CHAPTER II

Review of Related Literature

This chapter consists of related literature and studies that discuss
the impact of parental Involvement in Academic performance of Bachelor of
Science in nursing of Cotabato Medical Foundation College Inc. Several
sources of this literature and studies are excerpt from journals, published
articles and thesis.
Parental involvement
Parental involvement is the level of participation that a parent has in
their childs education and school. Many parents are tremendously involved,
often volunteering to help in their childs classroom, communicating well
with their childs teachers, assisting with homework, and understanding
their childs individual academic strengths and weaknesses. Unfortunately
there are also many parents who are not directly involved with their childs
education. Many schools have programs aimed at increasing parental
involvement such as game nights, home activities, and assorted
opportunities for volunteers. Another reality of parental involvement is that it
typically decreases as the child gets older.(http://teaching.about.com/od/J-
Rteachingvocabulary/g/Parental-Involvement.htm)

11

The Concept of Academic Performance.
Academic performance refers to how students deal with their studies
and how they cope with or accomplish different tasks given to them by their
teachers.
Academic performance is the ability to study and remember facts
and being able to communicate your knowledge verbally or down on
paper.(Ret. from
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_meant_by_academic_performance)
Parental Involvement and Student Achievement: A Meta-Analysis
The results of the meta-analysis indicate that parental involvement is
associated with higher student achievement outcomes. These findings
emerged consistently whether the outcome measures were grades,
standardized test scores, or a variety of other measures, including teacher
ratings. This trend holds not only for parental involvement overall but for
most components of parental involvement that were examined in the meta-
analysis. Moreover, the pattern holds not only for the overall student
population but for minority students as well. For the overall population of
students, on average, the achievement scores of children with highly
involved parents was higher than children with less involved parents. This
academic advantage for those parents who were highly involved in their
education averaged about .5 .6 of a standard deviation for overall
12

educational outcomes, grades, and academic achievement. In other words,
the academic achievement score distribution or range of scores for children
whose parents were highly involved in their education was substantially
higher than that of their counterparts whose parents were less
involved.(http://www.hfrp.org/publications-resources/browse-our-
publications/parental-involvement-and-student-achievement-a-meta-
analysis)
Parental Involvement Strongly Impacts Student Achievement
Researchers Karen Smith Conway, professor of economics at the
University of New Hampshire, and her colleague Andrew Houtenville, senior
research associate at New Editions Consulting, found that parental
involvement has a strong, positive effect on student achievement.
Parents seemed particularly interested in the academic
achievements of their daughters. The researchers found parents spent
more time talking to their daughters about their school work during
dinnertime discussions.
There are a number of theories about why girls seem to garner
more attention from their parents than boys. One possibility is that girls are
more communicative with their parents so these conversations about
academics are easier for parents to have with their daughters, Conway
said.
13

The researchers also found that parents may reduce their efforts
when school resources increase, thus diminishing the effects of improved
school resources.
As an economist, I look for reactions to a specific action so it is not
surprising to me that parents may scale back their involvement with their
childs education when a school adds resources. As a result, increasing
school resources may not be as effective as we expect since they may
diminish parental involvement, Conway said.
The researchers used national data from more than 10,000 eighth-
grade students in public and private schools, their parents, teachers, and
school administrators. The researchers were particularly interested in how
frequently parents discussed activities or events of particular interest to the
child, discussed things the child studied in class, discussed selecting
courses or programs at school, attended a school meeting, and volunteered
at the childs school.
To evaluate school resources, the researchers looked at per-pupil
expenditures on instructional salaries and a set of five school
characteristics: student-teacher ratio, lowest salary received by a teacher,
percentage of teachers with a masters or a doctoral degree, percentage of
the student body not in the schools subsidized lunch program, and
percentage of nonminority students in the student body.
14

(Andrew J. Houtenville and Karen Smith Conway. Parental Effort, School
Resources, and Student Achievement. J. Human Resources, XLIII (2): 437-
453)
Parents Need an Attitude Adjustment to Improve Their Children's
Homework Motivation.
In the study published in Learning and Individual Differences, BGU
researchers found that if parents had a more positive, supportive attitude
and communicated the learning value as motivation, rather than focusing on
completing an assignment or getting a higher grade, then the child's attitude
and motivation would improve.
Dr. Idit Katz, Dr. Avi Kaplan and doctoral student Tamara
Buzukashvily, of BGU's Department of Education, recommend parents give
their children some choices, including when or where to do homework.
"Parents can improve a sense of competence by allowing children to
structure their own tasks and by giving the child the feeling that he is loved
and admired no matter how successful he or she is in math or language,"
the researchers said.
The study also shows that parents should ask themselves about their
own motivations, attitudes and competence before trying to "treat" or
"change" the child. Moreover, educational programs that try to change the
15

attitude and motivation of students toward homework should not keep the
parents "out of the loop" as their behavior is essential.
"Little formal research has been conducted about the home
environment where homework is taking place, although it has been an
integral part of education and is a controversial yet often used educational
practice," according to the study. "The home environment is just as
important for instilling positive motivation as the school is."
The researchers conducted the study at two elementary schools with
135 fourth graders and one of each child's parents. The students completed
questionnaires regarding their level of motivation to do homework, while
parents answered another survey on their willingness to help. This allowed
perceptions of the home environment to be examined from both
perspectives.
Among the sample, more than 60 percent of parents reported being
involved with their child's homework once a week and 35 percent indicated
being involved every day or more than once a week. Only four percent said
they are never involved in their child's homework.(Idit Katz, Avi Kaplan,
Tamara Buzukashvily. The role of parents' motivation in students'
autonomous motivation for doing homework. Learning and Individual
Differences, 2011; 21 (4): 376 DOI)

16

Parental Involvement in Homework
According to Kathleen V. Hoover-Dempsey stated that taken
together, this literature suggests that parents decide to become involved in
students homework because they believe they should be involved, believe
the involvement will make a difference, and perceive that their involvement
is wanted and expected. Parents homework involvement, once engaged,
includes a wide variety of activities, ranging from the establishment of home
structures supportive of learning to complex patterns of interactive behavior
intended to enhance the childs understanding of homework in particular
and learning processes in general. The literature also suggests that parents
involvement activities influence student outcomes through modeling,
reinforcement, and instruction. Operating through these broad mechanisms,
parents involvement activities have been positively related to student
achievement and, perhaps even more importantly, to student attributes
proximally related to achievement (e.g., attitudes toward homework,
perceptions of personal competence, self-regulation).Although the literature
as a whole supports these summary observations, the body of empirical
work on parental involvement in homework might be strengthened in
several respects. The most critical need is for theoretically and empirically
grounded research focused specifically on the content, processes, and
outcomes of parents involvement in homework. The studies have
illuminated several aspects of parents involvement; most notably the range
17

of activities included in parents efforts to help their children with homework
and selected outcomes associated with those involvement behaviors. The
majority of these studies, however, has defined homework involvement in
relatively unidimensional terms or has embedded the topic within inquiry
focused more directly on related issues. The importance of parents to
childrens school accomplishments and the success of notable homework
intervention programs underscore the importance of continued inquiry into
parents roles and influence in their childrens homework performance.
Particularly in need of specific examination are parents motivations for
engaging in homework help, the dynamics of effective parentchild
interactions during homework involvement and the specific mechanisms
responsible for involvements influence on student outcomes. Similarly
important are continuing efforts, building on interventions examined in some
of the studies reviewed here, to develop and test well-designed approaches
to improving school invitations to involvement. Developmental and
curricular considerations also suggest the importance of examining
appropriate variations in parents homework involvement across time, as
well as shifts in outcomes associated with parental involvement across the
years of schooling. This set of efforts seems particularly important in light of
findings that many parentsacross socioeconomic, ethnic, and geographic
groupsassume that they should be involved in homework and value-
specific guidance for involvement from schools and teachers. Implications
18

for schools in this body of work center in part on responses to parents
motivations and abilities for involvement in homework. Parents become
involved in homework
In so far as they believe they have a role to play, believe their
involvement will make a difference, and perceive that their children and
teachers want their involvement. Schools may take specific steps to
enhance each of these motivations. For example, they may communicate
directly and specifically why and how involvement is important to childrens
learning; they may offer specific suggestions for involvement that support
parental assumptions that they do indeed have a role to play in their
childrens success and that their activities make a difference. They may
also offer explicit and specific invitations to involvement. Such steps have
been successful in eliciting and enhancing parental involvement as
reflected in studies incorporating both broad examinations of teachers
involvement practices and relatively detailed inquiries into parents
responses to school invitations. School practices may also be informed and
improved by understanding the broad range of activities that characterize
parents homework involvement and the varied student outcomes
associated with involvement. The range of activities offers a wide set of
suggestions for specific school invitations to involvement, appropriate for
specific developmental levels or grades, learning content and family
circumstances. The range of student outcomes associated with parents
19

involvement suggests that schools might well focus on specific proximal
outcomesfor example, attitudes about homework, perceptions of personal
competence, self-regulatory strategiesas particularly amenable to
parental influence. The observed and potential benefits of parental support
for childrens homework learning suggest strongly the wisdom of increased
support for well-grounded research designed to illuminatesystematically,
across developmental levels and varied learning taskswhy and under
what conditions parents involvement benefits student learning. The
success of schools and the children they serve can only be enhanced by
increased understanding of parents roles, activities, and influence in the
development of student success. (Kathleen V. Hoover-Dempsey, 2001.)
Parental Involvement: A Research Brief for Practitioners
Epstein stated that the draw three key conclusions about parental
involvement. First, parental involvement tends to decline across the grades
unless schools make conscious efforts to develop and implement
partnerships with parents. Reasons for this declining pattern include
parents lack of familiarity with curriculum at the higher grades; adolescents
preferences to have their parents stay involved in less visible ways; parents
decisions to return to the work force once their children gain more
independence; and secondary teachers lack of awareness of how to
effectively involve parents at the higher levels. Second, affluent parents
tend to be involved in school more often and in positive ways, whereas
20

economically distressed parents have limited contact with schools, and
usually in situations dealing with students achievement or behavior.
Schools that work on building relationships with all parents, however, can
equalize the involvement of all socioeconomic groups. Finally, single
parents, employed parents, fathers, and parents who live far from the
school, on average, are less involved in the school unless the school
organizes opportunities that consider these parents needs and
circumstances. Although these patterns are generally observable among
schools, they can be overcome if schools develop programs that include
families that otherwise would not become involved on their own.
The degree and nature of impact on student achievement is
somewhat debated in the literature. Fan and Chens (2001) meta-analysis
of the literature concerning the connection between parental involvement
and students academic achievement suggests a moderate to practically
meaningful relationship. The relationship seems to be more general than
specific, indicating that parental involvement has an overall effect on
students success, rather than a direct effect on any particular subject area.
Their research finds parents expectations and dreams for their childrens
academic achievement are the strongest factor influencing students school
performance. Bastiani (2000) echoes a similar challenge by raising the
question of identifying a clear connection between parents contributions
and student progress.
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Despite the ambiguity in measuring the academic impact of parental
involvement, various in-depth studies have established a relationship.
Henderson and Berla (1994) synthesized over sixty studies regarding the
effects of family involvement on student achievement. Their work attributes
to parental involvement effects that include higher grades and test scores,
increased homework completion, improved school attendance, more
positive attitudes, fewer discipline problems, increased high school
completion rates, decreased school leaving rates, and greater participation
in postsecondary education. Importantly, like Epstein, Henderson and Berla
suggest parents involvement can contribute to these outcomes from early
childhood through high school. Studies conducted among specific grades
and subject areas support the contention that parental involvement can
influence students academic achievement regardless of the students age
or subject. For example, Stegelin (2003), Wirtz & Schumacher (2003), and
Hertz-Lazarowitz & Horovitz (2002) focused on early childhood education
and literacy, noting a link between families who engage in literacy activities
at home and their childrens success with reading and writing. Strategies
such as reading with the child, discussing stories, and creating a book-
friendly environment contribute to the development of childrens literacy
skills and positive attitudes toward reading. Teachers attitudes toward
involving parents influence the extent to which parents are involved in their
childrens school. A report by West (2000) discusses an elementary
22

teachers efforts to increase parent teacher communication, and its effect
on students success in reading. Findings from this study show that parent-
teacher communication can motivate students to complete reading
homework, which results in better quiz and test scores. This particular
report demonstrates the importance of teachers initiating positive contact
with parents, and the potential effect it can have on students achievement
in school. Studies of the middle and secondary grades reflect the above
findings. It is recognized that adolescents both desire and require more
independence. Van Voorhis (2001) and Simon (2001) found that regardless
of students background or prior school achievement, involving parents in
various ways had a positive
Impact on achievement, attendance, behavior, and course credits
completed. Significantly, parental guidance and support of their adolescent
students is critical to secondary students school and future success
(Sanders & Epstein, 2000). Although parental involvement has reached a
higher level of acceptance today as a key factor in improving schools,
acceptance does not always translate into implementation, commitment, or
creativity (Drake, 2000). Central to this challenge is educators and
administrators uncertainty about initiating and maintaining involvement that
is meaningful and mutually beneficial for the school, the family, and the
student.
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The most promising practices involving parents seem to be those
that embrace collaboration among teachers, parents, and students.
Fundamental to this type of cooperation is a shared definition of
meaningful parental involvement. There is evidence of disjuncture
between professionals and parents understanding of partnership. Fine
(1993) for example, claims a hierarchical relationship between teachers and
parents prevails, such that professionals may assume parents regard their
position as equally influential, but parents themselves defer to
professionals expertise. Beck and Murphy (1999) agree that although
schools set up structures, such as school councils or collaborative teams,
decision-making ultimately rests in the professionals who possess
specialized knowledge inaccessible to most parents.
They further contend that organizational changes such as site-based
decision-making that attempts to include parents have the least positive
effect on parents of minority groups. Researching the effects of parent
involvement practices on student achievement in American schools under
the No Child Left behind Act, D.Agostino, Hedges, Wong, and Borman
(2001) also found that programs which attempt to involve parents at the
school through school-sponsored activities or governance structures have a
negligible impact on student achievement. Rather, parent programs that
provide resources and assistance that parents may use with their children
at home are more likely to have an effect on students academic progress.
24

Gewirtz, Bowe, and Balls (1995) study of school choice in Britain is
important when considering diversity among parents. The school choice
movement assumes a monolithic parent group; the idea that parents can
and will respond similarly to opportunities to make decisions for their
children, or participate in their childrens schools is, in fact, erroneous. Their
study highlighted those inequalities in social and economic capital influence
parents level of participation and ability to advocate for their children.
Specifically, middle to upper income parents capitalize on
opportunities to influence their childrens schooling, whereas lower income
parents are disadvantaged because of circumstance or skill. Croziers
(2000) qualitative study of parents, teachers, and students reinforces that
central to understanding the nature of the parent-school relationship and
the influences upon it is the issue of social-class Together, Fine, Beck and
Murphy, Gewirtz, Bowe, and Ball, and Crozier point to the importance of
dialogue between schools and families to identify encouraging and
meaningful ways to engage all parents for the benefit of all children.
Many studies have documented the importance of parental
involvement in childrens homework. Callahan, Rademacher, and Hildreth
(1998) find that parents involvement with at-risk sixth and seventh grade
students improved students homework performance. Central to this
success, however, is the schools development of training programs for
25

parents which aim to provide parents with strategies for assisting and
supporting their children at home. There is some indication in the research
that diverse educational backgrounds influence the nature and frequency of
parents helping their children with homework assignments. Balli, Demo, and
Wedman (1998) report that when teachers prompt parents to become
involved with math homework, parent involvement significantly increases.
Importantly, this study shows that two-parent families are more likely to help
with homework than single-parent families. Home circumstances and family
structures are therefore necessary considerations for schools aiming to
increase the level of parental involvement with homework. Greene,
Tichener, and Mercedes (2003) offer specific strategies for parents to
participate in schools. Suggestions include individual activities with children,
setting up homework space and routine, discussing needed resources for
home supervision with teachers, or reflecting on ones own assumptions
about school. Volunteering in the school and the community are other
positive ways that parents can become involved, and on their own terms.
Although certain types of parent involvement such as discussions about
homework and school-related topics have positive effects on homework
completion, there is research that contradicts this finding. Cooper, Lindsay,
and Nye (2000) suggest that parenting style plays a part in the
effectiveness of parents involvement in their childrens homework. In their
survey of over 700 parents of elementary, middle, and high school students,
26

two-thirds of parents reported helping their children with homework was
negative or inappropriate. Specifically, in some cases parents helped their
children with homework in order to have them finish it faster, and in other
cases parents made homework completion more difficult for the student.
These findings speak to the importance of school-home discussions that
will encourage interactions that support student learning.
Comprehensive parent programs will incorporate the six keys into an
action plan that is developed and implemented by an Action Team of
parents, teachers, students, administration, and community members.
Lunenberg and Irby (2002) summarize seven other models of parent
involvement alongside Epsteins school-home-community partnership
model including: (1) Gordons systems approach; (2) the Systems
Development Corporation study; (3) Bergers role categories; (4) Chavkin
and Williams parent involvement role; (5) Honigs early childhood education
model; (6) Jones levels of parent involvement; and (7) language minority
parents involvement approach. Their paper further suggests developing a
family partnership center, establishing parent centers or cooperatives, and
creating new options for parents as potential strategies for successfully
engaging parents. At the heart of parental involvement seems to be open
and effective communication. Much research is devoted to helping teachers
and parents establish positive relationships. Swick (2003) examines the role
27

of culture in the communication process, and emphasizes cultural
differences as a means to strengthen relationships. Sharing information,
empowering parents, dismantling barriers to understanding and
cooperation, and recognizing parents strengths, priorities, and perspectives
is fundamental to building strong relationships between the home and the
school. Part of this process implies a responsibility on the part of teachers
to learn about their students families. Goodwin and King (2002) have
produced a booklet entitled Culturally Responsive Parental Involvement:
Concrete Understandings and Basic Strategies, which explores teachers
culturally biased beliefs. Helpful concepts explored in this document include
the myths about parents who do not visit school as being unconcerned, how
to meet culturally diverse needs, and culturally sensitive strategies for
involving parents. There are many concrete strategies for involving parents
in schools discussed in the literature. Common to this corpus, however, is
the need for schools to gauge their contexts in order to meet the needs of
those they serve.(Bonnie Stelmack, Parental Involvement: A Research
Brief for Practitioners, University of Alberta)


The Benefits of Parent Involvement: What Research Has to Say
Researchers have evidence for the positive effects of parent
involvement on children, families, and school when schools and parents
28

continuously support and encourage the children's learning and
development (Eccles & Harold, 1993; Illinois State Board of Education,
1993). According to Henderson and Berla (1994), "the most accurate
predictor of a student's achievement in school is not income or social status
but the extent to which that student's family is able to: Create a home
environment that encourages learning; Express high (but not unrealistic)
expectations for their children's achievement and future careers; Become
involved in their children's education at school and in the community.
Henderson and Berla (1994) reviewed and analyzed eighty-five studies
that documented the comprehensive benefits of parent involvement in
children's education. This and other studies show that parent involvement
activities that are effectively planned and well implemented result in
substantial benefits to children, parents, educators, and the school. Benefits
for the Children: Children tend to achieve more, regardless of ethnic or
racial background, socioeconomic status, or parents' education level.
Children generally achieve better grades, test scores, and attendance.
Children consistently complete their homework. Children have better self-
esteem, are more self-disciplined, and show higher aspirations and
motivation toward school. Children's positive attitude about school often
results in improved behavior in school and less suspension for disciplinary
reasons. Fewer children are being placed in special education and remedial
classes. Children from diverse cultural backgrounds tend to do better when
29

parents and professionals work together to bridge the gap between the
culture at home and the culture in school. Junior high and high school
students whose parents remain involved usually make better transitions and
are less likely to drop out of school.
Benefits for the Parents: Parents increase their interaction and
discussion with their children and are more responsive and sensitive to their
children's social, emotional, and intellectual developmental needs. Parents
are more confident in their parenting and decision-making skills. As parents
gain more knowledge of child development, there is more use of affection
and positive reinforcement and less punishment on their children. Parents
have a better understanding of the teacher's job and school curriculum.
When parents are aware of what their children are learning, they are more
likely to help when they are requested by teachers to become more
involved in their children's learning activities at home. Parents' perceptions
of the school are improved and there are stronger ties and commitment to
the school. Parents are more aware of, and become more active regarding,
policies that affect their children's education when parents are requested by
school to be part of the decision-making team. Benefits for the Educators:
When schools have a high percentage of involved parents in and out of
schools, teachers and principals are more likely to experience higher
morale. Teachers and principals often earn greater respect for their
profession from the parents. Consistent parent involvement leads to
30

improved communication and relations between parents, teachers, and
administrators. Teachers and principals acquire a better understanding of
families' cultures and diversity, and they form deeper respect for parents'
abilities and time. Teachers and principals report an increase in job
satisfaction. Benefits for the School: Schools that actively involve parents
and the community tend to establish better reputations in the community.
Schools also experience better community support. School programs that
encourage and involve parents usually do better and have higher quality
programs than programs that do not involve parents.(M. F. G. Olsen, "The
Benefits of Parent Involvement: What Research Has to Say," in Home
School : Working Successfully with Parent and Family, New Jersey.USA,
merrill, an imprint of Pearson Education Inc., 2008 edition, pp. 129-130.)
Why Is Parental Involvement Important?
When parents are involved in their childrens education, kids do
better in school. Want to learn how to help your child achieve and succeed?
Read on. In study after study, researchers discover how important it is for
parents to be actively involved in their childs education. Here are some of
the findings of major research into parental involvement: When parents are
involved in their childrens education at home, they do better in school. And
when parents are involved in school, children go farther in school and the
schools they go to are better. The family makes critical contributions to
31

student achievement from preschool through high school. A home
environment that encourages learning is more important to student
achievement than income, educational level or cultural background. When
children and parents talk regularly about school, children perform better
academically. Three kinds of parental involvement at home are consistently
associated with higher student achievement: actively organizing and
monitoring a childs time, Why Is Parental Involvement Important? Helping
with home work and discussing school matters. The earlier that parent
involvement begins in a childs educational process, the more powerful the
effects Positive results of parental involvement.
(http://www.nieconnects.com/gearup/0801_pdf/gearup_jan_4.pdf.)