Audit committee effectiveness:

a public sector case study

Johnathan Magrane
WHK Nelson, Nelson, New Zealand, and
Sue Malthus
School of Business and Computer Technology,
Nelson Marlborough Institute of Technology, Nelson, New Zealand
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the conditions and processes affecting the
operation of an audit committee within the context of a New Zealand district health board (DHB).
Design/methodology/approach The methodology used in this paper was exploratory and
qualitative, including the analysis of secondary data and semi-structured interviews.
Findings Using the New Zealand Auditor-Generals best practice guidelines for a public sector
audit committee as a benchmark, the paper nds that the DHB rates moderately well in terms of
effectiveness potential. However, factors are identied concerning the audit committee members
independence, competence, tenure, and remuneration, which impinge upon the overall effectiveness of
the audit committee. Despite apparent shortcomings in these areas, the informal networks between
audit committee members and management serve to maximise the realisation of what potential
effectiveness exists. As a result, the audit committee is perceived by its stakeholders (management,
auditors, and committee members) as being a valuable tool to assist the DHB board in achieving
proper governance.
Practical implications There are no specic regulatory or legislative requirements for establishing
audit committees in the NewZealand public sector. The ndings fromthis paper may be useful to public
sector entities that are considering establishing an audit committee and to entities, including the one in
this paper, that wish to improve the effectiveness of their existing audit committees.
Originality/value Most studies of audit committees to date have focuses on corporate sector
entities; this is the rst qualitative paper of an audit committee of a public sector entity in NewZealand.
Keywords Audit committees, Health services, Public sector organizations, New Zealand
Paper type Research paper
1. Introduction
The aim of an audit committee is to improve organisational governance, regardless of
whether the organisation is in the private or the public sector. As a subcommittee of the
governing body, an audit committee aims to provide assurance on nancial and
compliance issues through increased scrutiny, accountability, and the efcient use of
resources. An audit committee may also serve an advisory function aimed at performance
improvement within the organisation.
Over the past decade, the role of audit committees has become increasingly relevant,
as high-prole corporate scandals such as Enron and WorldCom have intensied
corporate governance requirements and expectations. The perceived need for more
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/0268-6902.htm
The authors would like to thank the participants in this study, and the anonymous referees for
the AFAANZ Conference 2009 and the Managerial Auditing Journal.
Audit committee
effectiveness
427
Received 2 November 2009
Revised 22 January 2010
Accepted 5 February 2010
Managerial Auditing Journal
Vol. 25 No. 5, 2010
pp. 427-443
qEmerald Group Publishing Limited
0268-6902
DOI 10.1108/02686901011041821
audit committees (and for those audit committees to be more effective) has been
galvanised through a combination of legislation and/or supported best practice
guidelines. Evidence has shown a signicant rise and harmonisation in the use of audit
committees internationally, including the European Commissions requirement that all
public-interest entities in the European Union have an audit committee (Collier and
Zaman, 2005). Likewise, in the USA, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (2002) was enacted, which
requires, among other things, that companies use audit committees and disclose the
composition of their audit committees in their annual reports.
In New Zealand, there is no specic regulatory or legislative requirement for private
or public sector entities to establish audit committees. The justication for this position
was articulated by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of New Zealand (ICANZ)
when they carried out a review of corporate reporting in 2003, and concluded that
while the existence of audit committees can be regulated for, their effectiveness
cannot (ICANZ, 2003, p. 34). Moreover, ICANZ considered that the costs of mandatory
compliance may exceed the benets of an audit committee, particularly when
considering the relatively small scale of operations in New Zealand. While this may be
true for the majority of private sector businesses in New Zealand, this position is
debatable with respect to the public sector, given the size, complexity, and social
signicance of some public sector operations.
New Zealands 21 district health boards (DHBs), for example, are responsible for
administering approximately NZ$12 billion of health related services annually
(New Zealand Treasury, 2008). It would appear that given the considerable size of this
sector audit committees are likely to have an important role to play in the internal
control structures within New Zealands public health care system. In addition to
reducing agency costs, the potential for increased organisational performance as a
result of audit committee efforts is also signicant on this scale. As tax payers and
users of these health services, New Zealanders in general have an interest in ensuring
that DHBs are governed and managed properly, and that audit committees are in place
and operating effectively.
The importance of strong governance and internal controls within public sector
entities such as DHBs was brought to the fore recently when the largest fraud in
New Zealand public sector history occurred at the Otago DHB in 2008 (Peart, 2008).
Over a six year period a former chief information ofcer (CIO) at the DHB and an
outside accomplice invoiced for non-existent maintenance and computer program
updates, amounting to NZ$16.9 million. The fraud, which went unnoticed by the DHBs
audit committee and its internal and external auditors, led to the conviction of the CIO
and his accomplice, and the sacking of the chairman of the board (Hartley, 2008).
As a consequence, of the fraud New Zealands Minister of Health called for urgent
conrmation that systems have subsequently been put in place at DHBs throughout
the country to prevent such a fraud from reoccurring (Schoeld, 2008).
The aim of this study is to ascertain the perceived effectiveness of an audit
committee within the context of a New Zealand public health organisation. In the
absence of legislation for audit committees in the public sector, there are a number of
best practice recommendations for forming and operating audit committees, the most
recent and expansive of which was published by New Zealands Auditor-General in
March 2008. As a means of ascertaining the audit committees effectiveness, this study
examines the extent to which the DHBs audit committee follows these guidelines
MAJ
25,5
428
(i.e. how effective should the audit committee be) and compares this with actual
operations and perceived effectiveness of the committee, as reported by the audit
committees stakeholders, being its members and the DHBs senior management and
internal auditors.
2. Literature review
2.1 Audit committees in New Zealand
Although audit committees are generally considered to be a crucial corporate
government mechanism internationally, they are a relatively recent phenomenon in
New Zealand. In 2003, ICANZ formalised its recommendations on audit committees in
a report, proposing only guidance (not regulation) for audit committee operations.
Among the reasons stated for this was that regulations are no guarantee for audit
committee effectiveness and regulations can be cosmetic, giving investors a false
sense of security [in some circumstances] (ICANZ, 2003, p. 42). Moreover, it was noted
that the average size of listed companies in New Zealand is much smaller than the top
500 in the USA or Australia, with New Zealand issuers less able to bear the costs of
compliance. Despite these reasons, the New Zealand Stock Exchange (NZX Limited)
subsequently required its listed issuers to establish audit committees (Rule 3.6),
following the lead of the USA and Australian markets (NZX Limited, 2003).
In the New Zealand public sector, there are no specic regulatory or legislative
requirements for establishing audit committees. By proxy, there are pieces of public
sector legislation (such as the Public Finance Act, 1989; Crown Entities Act, 2004; Local
Government Act, 2002) which require public entities to maintain a system of internal
control designed to provide reasonable assurance as to the integrity and reliability of
nancial reporting (Crown Entities Act, 2004, p. s21). However, the legislation stops
short of dening internal control.
The Institute of Internal Auditors and Big-4 accounting rm KPMG conducted a
survey of audit committee practices across ministries and government departments in
2005. The survey found that audit committees are a relatively new phenomenon in the
New Zealand public sector, with 18 departments of the 24 respondents (out of a total of
42 departments) having audit committees in place. These audit committees were
chaired by the chief executive in 55 percent of the cases and were found to be typically
bigger than their overseas counterparts, with a membership of six to eight;
internationally three to ve members is normal. Souella Cumming, KPMG partner
for government and public sector believes that the disparity comes about because in
New Zealand the senior management team are participating members, whereas
overseas they are observers (KPMG and Institute of Internal Auditors, 2005, p. 1).
2.2 Best practice characteristics codication into guidelines
Since audit committee formation began, best practice guidelines have been established
by a number of parties internationally. Outside of New Zealand, notable best practice
recommendations have been issued by the Cadbury Committee (1992), the Blue Ribbon
Committee (BRC) (1999), the Australian National Audit Ofce (2005), and all the Big-4
accounting rms. Within New Zealand the Institute of Directors (IOD) issued a best
practice statement pertaining to audit committees in 1996; this was updated in 2007
when the IOD issued a best practice guide for directors which includes a section on
audit committees (IOD in New Zealand, Inc., 1996, 2007). The Securities Commission
Audit committee
effectiveness
429
of New Zealand (2004) also issued a number of principles and guidelines for corporate
governance, which include some recommendations for audit committees in 2004. The
NZX Limited updated its listing rules in 2003, which include rules requiring all listed
issues to establish audit committees. Most recently, the Ofce of the Auditor-General
(OAG) (2008) has issued a good practice guide for audit committees in the public sector.
The OAGs good practice guide, which comprises 75 pages, is signicantly more
comprehensive than the guidelines for audit committees used in the private sector in
New Zealand. The guide sets out the principles and good practices needed to set up and
effectively operate an audit committee in the public sector. It includes examples of
charters and checklists, and a list of other resources, to help public sector entities
operate effective audit committees (OAG, 2008).
A comparison between the OAGs guide and the guidelines for audit committees
used in the private sector, namely the Securities Commissions guidelines and the IOD
in New Zealand, Inc. (2007) principles of best practice, is detailed in Table I.
While there are a number of variations inprescribedbest practice recommendations, all
of the above best practice guidelines consider audit committee members independence
frommanagement and the governing body, nancial skills and expertise, experience with
organisations, relationships with stakeholders, clarity of purpose, and willingness to
commit time to the audit committee. Particular attention is given to the role of the audit
committee chair as the tone fromthe top in the OAGs good practice guide; however, no
mention is made of the chairs role in the private sector guidelines.
An analysis of the extent to which the OAGs good practice guide is met by the case
study DHBs audit committee is included in the results and analysis section of the
paper (Section 5.2).
2.3 Audit committee research
Most early studies concerning audit committees investigated the reasons for their
existence, given that audit committees were initially set up voluntarily. Pincus et al.
(1989) identied six characteristics to be associated with voluntary audit committee
formation lower percentage managerial ownership of the companys stock, higher
leverage, larger rm size, a greater proportion of outside directors to total directors,
Big-8 auditors, and participation in the US National Market System. Bradbury (1990)
found voluntary audit committees are unrelated to incentives to reduce agency cost,
but found a relation between voluntary formation and directors incentives, suggesting
that audit committees may be created primarily for appearances. In another study
illustrating this symbolic reason for forming audit committees, Menon and Williams
(1994) found many of the rms they studied that had established voluntary audit
committees did not appear to rely on them. Some audit committees did not meet at all
or met only once during the year studied.
Later studies examined audit committee characteristics, such as independence,
experience, andexpertise of members. One studynotedthat audit committee independence
increases with board size (Klein, 2002); another found that audit committees with
less-nancial expertise are likely to be identied with internal control weaknesses (Zhang
et al., 2007). Ina NewZealandstudy, Porter andGendall (1998) examinedaudit committees
in both the public and the private sectors, and found that 70 percent of audit committees
inthe public sector and60 percent inthe private sector have chief executive ofcers (CEOs)
as a member of the audit committee. Respondents in this study reported that an
MAJ
25,5
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Table I.
Comparison of guidelines
for audit committees in
the private and public
sectors in New Zealand
Audit committee
effectiveness
431
understanding of the audit committee purpose and ability to exercise sound judgment
were the most important attributes of audit committee membership, ahead of
independence and nancial expertise, and contrary to the BRC recommendations.
Rainsburys (2004) study of listed companies in NewZealand found that members of their
audit committees are generally directors with nancial expertise and non-executive
directors who are independent, as recommended in the New Zealand Securities
Commission corporate governance guidelines. A further study of New Zealand listed
companies found that as board size increases and the proportion of independent board
members increase, the probability of having an audit committee that meets the Securities
Commissions best practice guidelines for audit committees increases (Rainsbury et al.,
2008).
More recently, studies have been designed to investigate associations between audit
committees and other variables in order to appreciate audit committee effectiveness.
Hsu (2008) showed that audit committee independence is not associated with rm
performance, nor was there evidence that audit committee activity is positively related to
rm performance; however, rm performance increased with audit committee nancial
expertise. In a study underscoring the importance of the BRC recommendations, Abbott
et al. (2004) examined cases of nancial reporting restatement, and found that the
independence and activity level of the audit committee exhibit a signicant and negative
association with the occurrence of restatement.
Despite ndings of this nature, Spira (2006) and Gendron et al. (2004) assert that
research ndings from studies into the effectiveness of audit committees should be
interpreted cautiously (Gendron et al., 2004, p. 155). This is because effectiveness is
an elusive and multidimensional notion that is difcult to measure (Gendron et al.,
2004, p. 155), and conceptions and denitions of effectiveness vary (Spira, 2006).
For example, De Zoort et al. (2002, p. 6) dene audit committee effectiveness by
describing the characteristics of an effective audit committee as having qualied
members with the authority and resources to protect stakeholder interests by ensuring
reliable nancial reporting, internal controls, and risk management through its diligent
oversight efforts. However, this measure of audit committee effectiveness has been
criticised for treating the audit committee as an isolated mechanism which fails to
recognise the interdependence of audit committee components in a specic dynamic
organisational context (Spira, 2006).
A few eld studies, however, provide insight about the processes and perceptions
surrounding audit committee activity set in specic organisational contexts. For
example, in one such study, Gendron et al. (2004) focused exclusively on the formal
process of audit committee operation, examining what actually happened inside audit
committee meetings at three large public corporations listed on the Toronto Stock
Exchange. The eldwork from this study indicated that audit committee effectiveness
was a strongly held perception among interviewees in each of the participating
corporations.
Turley and Zaman (2007) carried out a case study of a major UK public company, in
which they investigated informal processes and behavioural impacts of audit
committees. In the study, it was found that the most effective audit committee
operation was as a result of informal communications and interactions, rather than
through formal audit committee meetings. In a similar vein to Turley and Zamans
research, this study seeks to understand informal as well as formal audit committee
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processes using a case study. In addition, inputs, processes, and outputs of the audit
committee have been compared to the Auditor-Generals recently published good
practice recommendations in New Zealand.
Turley and Zaman (2007) identied three roles of the audit committee as an ally,
an arbiter or a threat. In contrast, other studies have demonstrated that audit
committees play more of a mediating role between auditor, both internal and external,
and management as opposed to a role as arbiter or judge (De Zoort et al., 2003; Knapp,
1987). These studies provide evidence of audit committees being involved in resolving
disagreements between management and auditors, where the external auditor was
ultimately responsible for the nal decision and not the audit committee, as would be
the case if the audit committee was taking the arbiters position.
To date, the majority of studies have considered the operation of audit committees
in the corporate sector, both in New Zealand and overseas. This is the rst known case
study that examines the operation of an audit committee within a public sector
organisation in New Zealand.
3. Research objective
Clearly, audit committees are potentially benecial to DHBs the fundamental
question is whether their purported benets are being realised in practice. The
objective of this study is to ascertain how effective the audit committee is, as evidenced
by its actual operations and as perceived by its stakeholders. The term audit
committee stakeholder that is used in this study refers to audit committee members,
internal and external auditors, and senior management of the DHB, which mirrors the
term used in the Auditor-Generals guidelines. It does not include other stakeholders
such as the Ministry of Health, which is responsible for funding, monitoring, and
improving the performance of DHBs, or New Zealand tax payers.
This study will rst ascertain the purported effectiveness of the audit committee by
comparing the structure and operation of the audit committee against an external
framework of best practice principles and recommendations which claim to support an
effective audit committee. Second, this study will ascertain how the audit committee
actually operates, both formally and informally, by carrying out an internal review of
the actual internal processes and operations of the audit committee. Finally, the study
will ascertain how effective the audit committee is perceived to be by interviewing its
stakeholders.
The audit committee will be evaluated based upon the extent to which best practice
guidelines are beingfollowedwithrespect toaudit committee structure andoperation. This
assessment emphasises potential whether the audit committee should be effective based
upon its formal attributes and external signals. For this purpose, the OAGs good practice
guide has been used, as these guidelines are the most recent in NewZealand and arguably
most relevant for New Zealand public entities. This research therefore investigates the
following areas with respect to the audit committees composition: the extent to which
members are independent of management and possess requisite nancial skills; the size of
the audit committee; how members are remunerated, appointed, and subsequently
inducted into the audit committee process; the tenure of members, and the extent to which
independent contractors are used. Additionally, activity-based audit committee
characteristics are examined and compared to the OAGs good practice guide, including
ensuring clarity of purpose (are audit committee roles clearly dened and activities linked
Audit committee
effectiveness
433
to risk management), and maintaining open and effective relationships among
stakeholders. Comparisons to best practice guidelines arguably give some indication of
the audit committees effectiveness potential.
Second, the factors which inuence the audit committees operations as a result of
its unique organisational and interpersonal context will be ascertained, with the aim of
seeking to understand the extent to which this effectiveness potential is being
realised. Formal and informal audit committee processes will be investigated, with a
view to understanding how audit committee effectiveness may be tempered or
enhanced by internal factors including organisational and behavioural considerations.
Finally, the audit committees stakeholders perceptions will be examined in order to
assess the extent to which the audit committees activity is perceived to be beneting
the DHBs governance. In ascertaining the audit committees effectiveness from both
an external and an internal perspective, this research aims to assess the link between
the audit committees prescribed form and resulting substance.
4. Method
This research is a case study, which investigates the operation of the audit committee
of a single DHB. The case study approach allows investigation beyond the formal
constitution and ofcial policies so that the behavioural effects and informal processes
that inuence an audit committees impact on governance can be more fully
appreciated. It also allows closer analysis of the audit committees operations within an
organisational context.
Data for the analysis of the case study were gathered from both primary and
secondary sources, including:
.
Semi-structured interviews with relevant personnel affected by the audit
committees activities four DHB personnel were asked to describe
compositional and procedural characteristics of the audit committee, their
involvement with the committees operations, and their perceptions of how the
audit committee has impacted on the organisation. The personnel included
the audit committee chairperson, an additional audit committee member, the
internal auditor, and the chief nancial ofcer (CFO)[1]. All interviews were
tape-recorded and transcribed for analysis.
.
Publicly available information annual reports, general board minutes, and the
DHB web site were used in this study.
.
Internally generated documents made available by the DHB information such
as the internal auditors work programme and the audit committee charter were
made available for the purpose of this study.
While this study is more descriptive than causal, the relationship between: how
effective the audit committee appears to be, based on compliance with the OAGs
guide; how the audit committee actually operates, including formally and informally;
and stakeholder perceptions of effectiveness has been considered.
Interviews were conducted to ascertain the formal operations of the audit
committee, as well as the informal processes and behavioural considerations affecting
the audit committee operation; and to ascertain the stakeholders perceptions of the
audit committees effectiveness.
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5. Results and analysis
5.1 The case study organisation
The DHB studied has 11 independent members on its board, who are in charge of
allocating NZ$350 million of health services annually (being one of New Zealands
smaller health districts in terms of funding)[2]. Of these 11 board members, four
members (plus the DHBs ex ofcio chair) comprise the organisations audit committee.
Audit committee members are appointed from within the board and any board member
interested in becoming a member of the audit committee may volunteer. Pursuant to
the charter the audit committee meets quarterly for two to three hours at a time,
behind closed doors, even though there is no specic mention of excluding the public
from such meetings in the charter. Audit committee meetings are the only meetings of
the board that are not open to the public and the audit committee chair reports that this
is due to the sensitive nature of what is often discussed.
According to the charter, the audit committee is responsible for oversight in four
primary areas:
(1) External nancial reporting reviewing and discussing the external nancial
reports with management (ensuring compliance with standards and that they
are adequate for stakeholder needs).
(2) Internal controls considering their adequacy, reviewing managements
reports on fraud and the effectiveness of internal controls.
(3) Risk management reviewing the principal risks faced by the organisation and
the effectiveness of the risk management system.
(4) Internal and external audits evaluating the internal audit plan, and
conrming/reviewing the external auditors appointment, work programme,
and fees.
Regarding the above, it should be noted that while audit committees are often responsible
for appointing the external auditor (and changing the appointment as necessary to
preserve objectivity) this discretionis not always anoptionin NewZealands public sector
as the Auditor-General allocates most audits of public entities to Audit NewZealand, and
only uses competitive tendering for the audits of some of the more commercial public
entities. Also, as this audit committee operates in the health sector, its scope has been
expanded to consider clinical risk as well as the traditional business risks facing the
organisation (although interestingly this is not specically mentioned in its charter).
In carrying out these responsibilities, audit committee meetings adhere to a
structured agenda, the largest part of which is set by the internal auditor through her
annual programme, which also includes reviewing reports generated by the CEO and
the CFO. While the CEO, the CFO and the internal auditor are not audit committee
members they are specically granted a standing invitation in the charter to attend
audit committee meetings. Once a year, the external auditors report to management is
evaluated. Thus, the audit committees primary interactions occur with the internal
auditor, CEO, CFO, and external auditor, with periodic reporting back to the full board.
5.2 Extent to which best practice guidelines are met
Since the beginning of its term in 2007, the audit committee consciously structured its
operations in line with the audit committee guidelines which were issued by the IOD in
Audit committee
effectiveness
435
New Zealand, Inc. (2007). As noted in Section 2.2 of this paper, these guidelines,
although less comprehensive, are similar to the OAGs (2008) guide.
It was found that the audit committee adheres closely to the OAGs more
procedural good practice guidelines. For example, all of the members of the audit
committee are independent of management, and the audit committee chair possesses
skills and experience in nancial reporting, governance and has an understanding of
internal and external audit. The committee comprised four members and it met four
times during the year. The DHB has a charter which clearly denes the roles and
responsibilities along the lines of the OAGs guide. The chair of audit committee
appears to set the tone and direction of the committees deliberations and promotes
open and effective dialogue with management.
However, there are some apparent discrepancies between the OAGs guide and the
audit committees actual operations. Discrepancies were found in the areas of
tenure/rotation, independence, skills and experience, remuneration, and effective
relationships. These are discussed in more detail below.
Tenure/rotation. The OAGs guide recommends that an individuals tenure on an
audit committee should be two to three years, with an option for reappointment for
independent members, and that changes to membership be staggered to prevent a
signicant reduction in the knowledge and skills of the audit committee occurring at
one time.
DHB members are elected and appointed every three years, so it is possible to have
an entirely new board (and thus entirely new audit committee) every three years.
The audit committee members studied in this case study were in fact all rst-term
members on the committee with no staggering of members. While full member
rotation may be advantageous for obtaining fresh perspectives, it is recognised that it
may not be benecial in terms of maintaining the consistency necessary for effective
operation. This criticism was made by the audit committee chair about the DHB board
in general, and the audit committee specically.
Independence. It is recommended in the OAGs guide that most members of the audit
committee should be independent from management; the greater its collective
independence, the better it is able to add value through objective, impartial advice.
With this in mind, it is also recommended that the audit committee should have
committee-only time when senior management and other non-audit committee members
are absent.
Although members of the audit committee are independent from the DHB, what is
potentially concerning is that the internal auditor, who has 15 years experience at the
DHB, could not recall a meeting where neither the CEO or the CFO were present,
since the inception of the audit committee. The audit committee chair said that the
committee reserves the right to meet privately, but hasnt yet found it necessary to do
so. All of the interviewees in the study believe there is an atmosphere of free and frank
debate at the meetings, so this may not be an issue (but is potentially a concern).
Skills and experience. Guidelines in this area are naturally subjective but suggest
that audit committee members should have adequate experience and expertise for
their role on the committee. This includes a collective need for: nancial expertise;
knowledge of governance, assurance, and risk management best practice; knowledge
of the sector in which the entity operates; and other business acumen as deemed
appropriate (e.g. legal or income tax experience) (OAG, 2008). Where members of the
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governing body do not have the requisite skills to be on the audit committee additional
skills should be obtained by appointing independent expertise to the committee. The
guide further recognises the audit committee chairperson as the most important
appointee, who needs to have governance experience and good communication skills.
A DHB, like other public entities, differs from private entities in that most members
of a board are elected rather than appointed. While democracy has its advantages,
there is no guarantee that a public election process will yield competent representation.
Thus, the DHBs in New Zealand include a number of ministerial appointments, being
the only mechanism by which the necessary degree of competence is ensured.
The DHB studied has four elected members; the audit committee chair being the only
appointee on the committee. The audit committee chair is a chartered accountant, has been
a company secretary of a New Zealand listed company, and has spent many years as a
director in various sectors, demonstrating a strong legal and administrative background.
While the internal auditor describes the audit committee as usually at the sharpendof the
board, the audit committee chair is nonetheless the only person presently on the
committee with any nancial expertise. Although the audit committee chair notes that
each member contributes in their own way, he describes the other members as
essentially laypeople with little or no experience in audit committee-related activities
(although one member operates a small business, and another acts as a trustee). As a
result, the chair reports feeling a tremendous amount of personal pressure, consideringit a
huge burden because the rest of board rely on [him] for nancial expertise.
Further, the chair is critical of other audit committee members insofar as he feels
that they frequently pass responsibility to him rather than participating in the
collective ownership of their duties. However, given the complexity of the DHBs
operations and the apparent decit in some members skills and experience, it is
understandable why this may be occurring. Despite feeling this pressure, the chair had
not seriously considered obtaining additional skills by appointing an independent
member to the audit committee (nor has there been any precedent for doing so over the
history of the DHBs various audit committees).
Remuneration. The general recommendation is that audit committee members
should be paid at a level that reects the time it takes to carry out their duties, with an
allowance for particular skills brought to the committee.
With remuneration for DHB members xed by the Minister of Health, under the
Crown Entities Act (2004), there is little room for negotiation. Board members are
paid NZ$19,500 each year, with an extra NZ$2,500 paid for work on subcommittees.
The audit committee members who were interviewed stated that they personally did
not consider the money a factor in inuencing their participation on the audit
committee. However, the chair noted that insufcient remuneration could indeed be an
issue for others depending upon their motivations, as he considered the pay a joke
given the DHBs scale of operations and considering what a similar position would pay
in the private sector. Further, the internal auditor described occasions where past
board members would not show up to meetings, perhaps because it wasnt worth their
time. Even allowing for an element of public service, the Auditor-General is likewise
concerned that this compensation may be too low to attract people with the required
skills, a particular concern should the audit committee ever deem it necessary
to appoint an independent member to the committee to supplement its expertise
(OAG, 2008).
Audit committee
effectiveness
437
Open and effective relationships. In order to achieve an environment of cooperation
and trust, it is recommended in the OAGs guide that the audit committee chair
specically promotes open and proactive dialogue with management and other
governance committees.
By and large, all interviewees reported a good and open working relationship
between the audit committee and other stakeholders (including management and the
external auditors). While the CFO reported that there had been a bit of tension
between [him] and the audit committee chair over report presentation issues,
he acknowledged that this sort of tension is necessary and the key is not to take things
personally. The difference in opinion between the CFO and the audit committee chair
arose over the presentation of certain nancial information in the DHBs annual report
which the CFO was unwilling to make. The CFO (reluctantly) accepted the chairs
recommendation, which was based on the chairs interpretation of a particular
international nancial reporting standard (IFRS) and its application to the DHB.
5.3 Formal and informal operations of the audit committee
Overall, the formal processes associated with audit committee operations indicate that
the committee plays a very reactive role, much like a monitor; largely dependent
upon the manner in which other parties choose to interact with it, rather than taking a
proactive role. However, formal audit committee meetings are used by management as
a valuable sounding board. Since audit committee meetings are closed to the public
and as such are a completely undiscoverable process, it is common for management to
use these occasions to test the waters to see how the board is likely to react to a
management proposal without involving the whole board (especially if it is likely to be
a contentious issue); management can essentially say things off the record during
audit committee meetings.
However, it is outside of the formal quarterly meetings where the audit committee
seems to have the strongest impact on the organisation. The internal auditor and audit
committee chair meet monthlyonaverage for adhoc discussions, andthe chair reports that
he receives e-mails ona dailybasis for some sort of advice inhis capacityas chair. He states
that the CEO telephones him every six to eight weeks for an off the record chat, as does
the CFO to discuss accounting matters (e.g. IFRSs treatment of balance sheet items).
The importance of informal interactions is illustrated by evidence from several
occasions when the authority of the audit committee was inuential in resolving
organisational issues. On several occasions, the internal auditor has telephoned the
audit committee chair to express her concerns that the CEO may be overstepping his
role, by not taking things to the board when he should. In the DHBs normal
reporting chain, the internal auditor reports directly to the CEO, but in these instances
she approached the audit committee chair with the issue, knowing that he would help
to resolve the matter in a way which did not come back to hurt [her] personally.
She believes that she can go to the audit committee chair with any issue, feeling safe
considering his diplomatic abilities.
The internal auditor stated that she does not go running to the audit committee in
every instance, but just with key issues as she feels if she used this power frequently it
would lose its effect. As a result, she believes that management now views her
involvement with the audit committee as an implicit threat. In other words, management
knows that she may decide to take information to the committee, which is then passed on
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to the board, and the board is likely to ensure management has dealt with the issue.
She contends that it is often precisely because of this implied threat that management
takes action to address her concerns; without her interaction with the audit committee,
she believes some of her concerns would go unheeded by management.
While the audit committee may sometimes be used as a threat, other occasions
demonstrate its function as both mediator and ally. During the past years external audit,
the audit committee played a part in affecting the balance of power between management
and the external auditor. Here, when the external auditor questioned the CFOs treatment
of an item on the annual report, the CFO contacted the audit committee chair for advice,
and the chair then helped persuade the external auditor to agree with the CFOs position.
On another occasion, a board resolution which was to be signed by the CEO was worded
incorrectly (the wording of the resolution was contrary to the boards intention when
passing it). The CEO, after receiving legal advice, was therefore reluctant to sign the
misstated resolution, so instead contacted the audit committee chair to discuss the matter.
The chair acted as mediator between the board and the CEO to convince the CEO to sign
and follow the resolution as it was intended (rather than as it was stated) to expedite the
process (rather than waiting until the next full board meeting). Regardless of the role
assumed by the audit committee, it appears that its impact on the organisation is largely
through dealing with non-routine situations, consisting of informal communications
between the committees stakeholders.
5.4 Stakeholder perceptions of the effectiveness of the audit committee
All interviewees perceived the audit committee as having an important and necessary role
in the organisation. There are, in fact, four subcommittees of the DHB including the audit
committee; the other three are required by statute and include the Community and Public
Health Advisory Committee, the Hospital Advisory Committee, and the Disability
Support Advisory Committee. Ironically, some interviewees perceived the audit
committee, which is the only non-mandatory committee, to be the most valuable
committee of the DHB. The CFO was perhaps the most critical of the effectiveness of
the audit committee; he thought that it would be better if its members had greater
collective expertise and understanding of nancial matters in order to offer more
productive advice and assurance. In the absence of a dedicated nance committee at the
DHB, he wanted the audit committee to assume a stronger nancial focus and act as a
sounding board to support him in ensuring the organisations nancial integrity. In his
view, the board shouldconsider appointingone or more independent experts to the audit
committee, in addition to the chair, to supplement the apparent competence decit.
Despite general support for the audit committees operations, the interviewees were not
unanimous in supporting mandatory regulation of audit committees. The chair felt that
audit committees should denitely be mandatory for DHBs, while others felt it should
simply remain ethically incumbent upon governing bodies to form audit committees.
Those reluctant to support regulation pointed to the perceived ineffectiveness of other
mandatory committees, mirroring ICANZs (2003) position that effectiveness cannot be
legislated. Another interviewee noted that most of the DHBs have [audit committees]
anyway, so whats the point in making them mandatory? Of course, the argument for
regulation is that some measure of the audit committee quality can be ensured through
prescriptive requirements (e.g. in relation to member competence and independence) in
addition to merely requiring the existence of audit committees.
Audit committee
effectiveness
439
Having been employed bythe DHBfor many years, the CFOandinternal auditor both
reported that the audit committees effectiveness has been steadily improving. The audit
committee is now meeting more regularly, and having a greater positive impact than it
had in the past. The general improvement in audit committee operations seems to have
occurred over the same period of time in which the committee has made a conscious
effort to refocus its activities and implement best practice recommendations. As a result,
the audit committee is perceived by interviewees as being a valuable tool to assist in
achieving proper governance.
6. Discussion and conclusions
This case study has described the actual operations and the impact an audit committee
has had on a New Zealand public health organisation at a particular point in time.
The structure, role, and constitution of the audit committee were rst assessed against
an external framework of best practice guidelines, the actual operations were then
examined by obtaining evidence of the audit committees impact on the organisation
and its stakeholders, and the stakeholders perceptions of the effectiveness of the audit
committee were ascertained. The relationship between the potential effectiveness of the
audit committee as determined by best practice guidelines, and the extent to which
the audit committee positively impacts upon the organisation, as reported by its
stakeholder is now considered.
Overall, this studysuggests there is a strong parallel between the potential effectiveness
of the audit committee and its effectiveness, as perceived by its stakeholders. The audit
committees composition and activities follow the OAGs best practice guide to a large
extent (e.g. regarding audit committee size, frequency of meetings, open relationships
between stakeholders, and a dened scope of operation). However, the audit committee
could be more effective if the discrepancies between the OAGs good practice guide and the
audit committees actual operations were addressed(e.g. lackof committee-only time, low
remuneration of committee members, insufcient overall nancial expertise of members
and inexperience of the committee due to member rotation practices).
When considering the perceptions of the audit committee stakeholders, the reported
criticisms of the audit committee generally reect the decits noted from the best
practice analysis. In other words, the audit committee stakeholders are most critical of
the audit committees lack of overall nancial expertise, and recognise that this may be
limiting its effectiveness. These parallels suggest that regulation which prescribes
audit committee composition and activity in compliance with the Auditor-Generals
recommendations may well address the perceived weaknesses within this audit
committees operations. For example, prescribing requisite levels of audit committee
member competence may ensure that independent expertise is contracted to the audit
committee when necessary. An increase in the regulation of audit committees may
increase the effectiveness of this DHBs audit committee and may be benecial to the
operation of DHB audit committees in general, even though this will come at an
additional nancial cost to the DHB.
Despite identifying areas of potential concern, the case study was able to identify a
number of instances where the audit committees inuence was signicant in resolving
organisational issues, providing back-up for the auditors and acting as mediator in
other issues. On these occasions, it appears that the informal networks between the
audit committees stakeholders are especially important, serving to maximise the
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realisation of what potential effectiveness exists. The ndings reveal that the audit
committees perceived effectiveness depended in particular on the informal interactions
between management and the chair of the audit committee, who in this case study was
the only member to possess good nancial skills and expertise. This supports the
ndings from Turley and Zaman (2007) that the most effective audit committee
operation was as a result of informal communications and interactions, rather than
through formal audit committee meetings.
While best practice recommendations emphasise the importance of the audit
committee chair as the driving force behind the committee, the informal processes
around audit committee operation are largely ignored in guidelines and this is an area
that should be addressed when guidelines are developed or updated.
This study found that the audit committee served various roles in different
circumstances, including a threat, a mediator and an ally. These ndings support the
research carried out by De Zoort et al. (2003), Knapp (1987) and Turley and Zaman
(2007), which were all carried out on audit committees in private entities. This suggests
that the roles of an audit committee in a public sector entity are similar to the roles of
an audit committee of an entity in the private sector.
As a case study, generalisation of these ndings may be problematic the
evidence reported is specic only to the DHB studied. Further research into other audit
committees inpublic sector entities inNewZealandwouldbe benecial inestablishingand
appreciating any trends, particularly using a case study approach to appreciate internal
processes. Moreover, assessments of effectiveness are inherently subjective although
basing effectiveness inpart uponspecicallyprescribedexternal criteria (e.g. best practice
guidelines), this study has not attempted to reconcile what relative weightings might be
givento individual criteria whenassessingoverall effectiveness. Further, self-reported
information is prone to exaggeration or suppression given political pressures.
Owing to the lack of access to all of the audit committees stakeholders, we were
only able to carry out four in-depth interviews. We were therefore unable to explore the
issues in greater depth and our ndings are unlikely to be as comprehensive as they
could have been if we had interviewed all of the stakeholders. However, evidence is
presented which supports prior studies, such as Turley and Zaman (2007), which
demonstrate the signicance of informal processes and voluntary communication
networks to the effective operation of audit committees.
Finally, this study shows that the role and inuence of the audit committee is
impacted by its organisational context and historical development within the
organisation. Longitudinal studies could help provide additional evidence about how
historical events may shape audit committee operations, for example ministerial
policies, implementation of best practice guidelines, and occurrences of fraud.
Notes
1. The external auditor declined to participate in this study for condentiality reasons.
2. This was at the time contact was made with the organisation and the data were collected.
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Corresponding author
Sue Malthus can be contacted at: sue.malthus@nmit.ac.nz
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