Chapter 4 Deflection and Stiffness

Omit 4.6, 4.9, 4.16, 4.17 Omit 4.6, 4.9, 4.16, 4.17
Rigid Body:
A body is said to be rigid if it e!ibits no c!ange in si"e or s!a#e $nder t!e infl$ence
of forces or co$#les% t!e distance bet&een any t&o #oints &it!in t!e body remains
constant $nder t!e a##lication of forces.
All real bodies deform $nder load, eit!er elastically or #lastically. 'lassification of a
real body as a rigid is an ideali"ation.
De(ection analysis enters into design sit$ations in many &ays:
)n a transmission, t!e gears m$st be s$##orted by a rigid s!aft. )f t!e s!aft bends too
m$c! *too (eible+ t!e teet! &ill not mes! #ro#erly, and t!e res$lt &ill be ecessi,e
im#act, noise, &ear, and early fail$re.
Sometimes mec!anical elements m$st be designed to !a,e a #artic$lar force-
de(ection c!aracteristic:
.!e s$s#ension system of an a$tomobile, for eam#le, m$st be designed &it!in a ,ery
narro& range to ac!ie,e an o#tim$m ,ibration fre/$ency for all conditions of ,e!icle
loading.
4.1 4.1 S#ring Rates S#ring Rates
0lasticity is t!at #ro#erty of a material t!at enables it to regain its original
con1g$ration after !a,ing been deformed.
Stiffness is t!e rigidity of an ob2ect 3 t!e etent to &!ic! it resists deformation
in res#onse to an a##lied force.
4leibility is t!e ability of a body to distort. .!e com#lementary conce#t is
stiffness. .!e more fleible an ob2ect is t!e less stiff it is.
A s#ring is a mec!anical element t!at exerts a force when deformed% fig$res
s!o&n:
*a+ A straig!t beam of lengt! l sim#ly s$##orted at ends loaded by force F. .!e
de(ection y is linearly related to t!e force, as long as t!e elastic limit of t!e material
is not eceeded, t!is beam can be described as a linear spring.
*b+ A straig!t beam is s$##orted on t&o cylinders% beam is shorter. A larger force is
re/$ired to de(ect a s!ort beam, it becomes stiffer. .!e force is not linearly related
to t!e de(ection% t!e beam can be described as a nonlinear stiffening spring.
*c+ An edge-,ie& of a dish-shaped round disk. .!e force necessary to (atten t!e dis5
increases at rst and then decreases as the disk approaches a at conguration. Any
mec!anical
element !a,ing
s$c! a
c!aracteristic is
called a
nonlinear
softening
spring .
1
'onsider t!at force and deflection are related F =F(y! t!en t!e spring rate is
defined as
&!ere y is meas$red in t!e direction of F and at t!e #oint of a##lication of F.
4or linear spring:
6ere k is called s#ring constant. 7nits lbf8in % or 98m.
Abo,e 0/ns. are /$ite general and a##ly e/$ally &ell for tor/$es and moments.
4.: 4.: .ension, 'om#ression, and .orsion .ension, 'om#ression, and .orsion
'onsider a $niform bar s$b2ected to axial (or compressi"e force F
where ; is t!e linear deformation.
.!is e/$ation does not a##ly to a long bar loaded in com#ression
if t!ere is a #ossibility of buckling.
.!e spring constant of an aially loaded bar is
.!e ang$lar de(ection of a uniform solid or hollow round bar sub#ected to a
twisting moment $ &as gi,en in 0/. *<=<>+, and is
&!ere % is t!e ang$lar deformation e#ressed in radians.
0/$ation *4=>+ can be rearranged to gi,e t!e torsional s#ring
rate *k% as
Abo,e e/$ations a##ly only to circ$lar cross sections. 4or noncirc$lar cross section
refer to c!a#ter <.
2
4.< 4.< De(ection D$e to Bending De(ection D$e to Bending
Beams deflect great deal more t!an aially loaded members.
Bending of beams #robably occ$rs more often t!an any ot!er loading #roblem
in mec!anical design.
S!afts, ales, cran5s, le,ers, s#rings, brac5ets, and &!eels, as &ell as many
ot!er elements, m$st often be treated as beams in t!e design and analysis of mec!anical
str$ct$res and systems.
'onsider a beam segment of lengt! &. After
deformation, t!e lengt! of t!e ne$tral s$rface remains ?. At
ot!er sections:
where 'm denotes t!e maim$m absol$te ,al$e of t!e stress.
So, t!e cur"ature of a beam s$b2ected to a bending
moment @ is gi,en by
&!ere ( is t!e radius of cur"ature.
4rom st$dies in Calculus t!e c$r,at$re of a #lane
c$r,e is gi,en by:
&!ere y is t!e deflection of t!e beam at any #oint along its lengt!.
.!e slo#e of t!e beam at any #oint is gi,en by
4or many #roblems in bending, t!e slope is "ery small, and for t!ese t!e
denominator of 0/. *4=9+ can be ta5en as $nity. 0/$ation *4=A+ can t!en be &ritten
9oting t!at 0/s. *<=<+ and *<=4+
3
( )
( )
)
*c c
+ +
also
c
y
and
c
(
c
y y
&
y y & &
y &
m m
m x
m
m
x
= = =
= = =
= = =
= = =
=

% or
linearly+ ,aries *strain
and s$ccessi,ely differentiating 0/. *b+ yields
)t is con,enient to dis#lay t!ese relations in a gro$# as follo&s:
.!e nomenclat$re and con,entions are ill$strated by t!e beam s!o&n.
4
)ntegration )ntegration
0am#le 4-1 *see tetboo5+
4.4 4.4 Beam De(ection @et!ods Beam De(ection @et!ods
Beams !a,e intensities of loading t!at can be , = constant- "ariable intensity ,(x- or
concentrated loads.
.!ere are many tec!ni/$es em#loyed to sol,e t!e integration #roblem for beam
de(ection. Some of t!e #o#$lar met!ods incl$de:
1. )ntegration of moment e/$ation *eam#le 4-1+
:. S$#er#osition *section 4->+
<. @oment-area met!od
4. Sing$larity f$nctions *section 4-6+ =Omitted.
>. Strain energy &it! 'astiglianoBs t!eorem *sections 4-7, 4-A+
6. 9$merical integration.
4.> 4.> Beam De(ections by S$#er#osition Beam De(ections by S$#er#osition
.able /-0 #ro,ides some cases for res$lts of beams s$b2ected to sim#le loads and
bo$ndary conditions.
1uperposition resol,es t!e effect of combined loading on a str$ct$re by determining t!e
effect of eac! load separately and adding t!e res$lts algebraically.
)n $sing t!e s$#er#osition #rinci#le, t!e follo&ings are re/$ired:
1. 0ac! effect is linearly related to t!e load t!at #rod$ces it.
:. A load does not create a condition t!at affects t!e res$lts of anot!er load.
<. .!e deformations res$lting from any s#ecific load are not large eno$g! to
appreciably alter t!e geometric relations of t!e #arts of t!e str$ct$re.
0am#le 4-:
5
S$#er#osition:
0am#le 4-<
6
0am#le 4-4 *see tetboo5+
7
4.6 4.6 Beam De(ections by Sing$larity 4$nctions *Omitted+ Beam De(ections by Sing$larity 4$nctions *Omitted+
4.7 4.7 Strain 0nergy Strain 0nergy
)t is t!e #otential energy stored in a body by ,irt$e of an elastic deformation.
.!e total &or5 2 done by t!e load as t!e rod $ndergoes a deformation x3 is t!$s
and is e,ual to the area under the load-deformation diagram bet&een x = 4 and x = x3.
.!e &or5 done by t!e load 5 as it is slo&ly a##lied to t!e rod m$st res$lt in t!e increase
of some energy associated &it! t!e deformation of t!e rod. .!is energy is referred to as
t!e strain energy of t!e rod. Ce !a,e, by definition,
)n t!e case of a linear and elastic deformation, t!e #ortion of
t!e load-deformation diagram in,ol,ed can be re#resented
by a straig!t line of e/$ation D E 5 *4ig. 11.4+. S$bstit$ting
for D in 0/. *11.:+, &e !a,e
OR
)f a member is deformed a distance y, and if t!e force deflection
relations!i# is linear, t!is energy is e/$al to t!e #rod$ct of t!e
a,erage force 4 and t!e deflection y, or, force 4 and t!e deflection y,
or,
.!is e/$ation is general in t!e sense t!at t!e force 4 can also mean
tor/$e, or moment, #ro,ided, of co$rse, t!at consistent $nits are
$sed for k.
1train +nergy For tension and compression, &e em#loy 0/. *4=4+
and obtain
8
where t!e 1rst e/$ation a##lies &!en all t!e terms are constant t!ro$g!o$t t!e lengt!,
and t!e more general integral e/$ation allo&s for any of the terms to "ary t!ro$g! t!e
lengt!.
1train energy for torsion, &e em#loy *4=7+ and get
1train energy for direct shear, consider t!e element &it! one side 1ed in 4ig. 4=Aa. .!e
force 4 #laces t!e element in #$re s!ear, and t!e &or5 done is
2 = F678. Since t!e s!ear strain is 9 = 67l = :7; = F7/;, &e !a,e
1train energy stored in a beam or le"er by bending may be obtained by referring to 4ig.b.
6ere AB is a section of t!e elastic c$r,e of lengt! ds !a,ing a radi$s
of c$r,at$re (. .!e strain energy stored in t!is element of t!e beam
is d2 = (*78 d%.
Since ( d% = ds, &e !a,e
Ce can eliminate F by $sing 0/. *4=A+, ( = +)7*. .!$s
4or small de(ections, ds E d. .!en, for t!e entire beam
S$mmari"ed to incl$de bot! t!e integral and nonintegral form, t!e strain energy for
bending is
9
0/$ations *4=::+ and *4=:<+ are eact only &!en a beam is s$b2ect to #$re bending.
0,en &!en trans,erse s!ear is #resent, t!ese e/$ations contin$e to gi,e /$ite good
res$lts, ece#t for ,ery s!ort beams.
1train energy due to shear in bending is a com#licated #roblem. An a##roimate
sol$tion can be obtained by $sing 0/. *4=:G+ &it! a correction factor &!ose ,al$e
de#ends $#on t!e s!a#e of t!e cross section. )f &e $se C for t!e correction factor and <
for t!e s!ear force, t!en t!e strain energy due to shear in bending is
Hal$es of t!e factor ' are listed in .able 4=1.
0am#le 4-A *see tetboo5+
4.8 'astiglianoBs .!eorem 'astiglianoBs .!eorem
)t is an $n$s$al, #o&erf$l, and often s$r#risingly sim#le a##roac! to deection analysis.
)t is a $ni/$e &ay of analy"ing de(ections and is e,en $sef$l for nding the reactions of
indeterminate structures.
'astiglianoBs t!eorem states t!at &!en forces act on elastic systems s$b2ect to small
dis#lacements, the displacement corresponding to any force, in t!e direction of t!e force,
is e,ual to the partial deri"ati"e of the total strain energy with respect to that force.
@at!ematically, for linear displacement, t!e t!eorem of 'astigliano is
&!ere 6i is t!e displacement of the point of application of the force Fi and in its direction.

4or rotational displacement 0/. *4=:6+ can be &ritten as
10
&!ere %i is t!e rotational displacement- in radians- of t!e beam &!ere t!e moment *i
eists and in its direction.
As an eam#le, a##ly 'astiglianoBs t!eorem $sing 0/ns. *4=16+ and *4=1A+ to get t!e
aial and torsional de(ections. .!e res$lts are
'om#are 0/ns. *a+ and *b+ &it! 0/ns. *4=<+ and *4=>+.
0am#le 4-9 *see tetboo5+
$he relati"e contribution of trans"erse shear to beam deection decreases as the length-to-
height ratio of the beam increases- and is generally considered negligible for l7d = 34.
9ote t!at t!e de(ection e/$ations for t!e beams in .able A=9 do not incl$de t!e effects
of trans,erse s!ear.
'astiglianoBs t!eorem can be $sed to nd the deection at a point e"en though no force
or moment acts there. .!e #roced$re is:
1. Set $# t!e e/$ation for t!e total strain energy 2 by incl$ding t!e energy d$e to a
ctitious force or moment > acting at t!e #oint &!ose de(ection is to be fo$nd.
:. 4ind an e#ression for t!e desired de(ection 6, in t!e direction of >, by ta5ing t!e
deri,ati,e of t!e total strain energy &it! respect to >.
<. Since > is a 1ctitio$s force, sol,e t!e e#ression obtained in ste# : by setting > e/$al
to "ero. .!$s, t!e dis#lacement at t!e #oint of a##lication of t!e fictitious force > is
)n cases where integration is necessary to obtain t!e strain energy, it is more efcient to
obtain t!e de(ection directly &it!o$t e#licitly 1nding t!e strain energy, by mo,ing t!e
#artial deri,ati,e inside t!e integral. 4or t!e eam#le of t!e bending case,
.!is allo&s t!e deri,ati,e to be ta5en before integration, simplifying the mathematics.
.!e e#ressions for t!e common cases in 0/s. *4=17+, *4=19+, and *4=:<+ are re&ritten
as
11
shear direct
F
F
F
/ ; F
2
i i
i

bending in shear
F
<
<
/ ;
C
F
2
i i
i

0am#le
12
0am#le
0am#le 4-1G *see tetboo5+
0am#le 4-11 *see tetboo5+
13
Stiffness (k) is the rigidity of an object the e!tent to "hich it resists defor#ation in res$onse
to an a$$%ied force.
&he co#$%e#entary conce$t is fleibility or $%iabi%ity' the #ore f%e!ib%e an object is( the %ess stiff
it is.
)2*
Io$ngJs mod$l$s (tensile mod$l$s or elastic mod$l$s+ is a #eas+re of the stiffness of an e%astic
#ateria% and is a ,+antity +sed to characteri-e #ateria%s. .t is defined as the ratio of the stress
a%ong an a!is o/er the strain a%ong that a!is in the range of stress in "hich 0ooke1s %a" ho%ds
Deflection is the degree to "hich a str+ct+ra% e%e#ent is dis$%aced +nder a %oad. .t #ay refer to an
angle or a distance.
.n #ateria%s science( deformation is a change in the sha$e or si-e of an object d+e to an a$$%ied
force or a change in te#$erat+re. &he first case can be a res+%t of tensi%e forces( co#$ressi/e
forces( shear( bending or torsion. .n the second case( the #ost significant factor( "hich is
deter#ined by the te#$erat+re( is the #obi%ity of the str+ct+ra% defects s+ch as grain bo+ndaries(
$oint /acancies( %ine and scre" dis%ocations( stacking fa+%ts and t"ins in both crysta%%ine and non2
crysta%%ine so%ids. 3efor#ation is often described as strain.
.n #ateria%s science( d$ctility is a so%id #ateria%1s abi%ity to defor# +nder tensi%e stress4
@alleability( a si#i%ar $ro$erty( is a #ateria%1s abi%ity to defor# +nder co#$ressi/e stress4
5 #ateria% is brittle if( "hen s+bjected to stress( it breaks "itho+t significant defor#ation
(strain). 6ritt%e #ateria%s absorb re%ati/e%y %itt%e energy $rior to fract+re( e/en those of high
strength. 6ritt%e #ateria%s inc%+de #ost cera#ics and g%asses ("hich do not defor# $%astica%%y)
and so#e $o%y#ers( s+ch as 7885 and $o%ystyrene. 8any stee%s beco#e britt%e at %o"
te#$erat+res( de$ending on their co#$osition and $rocessing.
5 fract$re is the se$aration of an object or #ateria% into t"o( or #ore( $ieces +nder the action of
stress.
.n #ateria%s science( to$g!ness is the abi%ity of a #ateria% to absorb energy and $%astica%%y
defor# "itho+t fract+ring4 8ateria% to+ghness is defined as the a#o+nt of energy $er /o%+#e that
a #ateria% can absorb before r+$t+ring. .t is a%so defined as the resistance to fract+re of a #ateria%
"hen stressed.
Resilience is the abi%ity of a #ateria% to absorb energy "hen it is defor#ed e%astica%%y( and re%ease
that energy +$on +n%oading. &he #od+%+s of resi%ience is defined as the #a!i#+# energy that
can be absorbed $er +nit /o%+#e "itho+t creating a $er#anent distortion.
&he yield strengt! or yield #oint of a #ateria% is defined in engineering and #ateria%s science as
the stress at "hich a #ateria% begins to defor# $%astica%%y. 7rior to the yie%d $oint the #ateria%
"i%% defor# e%astica%%y and "i%% ret+rn to its origina% sha$e "hen the a$$%ied stress is re#o/ed.
7ltimate tensile strengt! ( 7.S )( often shortened to tensile strengt! (.S) or $ltimate strengt!(
)1*)2*
is the #a!i#+# stress that a #ateria% can "ithstand "hi%e being stretched or $+%%ed before
fai%ing or breaking. &ensi%e strength is the o$$osite of co#$ressi/e strength and the /a%+es can be
,+ite different.
14