Cooling performance of a microchannel heat sink with nanouids

Seok Pil Jang

a,b
, Stephen U.S. Choi
b,
*
a
School of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, Hankuk Aviation University, Goyang, Gyeonggi-do 412-791, South Korea
b
Energy Technology Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
Received 24 March 2005; accepted 23 February 2006
Available online 19 May 2006
Abstract
In this paper, the cooling performance of a microchannel heat sink with nanoparticleuid suspensions (nanouids) is numerically
investigated. By using a theoretical model of thermal conductivity of nanouids that accounts for the fundamental role of Brownian
motion, we investigate the temperature contours and thermal resistance of a microchannel heat sink with nanouids such as 6 nm cop-
per-in-water and 2 nm diamond-in-water. The results show that the cooling performance of a microchannel heat sink with water-based
nanouids containing diamond (1 vol.%, 2 nm) at the xed pumping power of 2.25 W is enhanced by about 10% compared with that of a
microchannel heat sink with water. Nanouids reduce both the thermal resistance and the temperature dierence between the heated
microchannel wall and the coolant. Finally, the potential of deploying a combined microchannel heat sink with nanouids as the next
generation cooling devices for removing ultra-high heat ux is shown.
2006 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Keywords: Nanouids; Microchannel; Heat sink; Thermal resistance; Nanoparticles
1. Introduction
The advanced electronic devices employing high speed,
high density, and very-large-scale integrated (VLSI) cir-
cuits face thermal management challenges from the high
level of heat generation and the reduction of available sur-
face area for heat removal [1]. So, the advanced electronic
devices require ecient and compact cooling modules to
provide reliable system operation.
Many ideas for improving cooling technology for elec-
tronic equipment with high heat generation have been pro-
posed, but can be put into two approaches [15]. The rst is
to nd an optimum geometry of cooling devices for which
the cooling performance is maximized. The second is to
decrease a characteristic length, D, to inversely increase
the heat transfer coecient, h, as shown in Eq. (1).
h
Nuk
f
D
1
where k
f
is the thermal conductivity of the coolant. Based on
the second approach, Tuckerman and Pease [1] suggested a
high-performance microchannel heat sink for VLSI.
The recent discovery that nanouids, uids with unprec-
edented stability of suspended nanoparticles, have anoma-
lous thermal conductivity enhancement [612] gives a third
approach: The increase of the heat transfer coecient h by
increasing the thermal conductivity of a coolant, as shown
in Eq. (1). So, in this paper, we show that a novel combina-
tion of a microchannel heat sink with nanouids as a new
coolant gives a new direction for ultra-high cooling perfor-
mance. For this, we have devised a theoretical model for
thermal conductivities of nanouids. By using a theoretical
model that accounts for the fundamental role of Brownian
motion, the temperature contours and thermal resistance of
a microchannel heat sink with nanouids such as water-
based nanouids containing 6 nm copper-nanoparticles
and 2 nm diamond-nanoparticles are numerically investi-
gated. We are going to show that a microchannel heat sink
with nanouids has high cooling performance compared
with the cooling performance of that with water, the clas-
sical coolant without nanoparticles.
1359-4311/$ - see front matter 2006 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2006.02.036
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 630 252 6439; fax: +1 630 252 5568.
E-mail address: choi@anl.gov (S.U.S. Choi).
www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng
Applied Thermal Engineering 26 (2006) 24572463
2. Theoretical model for the eective thermal conductivity
of nanouids
Scientists and engineers have been perplexed by the
anomalous thermal conductivity behavior of nanouids
[611]. Traditional conductivity theories of solid/liquid
suspensions, such as the Maxwell [13] and other macro-
scale approaches [14] cannot explain that nanouids have
anomalously high thermal conductivity at very low vol-
ume fraction of nanoparticles, size-dependent conductiv-
ity, and three fold higher critical heat ux than that of
the base uid. Recently, Jang and Choi [12] have con-
structed a theoretical model based on Brownian motion
[15], kinetic theory [16], and Kapitza resistance [17].
The following analysis is based on Jang and Chois
model [12]. The thermal conductivity of nanouids
involves four modes of energy transport in nanouids
as follows.
2.1. First mode (thermal diusion of base uid)
The rst mode is the thermal diusion of a base uid,
which is given by
J
U
k
BF
dT
dz
1 f 2
where f, J
U
, k
BF
, and T are the volume fraction, net energy
ux across a plane at z axis, thermal conductivity of a base
uid, and temperature, respectively.
2.2. Second mode (thermal diusion in nanoparticles)
The second mode is the thermal diusion in nanoparti-
cles in uids, which is given by
J
U
k
nano
dT
dZ
f 3
where k
nano
is the eective thermal conductivity of a sus-
pended nanoparticle which is related to the thermal con-
ductivity of a solid nanoparticle and the Kapitza thermal
resistance at the solidliquid interface. Chen [18] investi-
gated the thermal conductivity of a single particle whose
size is smaller than the mean free path of the energy carrier
and developed a theoretical model for the thermal conduc-
tivity of the single particle k
particle
given by
k
particle
k
bulk
0:75
d
nano
l
nano
0:75
d
nano
l
nano
1
4
where k
bulk
, d
nano
and l
nano
are the thermal conductivity of
bulk material, characteristic length of nanoparticles, and
mean free path of nanoparticles, respectively. The Kapitza
resistance per unit area R
K
can be calculated as [16]
R
K

1
4
b
C
V
va

1
5
where
b
C
V
, v, and a are the heat capacity per unit volume,
mean speed of free electron or lattice wave, and averaged
transmission probability, respectively. The latter is given by
Nomenclature
A
r
aspect ratio, A
r

H
W
C
C
p
specic heat (kJ/kg K)
C mean speed of base uid molecules (m/s)
C
R:M
random motion velocity of nanoparticles (m/s)
C
T
translation speed of nanoparticles (m/s)
b
C
V
heat capacity per unit volume (J/m
3
K)
d diameter (m)
D characteristic length (m)
D
0
diusion coecient (m
2
/s)
f volume fraction
h heat transfer coecient (W/m
2
K)
H channel height (m)
J
U
net energy ux (W/m
2
)
k thermal conductivity (W/m K)
k
b
Boltzmann constant (J/K)
m mass (kg)
Nu Nusselt number
p pressure (Pa)
PP pumping power (W)
Pr Prandtl number
q heat generation (W)
Re Reynolds number
T temperature (C)
u velocity along the x-direction (m/s)
v mean speed of free electron or lattice wave (m/s)
W width of a channel and a side wall (m)
W
C
channel width (m)
Greek symbols
b constant related to Kapitza resistance
e porosity, e
W
C
W
l viscosity (N s/m
2
)
h thermal resistance (K/W)
q density (kg/m
3
)
Subscripts/superscripts
BF base uid
bulk bulk materials
e eective property
f uid
nano nanoparticle
2458 S.P. Jang, S.U.S. Choi / Applied Thermal Engineering 26 (2006) 24572463
a
4Z
1
Z
2
Z
1
Z
2

2
O10
1
; Z qv 6
where q is the density. By using Eqs. (5) and (6), we esti-
mate the order of R
K
as
R
K
O10
7
7
This value of Kapitza resistance per unit area is very small.
However, we need to consider the Kapitza resistance to
determine the eective thermal conductivity of nanoparti-
cles suspended in uid, because the thermal resistance per
unit area of the nanoparticle given by Eq. (8) is smaller
than Kapitza resistance per unit area when the characteris-
tic length of the nanoparticle is at nanoscale:
R
nanoparticle

d
nano
k
particle
8
By using the series thermal resistance model,
R
K

d
nano
k
particle

d
nano
k
nano
9
we can obtain the eective thermal conductivity of nano-
particles k
nano
given by
k
nano
k
particle

d
nano
d
nano
k
particle
R
K
b O10
2
10
Based on Eq. (10), Eq. (3) can be expressed as
J
U
bk
particle
dT
dZ
f ; b 0:01 11
where b is a constant related to the Kapitza resistance. b is
on the order of 0.01, which is consistent with the experi-
mental results by Huxtable et al. [19].
2.3. Third mode (collision between nanoparticles)
The third mode is the collision of nanoparticles with
each other by translational motion of nanoparticles. This
physical meaning indicates that ux of energy is trans-
ported by collision of nanoparticles with each other.
J
U

1
3
lC
V
C
T
f
dT
dz
k
BML
dT
dz
12
where C
T
, k
BML
and l are translational speed of a nanopar-
ticle, the eective thermal conductivity of the third mode
and mean collision length of a nanoparticle during the
translation motion, respectively. By kinetic theory, the
translational speed of a nanoparticle can be calculated
1
2
mC
2
T

3
2
k
b
T !C
T

18k
b
T
qpd
3
nano
s
13
where d
nano
, k
b
= 1.3807 10
23
J/K, and q are diameter
of nanoparticles, Boltzmann constant and density, respec-
tively. By an order-of-magnitude analysis of Eq. (12), we
have found that this mode is much smaller than the other
modes as given by
k
BML
O10
5
14
So we can neglect the eect of the third mode.
2.4. Last mode (nanoconvection due to Brownian motion)
The last mode is the convection eect of Brownian
motion of nanoparticles which is due to the thermally
induced uctuations. The Brownian motion causes nano-
particles to vary in direction many millions of times per
second, as presented by Einstein [15].
J
U
hT
nano
T
BF
f 3C
1
d
BF
d
nano
k
BF
Re
2
dnano
Pr
dT
dz
15
Re
dnano

C
R:M
d
nano
v
; C
R:M

2D
0
l
BF
16
where d
BF
, d
nano
are the equivalent diameters of a base uid
molecule and a nanoparticle, respectively. Re
dnano
and Pr
are the Reynolds number and the Prandtl number and
C
1
= 6 10
6
, C
R:M
, D
0
, l
BF
, and v are an empirical con-
stant, random motion velocity of nanoparticles, diusion
coecient presented by Einstein [15], mean free path and
kinematic viscosity of base uid, respectively. The mean
free path of base uid [16] is dened by
l
BF

3k
BF
b
C
V
C
17
where C is the mean speed of base uid molecules.
From Eqs. (2)(17), we can theoretically derive the fol-
lowing expression for the thermal conductivity of nano-
uids, k
nanouids
:
k
nanofluids
k
BF
1 f bk
particle
f
3C
1
d
BF
d
nano
k
BF
Re
2
dnano
Pr 18
In order to validate this new model for the eective ther-
mal conductivity of nanouids, Eq. (18), we compare the
previous experimental results [6] with results predicted from
this new model. The experimental results match closely
with results from this new model as shown in Fig. 1(a).
Fig. 1(b) shows the predicted thermal conductivity of
water-based nanouids containing 6 nm copper-nanoparti-
cles and 2 nm diamond-nanoparticles. The eective thermal
conductivity of these nanouids will be used for numerical
investigation on the cooling performance of a microchannel
heat sink. It should be noted that there is a fundamental dif-
ference between metal/diamond and metal oxide in terms of
thermal performance. One of the questions we want to raise
is whether the dierence is due to the conductivity of the
nanoparticles themselves or due to some other mechanism.
Although the thermal conductivity of metal/diamond is
more than an order of magnitude higher than that of metal
oxide, the thermal conductivity of nanouids is only weakly
dependent on that of nanoparticles when the nanoparticle
conductivity reaches a threshold level. Jang and Choi have
shown that a key mechanismgoverning the eective thermal
conductivity of nanouids is not material properties of
S.P. Jang, S.U.S. Choi / Applied Thermal Engineering 26 (2006) 24572463 2459
nanoparticles but Brownian motion of nanoparticles [12].
The Jang and Choi model shows that nanoparticle size is
thus the major parameter. Because the model can predict
strongly size-dependent conductivity, it can be used to pre-
dict the eective thermal conductivity of nanouids con-
taining smaller nanoparticles such as 2 nm diamond and
6 nm copper or larger metal oxides such as 30 nm Al
2
O
3
and 20 nm CuO. However, because metal/diamond parti-
cles are much smaller than metal oxides, the data from
the metal oxides in Fig. 1(a) cannot be simply extrapolated
into the performance of the ultra-small Cu or diamond par-
ticles in Fig. 1(b).
3. Microchannel heat sink with nanouids
In the paper the problem of forced convective ow
through a microchannel heat sink of water-based nano-
uids containing 1 vol.% of 6 nm copper-nanoparticles
or 1 vol.% of 2 nm diamond-nanoparticles is consid-
ered. Fig. 2 shows physical and numerical domains.
The top surface is insulated and the bottom surface is
uniformly heated. A coolant passes through the micro-
channel heat sink and takes heat away from a heat-dissi-
pating component attached below. The material of a
microchannel heat sink is silicon (k
s
= 150 W/m K). In
analyzing the problem, the ow can be assumed to be
laminar and both hydrodynamically and thermally fully
developed because the hydraulic diameter of the micro-
channel heat sink is suciently small and the Reynolds
number is on the order of 100 or less. All thermophysical
properties are assumed to be constant. Specically, the
thermal conductivity of nanouids is calculated by using
Eq. (18) and the eective viscosity of nanouids is consid-
ered by the Einstein model [15] applicable to dilute
suspensions.
l
eff
l
f
1 2:5f for f < 0:05 19
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
1.00
1.05
1.10
1.15
1.20
1.25
k
e
f
f
/
k
b
a
s
e

f
lu
id
Volume Fraction
Base Fluid: Water
Al
2
O
3
, Experimental Results [6]
CuO, Experimental Results [6]
Al
2
O
3
, New Model
CuO, New Model
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
k
e
f
f
/
k
b
a
s
e

f
l
u
i
d
Volume Fraction
Theoretical Resutls
Water
Water-based Copper (6nm)
Water-based Diamond (2nm)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1. Thermal conductivity of nanouids normalized to that of the base
uid as a function of nanoparticle volume fraction: (a) comparison of
model predictions with experimental thermal conductivity data for copper
oxide-in-water and aluminum-in-water nanouids, (b) prediction for
thermal conductivity of 6 nm copper-in-water and 2 nm diamond-in-
water.
q
y
z
x
C
w
W
H
0
z
2
W
y
H
2
C
W
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2. Schematic of a microchannel heat sink: (a) physical domain, (b)
numerical domain.
2460 S.P. Jang, S.U.S. Choi / Applied Thermal Engineering 26 (2006) 24572463
In addition, the eective specic heat and density of nano-
uids are calculated by mixing theory [20,21].
C
p;eff
C
p;f
1 f C
p;particle
f 20
q
eff
q
f
1 f q
particle
f 21
where C
p,f
, C
p,particle
, C
p,e
, l
f
, l
e
, q
f
, q
particle
, and q
e
are
specic heats of base uid, nanoparticles, eective specic
heat of nanouids, viscosity of base uid, eective viscosity
of nanouids, density of base uid, nanoparticles, and the
eective density of nanouids, respectively.
In order to evaluate the cooling performance of the
microchannel heat sink with nanouids, the momentum
equation for the uid and the energy equation for both
the n and the uid should be solved. The governing
Table 1
Comparison between the thermal resistance of Min et al. [5] and that of
present model
Microchannel heat
sink with water [5]
Microchannel heat
sink with water
(present model)
Pumping power (W) 2.27 2.27
Porosity, e = W
C
/W 0.58 0.58
Aspect ratio, A
r
= H/W
C
8.2 8.2
Thermal resistance, h (C/W) 0.06019 0.06018
Fig. 3. Temperature contours for cross-sectional area of microchannel heat sinks: (a) water, (b) nanouid: water + copper (6 nm), (c) nanouid:
water + diamond (2 nm).
S.P. Jang, S.U.S. Choi / Applied Thermal Engineering 26 (2006) 24572463 2461
momentum and energy equations and boundary conditions
are given as
X-momentum equation

1
l
eff
dp
dx

o
2
u
oy
2

o
2
u
oz
2
0
u 0 at y 0; y H
ou
oz
0 at z 0; u 0 at z
W
C
2
22
Energy equation
q
eff
C
p;eff
u
oT
ox
k
eff
o
2
T
oy
2

o
2
T
oz
2

T T
W
at y 0;
oT
oy
0 at y H
oT
oz
0 at z 0; z
W
2
23
where p, T, T
W
, u, W, and W
C
are pressure, temperature,
wall temperature, x-velocity, width of a channel and a side
wall, and channel width, respectively. The governing equa-
tions are solved by the control-volume-based nite dier-
ence method. The cooling performance of a microchannel
heat sink with nanouids is evaluated by the thermal resis-
tance, h, dened as
h
T
max
T
in
q
24
where q, T
in
, and T
max
, are heat generation, temperature of
an inlet coolant and the maximum temperature at the bot-
tom surface of the microchannel heat sink, respectively.
The thermal resistance is numerically calculated under
the xed pumping power, PP = DP Q where DP and Q
are pressure drop across a system and volume ow rate,
respectively. In our model, we change the entry velocity
to keep the pumping power xed. The condition of the
xed pumping power used in this paper physically means
that the power required to drive the uid through the heat
sink is xed. Therefore, the xed pumping power condition
for evaluating cooling performance of heat sinks is a phys-
ically practical constraint [3]. Before investigating the cool-
ing performance of a microchannel heat sink with
nanouids, we validated the numerical code with results
presented by Min et al. [5] as shown in Table 1.
Based on the numerical results, Fig. 3 shows colored
temperature contours of a cross-sectional area of a micro-
channel heat sink with water, water-based nanouids con-
taining Cu (1 vol.%, 6 nm), and water-based nanouids
containing diamond (1 vol.%, 2 nm) under the condition
of xed pumping power, 2.25 W and xed heat ux,
300 W/cm
2
. The height, aspect ratio, and porosity of
microchannel heat sinks are 350 lm, 8.6 and 0.5. The
porosity is dened by
e
W
C
W
25
The base size of microchannel heat sinks is 1 cm 1 cm.
Fig. 3(a) shows that, when water is used as the coolant,
there is a large region of deep blue, indicating the maxi-
mum temperature dierence greater than 13 C between
the heated microchannel wall and the coolant. However,
this deep blue region shrinks for water-based nanouids
containing Cu (1 vol.%, 6 nm) as shown in Fig. 3(b), and
completely disappears for water-based nanouids contain-
ing diamond (1 vol.%, 2 nm) as shown in Fig. 3(c). The col-
ored contour maps are a powerful way to visually examine
the cooling performance of dierent coolants owing in the
microchannel heat sink. As shown in Fig. 3, the uniformity
of temperature in the channel is enhanced by using nano-
uids because the thermal conductivity of nanouids is lar-
ger than that of water.
Fig. 4 shows that nanouids reduce the thermal resis-
tance, as dened by Eq. (24). The results indicate that
the cooling performance of a microchannel heat sink at
PP = 2.25 W is enhanced by about 10% and 4% for water-
based nanouids containing diamond (1 vol.%, 2 nm) and
copper (1 vol.%) respectively, compared with that of the
microchannel heat sink with water. Thus, when the temper-
ature dierence between junction temperature and inlet
coolant temperature (ambient temperature) is 80 C, heat
ux of up to 1350 W/cm
2
can be dissipated by a microchan-
nel heat sink with water-based nanouids containing dia-
mond (1%, 2 nm) at PP = 2.25 W. So, we can propose a
microchannel heat sink with nanouids as a next generation
cooling devices for removing ultra-high heat ux.
4. Conclusion
A combination of microchannel heat sink (small charac-
teristic length) with nanouids (enhanced thermal conduc-
tivity) has been introduced as a new direction for high
cooling performance. Based on a theoretical model of ther-
1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50
0.058
0.060
0.062
0.064
0.066
0.068
0.070
0.072
0.074
T
h
e
r
m
a
l

R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
o
C
/

W
)
Pumping Power (kW)
Microchannel Heat Sink
Water
Nanofluids: Water+Cu(1%, 6nm)
Nanofluids: Water+Diamond(1%, 2nm)
Fig. 4. Thermal resistances of microchannel heat sinks with water, water-
based nanouid containing copper and water-based nanouid containing
diamond.
2462 S.P. Jang, S.U.S. Choi / Applied Thermal Engineering 26 (2006) 24572463
mal conductivity of nanouids that accounts for the funda-
mental role of Brownian motion, the temperature contours
and thermal resistance of a microchannel heat sink with
nanouids have been numerically investigated. The results
show that the cooling performance of a microchannel heat
sink with water-based nanouids containing diamond
(1 vol.%, 2 nm) at the xed pumping power of 2.25 W is
enhanced by about 10% compared with that of a micro-
channel heat sink with water. Nanouids reduce both the
thermal resistance and the temperature dierence between
the heated microchannel wall and the coolant. Finally,
the potential of deploying a combined microchannel heat
sink with nanouids as the next generation cooling devices
for removing ultra-high heat ux is shown. Finally, the
potential of deploying a combined microchannel heat sink
with nanouids as the next generation cooling devices for
removing ultra-high heat ux as much as 1350 W/cm
2
,
when the dierence between junction temperature and inlet
coolant temperature is 80 C, is demonstrated.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Korea Research Foun-
dation Grant (KRF-2004-003-D00047). S. Choi was par-
tially supported by the U.S. Department of Energy,
Oce of Transportation TechnologiesOce of Free-
domCar and Vehicle Technologies, under Contract W-31-
109-Eng-38.
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