionnaire may be range from one short
question to several hundred inquiries about past, present and future behaviour. The
effectiveness of this method depends on the questionnaire and degree of
cooperative spirit elicited from the consumer, as well as the type of approach
employed.
Retesting and/or follow-up studies :
Retesting is advisable:
(a) if a survey shows inconclusive results
(b) if the investigator suspects that the consumer misinterpreted the questionnaire
(c) if there is any question whether the samples May have been served or tested
incorrectly; or
(d) if there is a possibility that the sampling procedures may not have been
adequate. A follow-up testing at a specific interval after the first server can be used
effectively for establishing the persistence of the preference over a given period and
can measure the degree to which the preference has been affected by changes in
the market or in the general economy.
Interpretation of results:
As with any investigation, results are not necessarily valid except under the
conditions of the study, the investigators should be conservative in projecting
findings to other populations or to other commodities unless the prediction is
adequately supported by the data obtained. There are always a number of
consumers who, when approached, refuse to cooperate, Between 60 and 95% of
those who agree to cooperate actually return their questionnaires. We know nothing
about the preferences of the non-cooperating consumers, but as the number of the
noncooperators increases, conclusions reached on the basis those who did
cooperate become less reliable, and it is more difficult to estimate the way in which
the opinions of the non co-operators might change the direction of the response.
Correct interpretation and projection of results requires that consumer opinion be
viewed in its proper perspective, Undue importance should not be placed on
selection of a specific food Item on a single occasion, since the decision is but one
of hundreds that the consumer makes each day.
Psychological consideration:
Some of the psychological factors which; influence laboratory panels can affect the
consuming public also Some of these apparent variations can be minimized or
accounted for by dose control and/or observation of all details of the testing
procedure and the testing environment and by interviewing a sufficiently large
number of consumers to reduce the standard error the mean.

METHODS OF APPROACH

Historical Methods: Statistics of food distribution, sales, and product turnover
rate should be consulted to understand present market activities and to estimate
future market events in the food industry, where the mark up on certain
commodities is very low, it is essential that trends be observed accurately to assure
achieving the volume of sales necessary for profit.
Observational Method: A person trained to observe group behaviour can gather
quantitative and qualitative data on food habits and selection. Hidden observers
have watched consumer in supermarkets to determine whether purchases are
planned or
impulsive, to establish what displays and packaging appeals to them, to determine
whether certain food items are selected more often by men than by women.
Merchandisers may be interested in knowing the effect of background music,
product location or other physical or physiological factors.
Advertisers and producers are interested in how the consumer appraises the
product does she smell it, squeeze it, weigh it, read the label, study the
instructions, or compare it with others on shelf? The value of observational method
can be enhanced if the same customers are observed during a second or third
shopping session and if they are interviewed in the home about preparation
methods, serving and food waste. Results obtained from observational studies may
be difficult to interpret because of the complexity of the environmental factors
influencing the behaviour.
A combination questionnaire and observational technique was used to establish
consumer preference for six brands of bottled beer. On each of seven days, families
were provided with more beer than they needed so they could have an unrestricted
choice of brands (identified only by code).Each day, the remaining bottles and
empties were collected as well as questionnaires, with preferences recorded.
Questionnaires:
Carefully worded questionnaires are frequently used to obtain consumer reactions
on a multitude of topics related to selection and use of commodities. questionnaire
may be range from one short question to several hundred inquiries about past,
present and future behaviour. The effectiveness of this method depends on the
questionnaire and degree of cooperative spirit elicited from the consumer, as well
as the type of approach employed.
METHODS OF APPROACH:
The Market Research Corporation of America developed some methods to approach
consumers are

(a) Depth interviews
(b) Word association
(c) Sentence completion
(d) Projective questioning
(e) Role playing
(f) Recorded group discussion and
(g) Pre-test questionnaire.
With the questionnaire method the four most common approaches are: telephone,
mail, personal interview, and public test. The telephone approach is economical
provided no long-distance calls are made. It has the disadvantage of not reaching
those in the population who are not telephone subscribers. Also, decisions made on
the telephone may lack depth and sufficient though, and questions can be
misinterpreted by people with hearing defects or by those who are not fluent in the
vernacular language.
Approach by mail has the advantage of economy and allows the respondent to
answer at his leisure. However, the replies constitute only a percentage of the total
number sent out, since not all people return their questionnaires. In addition, some
recipients of the questionnaires may not be able to read and many may
misunderstand the questions.
Personal interview has the advantage of collection observational data concomitantly
but is more expensive and introduces the potential bias of non authoritative, does
not argue or give advice and is difficult to measure. Often, mailing techniques and
personal interview are used together. At times the personal interview is the only
reliable way of obtaining information on food preferences that need to be classified
by race, age, education, political affiliation, or income level.
In experiential studies, sample of the food product are tasted by the consumers,
and opinions are obtained. The consumers may be approached in a public meeting
place, such as a market or a country fair, at private function such as a meeting or
dinner or in the home.
Development of the Questionnaire
One of the most difficult aspects in measuring consumer response is wording of the
questionnaire to obtain the exact information desired.
Questionnaires :
A question should not be ambiguous. The inquiry What kind of oil do you use?"
does not indicate whether the oil is auto fuel, mineral, salad, or hair oil. Even if the
type was specified, the respondent might give the brand name, the weight, the
color, or the price range. In each case, he/she would be answering the question
but his/her answer might be useless to the researcher, depending upon the specific
information desired.
Questions should be realistic:
The respondent cannot be expected to recall specific details of meals consumed
several weeks previously or to predict specific behavior accurately into the distant
future. The average consumer cannot be expected to evaluate the sensory
properties of a food as thoroughly, as rapidly, or as consistently as a highly trained
judge can.
Use of Appropriate Terminology:
The wording should not appear to be above or below the intelligence of the
population being sampled. A pretesting of the level of understanding of the specific
population would be useful, although expensive and time-consuming.
Avoid stereotype answers:
Questions must be worded to elicit the participant's true opinion rather than the
answer the participant thinks is the most "proper." To a question on belief in
freedom of speech, 97% of a certain population indicated they believed in it.
However, when asked specifically who was to be allowed the freedom, most of
these same people thought it should be limited to certain individuals, which, of
course, would not be freedom of speech at all.
Placement:
Placement of questions on the ballot is important since, in long questionnaires,
often only the first few are answered. Placement of selections on the menu can
influence the frequency with which they are ordered. Arrange questions in logical
order, since one question can influence the response to the following question.
Allowance for no opinion:
In planning the original experimental design, the investigator must decide whether
he will allow a respondent to express a "no preference" or "don't know" opinion.
Some participants may have a "don't care" attitude. A large percentage of "no
preference" votes by the respondents may mean either that differences between
the products were undetected or that there was no preferences between detectable
differences. The questionnaire can be worded so as to distinguish between these
two types of "no preference" response.
COMPARISON OF LABORATORY PANELS WITH CONSUMER PANELS:
Although members of a laboratory panel are consumers, their opinions and
preferences may not be representative of the general population. The laboratory
group is carefully selected, highly trained, and hypercritical as compared to the
consumer. Distribution of age, sex, income, and general intelligence will reflect the
consuming population only by accident. Test booth conditions, coded containers and
scoring methods are certainly not typical of normal conditions food consumption.
In addition, the opinions of the laboratory panel are not influenced by extraneous
factors such as packaging, advertising. Easy of preparation, price, or prestige, as
the opinions of the consumer may be. In general, consumers agree with laboratory
panel findings maintains but not in magnitude.

LIMITATIONS OF THE CONSUMER SURVEY:
Consumer surveys are expensive, time consuming, and subject to numerous
uncontrollable variables. Although most surveys yield valuable information,
investigators experience many problems and should recognize the limitations of
their methods. Careful consideration must be given to the manner in which
participation is solicited since they may be which rapport is established with the
consumer not only influences the cooperative attitude of the respondent but may
influence the answers given.
Prospective participants may react differently depending upon whether the survey
is being conducted by a nearby university, a commercial processing firm, or an
advertising agency.
In addition, answers are biased by methods of sampling, techniques of sample
presentation, amount and type of instruction provided, and the construction of the
questionnaire, as previously indicated. Consumer opinion, as individuals or as a
group, can easily be under estimated or overestimated.
Most surveys do not reveal why people buy that is the conscious and unconscious
factors that control behavior. In most surveys it is impossible to duplicate market
conditions, so responses are not obtained under normal buying conditions. What
consumers say they do may not represent actual behavior? It is extremely difficult
to estimate potential patterns of behavior on the, basis of past purchases, just as it
is to predict whether the item will have short-time or long-time acceptance.
Surveys seldom identify the leaders and the followers i.e., the consumers with
definite preferences who set the styles, tastes, and trends, versus those who are
easily swayed and merely "follow the crowd."

CHAPTER:
13
QUALITY OF RAW MATERIALS

CHAPTER:
14
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE FOOD QUALITIES

CHAPTER:
15
RECORDING AND REPORTING OF QUALITY

CHAPTER:
16
SENSORY EVALUATION AND ITS IMPORTANCE

SENSORY EVALUATION

Sensory evaluation is often described using the definition of Institute of Food
Technology - A scientific method used to evoke, measure, analyze and interpret
those responses to products as perceived through the sense of sight , smell, touch,
taste and hearing.

IMPORTANCE OF SENSORY EVALUATION IN RELATION TO CONSUMER
ACCEPTABILITY AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS:

It is the responsibility of the sensory scientist to select and implement proper
testing methodologies. A thorough understanding of experiments objectives is
essential. The most commonly occurring industrial applications are as follows:

NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

Some new products are unique (i.e. there is no prototype) but most new products
are imitations or variations of some established standard. In either case, product
developers need information on the sensory quality and relative acceptability of
experimental prototype samples as input for marketability.

PRODUCT MATCHING

Duplicating a standard (a prototype, a competitors product etc.) requires a sensory
testing sequence similar to that for new product development. The objective of
product matching is to verify that there is no difference between the standard and
the experimental product, and that the two have equivalent acceptability.

PRODUCT IMPROVEMENT

Real improvement of a product can be measured in a number of ways. The
following is a logical testing sequence;

Difference test to determine whether the experimental product is different
from the control (if it is not different it cannot be better).
Affective test, if products differ, to establish whether the experimental
product is liked more than the control (i.e. represents an improvement).

PROCESS CHANGE

A process change should maintain or improve the product. The testing sequence is
similar to that for product improvement.
Difference tests to determine whether the experimental product is different
from the control (if it is not different, it cannot be poorer).
product is liked as well as or more than the control.

COST REDUCTION AND/OR SELECTION OF NEW SOURCE OF SUPPLY

A successful cost reduction program based upon lower priced ingredients, a lower
cost process, or production in a different location must yield an end product
comparable to the product formally produced. Change to a new supplier of raw
materials should also results in an end product comparable to the standard or
control. The sequence of sensory evaluation in these situations usually is as follows:
Difference test to establish whether the experimental product is different
from the control (if it is not different, it must be as good as the control).
product is liked as well as or more than the control.

QUALITY CONTROL:

Quality control procedures are used during production, distribution, and marketing
to ensure that the end product is as good as the standard. Representative
samples are usually evaluated as follows:
Difference test to determine whether the experimental sample is different
from the standard (if it is not different it must be as good as the standard).
Descriptive test, if the sample is found to be different, to indicate how the
sample differs from the standard. Results of these tests may be used to
guide remedial action, such as changes in processing procedure.

STORAGE STABILITY:

Product stability during transportation, warehousing, retailing and during storage in
the home is essential to consumer satisfaction. To establish information on product
shelf life, representative samples are obtained, evaluated initially, and subjected to
controlled storage conditions for subsequent tests. At specific intervals, storage
samples are withdrawn and evaluated, generally in comparison with a control. The
control must be of the same lot or batch as the test samples and must be held
under conditions known to maintain the original quality. Sensory tests to determine
product storage stability may include the following:
Difference tests to determine whether the storage samples are different from
the control (if no significant difference is found, product stability is assumed).
Descriptive tests, to characterize and/or quantify the changes that may have
occurred during storage.
Acceptance tests, to determine the relative acceptance of stored products.

PRODUCT RATING OR GRADING

Product grading or rating requires an accurate classification of samples
according to grade standards defined for the product, as well as an evaluation of
samples in relation to each other.
Category scoring or ratio scaling based on the presence and intensity of
selected characteristics may be used to measure samples against standard
specification set for the product.

CONSUMER ACCEPTANCE /OPINIONS

After laboratory screening, it may be desirable to submit to central location
or home placement test to obtain consumer reaction. Acceptance tests will indicate
whether the current product can be marketed or improvement is needed.

CONSUMER PREFERENCE

Preference tests among consumers of the product can be used to determine
which sample is preferred. Preference screening tests may not represent random
sampling of the target population, directional information may be gained for
designing subsequent consumer tests.

TERMINOLOGY:

Appearance
All the visual characteristics of a substance or sample is known as
appearance
Analyst/assessor
Any person taking part in sensory test
Bilgy
The aromatic associated with anaerobic bacterial growth. The term bilgy can
be used to describe fish of any quality which has been contaminated by bilge water.
Bitter
One of the four basic tastes; primarily perceived of the back of the tongue
common to caffeine and quinine.
Briny
The aroma associated with the smell of clean seaweed, a beach and/or ocean
air.
Brothy
Aromatic associated with boiled meat usually accompanied by an umami
sensation in the mouth.
Burnt
Aromatic associated with heated, scorched or blackened substances.
Cardboardy
Aromatic associated with slightly oxidized fats or frozen fish that has taken
on a cold storage off flavour.
Chalky
In reference to texture, a product which is composed of small particles which
imparts a drying sensation in the mouth. In reference to appearance, a product
which has a dry, opaque, chalk like appearance.
Cheesy
Sour aromatic associated with aged cheese and butyric acid. Sometimes
found in advanced decomposition of fish.
Chickeny
Aromatic associated with cooked chicken meat.
Firm
A substance that exhibits moderate resistance when force is applied in the
mouth or by touch.
Fishy
Aroma associated with aged fish, as demonstrated by tri methylamine or cod
liver oil.

Flavour
Sensory perceptions when food is placed in the mouth resulting from the
stimulation of basic tastes, aromatics, and feeling factors.
Gamey
The aroma associated with the heavy, gamey characteristics of some species
of fish such as mackerel.
Glossy
A shiny appearance resulting from the tendency of a surface to reflect light.
Grainy
A product in which the assessor is able to perceive moderately hard, distinct
particles.
Intensity
The perceived magnitude of a sensation.
Iridescent
An array of rainbow like colours, similar to oil seen on water.
Mealy
Describes the product that imparts a starch like sensation in the mouth.
Metallic
Aroma or taste associated with ferrous sulfate, rust, or tin cans.
Mouth coating
The perception of a film in the mouth.
Mouth filling
The perception of the fullness dispersing throughout the mouth.
Mushy
Soft, thick, pulpy consistency.
Musty
The aromatic associated with the moldy, cellar or attic.
Nose feel/burn
Chemical feeling factor describes as warmth or burning or irritating sensation
in the nasal passages when a product is sniffed.
Odour/aroma
Sensation due to stimulation of the olfactory receptors in the nasal cavity by
the volatile material.
Opaque
Describes product which does not allow the passage of light.

Oxidized
Aromatic associated with old oil that is stale or cardboardy. Leaves a
lingering off flavor in the mouth or nasal cavity that is moderately lingering and
coating.
Putrid
An irritating with decayed, rotting meat. Aroma is lingering and often gives a
heavy, cloying nose and throat feel.
Pungent
An irritating, sharp or piercing sensation felt in the nose, mouth or throat.
Quality
A degree of excellence. The collection of characteristics of a product that
confers its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs.
Rancid:
Odor or flavor associated with rancid oil. Gives a mouth coating sensation
and/or a tingling perceived on the back of the tongue. Sometimes described as
sharp or / painty.
Rotting:
Aroma associated with decayed vegetables, in particular the sulphur
containing vegetables.
Slimy:
A fluid substance which is viscous, slick, elastic, gummy, or jelly like.
Sour:
An odor and/or taste sensation, generally due to the presence of organic
acids.
Stale:
Odor associated with wet cardboard or frozen storage.
Translucent:
Describes an object which allows some light to pass, but through which clear
images cannot be distinguished.
Transparent:
Describes a clear object which allows light to pass and through which distinct
images appear.
Umami:
Taste produced by substances such as monosodium glutamate (MSG) in
solution, a meaty, salty, or mouth filling sensation.

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CHAPTER: 1 FOOD QUALITY, ITS ROLE IN INDUSTRY AND FACTORS

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