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Th e i m p act of cu l t u r e on ed u cat i on

Can w e i nt r oduce best pr act i ces i n educat i on acr oss coun t r i es?
Hui b Wur st en & Car el Jacobs
As a r esul t of gl obal i zat i on, m any peopl e ar e becom i ng i nt er est ed i n r anki ng syst em s w hi ch
show how t hei r ow n count r i es com par e w i t h ot her s on a var i et y of m easur es. The Wor l d
Econom i c For um publ i shes an annual r anki ng of count ri es on econom i c com pet i t i veness; t he
Uni t ed Nat i ons a r anki ng on hum an devel opm ent ; t he OECD publ i shes com par i sons on t he
qual i t y of heal t hcar e syst em s. E

In t hi s paper w e w i l l expl or e t he out com e of r anki ng count r i es on t he qual i t y of educat i on. In
Econom i st M agazi ne
appr oaches t hat syst em at i cal l y l ead t o hi gher qual i t y educat i on t her eby enabl i ng
opy t ow ar ds
educat i onal r ef or m s t hat have pr oven ef f ect i ve i n r ai si ng educat i onal achi evem ent i n som e
count r i es. The sur pr i si ng concl usi on f r om t hi s r epor t , how ever , i s t hat al m ost no pr act i ces w er e
f ound t hat coul d be i m pl em ent ed gl obal l y. The aut hor s expl ai n t hat w hi l e t he i nput s t o
educat i on l i ke m oney, school choi ce, year s i n school , and t eacher - can be
i dent i f i ed; and out put s can be com par ed l ooki ng at r anki ng syst em s on m easur es of l i t er acy,
num er acy, and educat i onal at t ai nm ent ; w hat happens bet w een i nput and out put i s ver y m uch
a l ocal i ssue. They descr i be t hi s count r y-

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no syst em at i c w ay t o descr i be how t he di f f er ences i n t he t eachi ng/ l ear ni ng pr ocess t r ansf or m s
i nput s i nt o out put s.
We w i l l show t hat w el l -r esear ched syst em at i c di f f er ences i n val ue pr ef er ences acr oss count r i es
ar e vi t al f or under st andi ng t he w ay t eachi ng/ l ear ni ng pr ocesses ar e handl ed. Usi ng t he
sem i nal w or k of Geer t Hof st ede on cul t ur al di f f er ences, w e w i l l show t hat t he f i ve cul t ur e
di m ensi ons he f ound pr ovi des an anal yt i cal t ool f or under st andi ng t he l ocal di f f er ences i n
educat i onal pol i cy and t eachi ng m et hods i n school syst em s. Based on t hi s cr oss-cul t ur al
f r am ew or k, w e ask a f undam ent al quest i on: i s i t possi bl e t o f i nd best pr act i ces t hat w or k
w or l dw i de i n spi t e of t hese val ue di f f er ences?
In shor t t hi s ar t i cl e at t em pt s t o:
Sum m ar i ze r ecent r anki ngs of educat i onal per f or m ance acr oss count r i es and t he i nf l uence of
cul t ur e on t hese r anki ng syst em s.
Descr i be w hat cul t ur e i s and how i t i nf l uences t he w ay w e educat e and l ear n.

each ot her w hi l e bei ng so di f f er ent ?
Enl ar ge t he di scussi on of som e key i ssues i n educat i on by i ncor por at i ng a cul t ur al
per spect i ve.

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I. Ranki ng educat i onal syst ems worl dwi de
In t he f i el d of educat i on t her e ar e sever al syst em s used t o com par e educat i onal qual i t y acr oss
count r i es, i ncl udi ng: Pr ogr ess i n Int er nat i onal Readi ng Li t eracy St udy (PIRLS); Tr ends i n
Int er nat i onal M at hem at i cs and Sci ence St udy (TIM M S); and t he Pr ogr am m e f or Int er nat i onal
St udent Assessm ent (PISA).(*1) These appr oaches f ocus on benchm ar ki ng t he f act or s l eadi ng t o
achi evem ent and, m or e speci f i cal l y, t r yi ng t o i dent i f y w hat speci f i c f act or s di f f er ent i at e t he


Recent l y t he Econom i st Int el l i gence Uni t of t he Econom i st M agazi ne publ i shed a new r anki ng
syst em : t he Lear ni ng Curve Dat a Bank LCDB: count r y per f or m ance i n educat i on.(*3) Thi s r epor t
out l i nes t he m ai n f i ndi ngs f r om a l ar ge body of i nt er nat i onal l y com par abl e educat i on dat a. In
t he r epor t t hey pr ovi de an over al l r anki ng (col um n 1) by com par i ng cogni t i ve ski l l s at t ai nm ent
(col um n 2) w hi ch com bi nes t he r esul t s f r om t he PIRLS, TIM M S and Pi sa syst em s, and scor es of
count r i es on ucat i onal at t ai nm ent
(col um n 3) (*4).
The t op 20 count r i es ar e show n bel ow :
Overal l score Cogni t i ve Ski l l s Educat i onal at t ai nment
Fi n l an d [ Rank 1] 1.26 [ Rank 1] 1.50 [ Rank 3] 0 .79
Sou t h Kor ea [ Rank 2] 1.23 [ Rank 4] 1.24 [ Rank 1] 1.21
Hon g Kon g - Ch i n a [ Rank 3] 0 .9 0 [ Rank 3] 1.26 [ Rank 17] 0 .20 *
Jap an [ Rank 4] 0 .89 [ Rank 5] 1.0 4 [ Rank 8] 0 .59
Si n g ap or e [ Rank 5] 0 .84 [ Rank 2] 1.39 [ Rank 33] -0 .26 *

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Un i t ed Ki n g d om [ Rank 6 ] 0 .6 0 [ Rank 12] 0 .50 [ Rank 2] 0 .81
Net h er l an d s [ Rank 7] 0 .59 [ Rank 7] 0 .72 [ Rank 11] 0 .32*
New Zeal an d [ Rank 8] 0 .56 [ Rank 9 ] 0 .6 1 [ Rank 9 ] 0 .47*
Sw i t zer l an d [ Rank 9 ] 0 .55 [ Rank 8] 0 .71 [ Rank 13] 0 .22
Can ad a [ Rank 10 ] 0 .54 [ Rank 6 ] 0 .72 [ Rank 20 ] 0 .18
Ir el an d [ Rank 11] 0 .53 [ Rank 16 ] 0 .42 [ Rank 5] 0 .74
Den m ar k [ Rank 12] 0 .50 [ Rank 17] 0 .41 [ Rank 6 ] 0 .6 8
Au st r al i a [ Rank 13] 0 .46 [ Rank 11] 0 .54 [ Rank 12] 0 .31
Pol an d [ Rank 14] 0 .43 [ Rank 20 ] 0 .26 [ Rank 4] 0 .77
Ger m an y [ Rank 15] 0 .41 [ Rank 10 ] 0 .56 [ Rank 23] 0 .12
Bel g i u m [ Rank 16 ] 0 .35 [ Rank 15] 0 .43 [ Rank 17] 0 .20 *
Un i t ed St at es [ Rank 17] 0 .35 [ Rank 14] 0 .44 [ Rank 21] 0 .16
Hu n g ar y [ Rank 18] 0 .33 [ Rank 13] 0 .46 [ Rank 25] 0 .0 7
Sl ovaki a [ Rank 19 ] 0 .32 [ Rank 25] 0 .16 [ Rank 7] 0 .6 5
Ru ssi a [ Rank 20 ] 0 .26 [ Rank 19 ] 0 .29 [ Rank 19 ] 0 .20 *

er vat i on i s t hat i n any num ber of
sur veys r esear cher s m easur e w hat i s m easur abl e. Usual l y i nput s ar e i dent i f i ed m or e t han
educat i on t end t o be l ef t out . The aut hor s con

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The qual i t y and appr oach of t eacher s pl ays a bi g r ol e i n t hi s. Teacher s ar e key
r ul es t
The how and w hat of educat i on i s ver y m uch connect ed t o t he cul t ur e of t he count r y at hand. A
l ot of di f f er ent i deas exi st about t he r ol e and posi t i on of t he t eacher as w el l as expect at i ons
nt s. These key el em ent s agai n ar e hi ghl y l i nked t o cul t ur al
val ues. In t he Econom i st r epor t cul t ur e i s di scussed onl y i n a ver y gener i c w ay. Educat i on
a bl ack box (*5) i n w hi ch i nput s ar e t ur ned i nt o
out put s i n w ays t hat ar e di f f i cul t t o pr edi ct or quant i f y consi st ent l y.

Looki ng at t he bl ack box above, w e bel i eve t hat i t can be opened. We w i l l out l i ne how cul t ur e
can be used as t he key. Cul t ur e, how ever , i s a vague t er m and i s used i n ver y di f f er ent w ays.



Input ----> ? ----> Out put
Spendi ng per pupi l

The
Bl ack Box
of Educat i on i s
Cul t ur e
PIRLS
cl ass si ze TIM M S
st ar t age PISA
school choi ce Gr aduat i on r at es
year s i n school Li t er acy, em pl oym ent , et c.

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II. What i s cul t ure? How does cul t ure i nf l uence t he l earni ng process?
a. About cul t ur e: t he r esear ch of Geer t Hof st ede
r esul t s of t he sci ent i f i c r esear ch by pr of essor Geer t Hof st ede. Hof st ede i s w i del y r ecogni zed as
t he one w ho di d t he m ost f undam ent al r esear ch on cul t ur al di f f er ences(*6 ,7,8,9 ). He def i nes
ndam ent al r esear ch i nt o t he
dom i nant val ues of count r i es and t he w ay i n w hi ch t hey i nf l uence behavi or i n or gani zat i ons.
Or i gi nal dat a w er e based on an ext ensi ve IBM dat abase f or w hi ch 116,0 0 0 quest i onnai r es w er e
used i n 72 count r i es and i n 20 l anguages.
The r esul t s of hi s r esear ch w er e val i dat ed agai nst about 40 cr oss-cul t ur al st udi es f r om a var i et y
t he m ost f undam ent al i n under st andi ng and expl ai ni ng t he di f f er en ces i n answ er s t o t he
si ngl e quest i ons i n hi s quest i onnai r es. He m easur ed t he di f f er ences and cal cul at ed scor es f or
56 count ri es on t hese 5 di m ensi ons. Lat er r esear ch, par t l y done by ot her s have ext ended t hi s t o
about a 10 0 count ri es. The com bi ned scor es f or each count r y expl ai n var i at i ons i n behavi or of
peopl e and or gani zat i ons. The scor es i ndi cat e t he rel at i ve di f f er ences bet w een cul t ur es.

The f i ve di m ensi ons of nat i onal cul t ur e i dent i f i ed by Hof st ede ar e:
Pow er Di st ance Index (PDI)
Indi vi dual i sm vs. col l ect i vi sm (IDV)
M ascul i ni t y vs. f em i ni ni t y (M AS)
Uncer t ai nt y Avoi dance Index (UAI)
Long Ter m Or i ent at i on (LTO)


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Count r y scor es on each di m ensi on ar e r anked f r om l ow t o hi gh, i .e. f r om 0 t o 10 0 .
Pl ease not e t hat t he scor e of a count r y i s not m eant t o i m pl y t hat ever yone i n a par t i cul ar
soci et y i s pr ogr am m ed i n exact l y t he sam e w ay. Ther e ar e consi der abl e i ndi vi dual
di f f er ences. But w hen f undam ent al val ues of var i ous soci et i es ar e com par ed, m aj or i t y
r agai n and agai n as a r esul t of t he w ay chi l dr en
ar e br ought up by t hei r par ent s and t he educat i onal syst em . And w hen w e exam i ne how
soci et i es or gani ze t hem sel ves, t hese m aj or i t y pr ef er ences t ur n out t o have a m odi f yi ng
i nf l uence at al l l evel s. They have an i nf l uence on t he w ays t eacher and st udent s ar e
expect ed t o behave. Even t he i deas of t he obj ect i ves of educat i on ar e st at ed i n di f f er ent
w ays. For exam pl e i n som e count r i es t he obj ect i ve of educat i on i s: t o devel op a cr i t i cal
m i nd, w hi ch i n ot her cul t ur es i s vi ew ed as absur d. In t hese count r i es st udent s ar e supposed
t o t r y t o l ear n as m uch as possi bl e f r om t he ol der gener at i on and onl y w hen you ar e f ul l y
i ni t i at ed you m ay com m uni cat e t o have i deas of your sel f .


III. The f i ve di mensi ons and t hei r i nf l uence on Educat i on

a. Pow er Di st ance Index (PDI)

Power di st ance i s t he ext ent t o w hi ch l ess pow er f ul m em ber s of a soci et y accept t hat pow er i s
di st r i but ed unequal l y. In hi gh pow er -di st ance cul t ur es ever ybody has hi s/ her r i ght f ul pl ace i n
soci et y. Ol d age i s r espect ed, and st at us i s i m por t ant . In l ow pow er -di st ance cul t ur es peopl e t r y
t o l ook younger and pow er f ul peopl e t r y t o l ook l ess pow er f ul . Peopl e i n count r i es l i ke t he US,
Canada, t he UK , al l Scandi navi an count r i es and t he Net her l ands scor e l ow on t he pow er -
di st ance i ndex and ar e m or e l i kel y t o accept i deas l i ke em pow er m ent , m at r i x m anagem ent and

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f l at or gani zat i ons. Busi ness school s ar ound t he w or l d t end t o base t hei r t eachi ngs on l ow
pow er -di st ance val ues. Yet , m ost count r i es i n t he w or l d have a hi gh pow er -di st ance i ndex.



b. Indi vi dual i sm vs. Col l ect i vi sm (IDV)

In i ndi vi dual i st i c cul t ur es, l i ke al m ost al l t he r i ch West er n count r i es, peopl e l ook af t er
t hem sel ves and t hei r i m m edi at e f am i l y onl y; i n col l ect i vi st cul t ur es l i ke Asi a and Af r i ca peopl e
bel ong t o "i n-gr oups" w ho l ook af t er t hem i n exchange f or l oyal t y. In i ndi vi dual i st cul t ur es,
Im pl i cat i ons of Pow er Di st ance on Teachi ng
Low Hi gh
St udent cent er ed. Pr em i um on i ni t i at i ve Teacher cent er ed. Pr em i um on or der
Teacher expect s st udent t o i ni t i at e
com m uni cat i on
St udent expect s t eacher t o i ni t i at e
com m uni cat i on
Teacher expect s st udent s t o f i nd ow n pat hs St udent expect s t eacher t o out l i ne pat hs
St udent s al l ow ed t o cont r adi ct & cr i t i ci ze Teacher never cont r adi ct ed nor cr i t i ci zed
Ef f ect i veness of l ear ni ng i s a f unct i on t he
am ount of t w o-w ay com m uni cat i on
Ef f ect i veness of l ear ni ng i s a f unct i on of t he
excel l ence of t eacher s

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val ues ar e i n t he per son, w her eas i n col l ect i vi st cul t ur es, i dent i t y i s based on t he soci al net w or k
t o w hi ch one bel ongs. In i n di vi dual i st cul t ur es t her e i s m or e expl i ci t , ver bal com m uni cat i on. In
col l ect i vi st cul t ur es com m uni cat i on i s m or e i m pl i ci t .




Im pl i cat i ons of Col l ect i vi sm vs. Indi vi dual i sm on Teachi ng
Col l ect i vi st Indi vi dual i st
St udent s onl y speak up w hen cal l ed on by t he
t eacher
St udent s speak up i n r esponse t o gener al
i nvi t at i on by t he t eacher
Indi vi dual s onl y speak up i n sm al l gr oups Indi vi dual s w i l l speak up i n l ar ge gr oups
For m al har m ony i n l ear ni ng si t uat i ons shoul d
be m ai nt ai ned at al l t i m es
Conf r ont at i on and ch al l enge i n l earni ng
si t uat i ons can be br ought i nt o t he open
Nei t her t eacher nor st udent shoul d ever be
m ade t o l ose f ace

Teacher s expect ed t o gi ve pr ef er ent i al
t r eat m ent t o som e, e.g. based on et hni c
af f i l i at i on or r ecom m endat i on
Teacher s expect ed t o be st r i ct l y i m par t i al

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c. M ascul i ni t y vs. Fem i ni ni t y (M AS)

In mascul i ne cul t ur es l i ke USA, UK, Ger m any, Japan and It al y t he dom i nant val ues ar e
achi evem ent and success. The dom i nant val ues i n f emi ni ne cul t ur es ar e consensus seeki ng,
car i ng f or ot her s and qual i t y of l i f e. Sym pat hy i s f or t he under dog. Peopl e t r y t o avoi d
si t uat i ons di st i ngui shi ng cl ear w i nner s and l oser s. In m ascul i ne cul t ur es per f or m ance and
achi evem ent ar e i m por t ant . The sym pat hy i s f or t he w i nner s. St at us i s i m por t ant t o show
success. Fem i ni ne cul t ur es l i ke t he Scandi navi an count r i es and t he Net her l ands have a peopl e
or i ent at i on. Sm al l i s beaut i f ul and st at us i s not so i m por t ant .


Im pl i cat i ons of Fem i ni ni t y vs. M ascul i ni t y on Teachi ng
Fem i ni ne M ascul i ne
Teacher s use aver age st udent s as nor m Teacher s use best st uden t s as nor m
Syst em r ew ar ds academ i c per f or m ance
acci dent st udent sel f i m age
st udent s t r y t o behave m odest l y st udent s t r y t o m ake t hem sel ves vi si bl e
St udent s choose subj ect s out of i nt er est St udent s choose subj ect s f or car eer r easons

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d. Uncer t ai nt y Avoi dance Index (UAI)

Uncert ai nt y avoi dance (or uncert ai nt y cont rol ) st ands f or t he ext ent t o w hi ch peopl e f eel
t hr eat ened by uncer t ai nt y and am bi gui t y. In cul t ur es w i t h st r ong uncer t ai nt y avoi dance,
peopl e have a st r ong em ot i onal need f or r ul es and f or m al i t y t o st r uct ur e l i f e. The w ay peopl e
t hi nk and l ear n i s i nf l uenced by t hi s val ue. In Hi gh UAI count ri es l i ke Kor ea, Ger m any, Russi a,
Fr ance, Ir an and Br asi l , t he need i s t o know about w hat peopl e i n t he past and pr esent al r eady
sai d about a cer t ai n subj ect . It i s a pr e- gh st at us of
exper t s, as opposed t o w eak uncer t ai nt y-avoi dance cul t ur es, l i ke t he UK, t he USA, and Denm ar k
i n w hi ch t he vi ew s of pr act i t i oner s ar e m or e hi ghl y r espect ed.


Im pl i cat i ons of Uncer t ai nt y Avoi dance on Teachi ng
Low Hi gh
St udent s com f or t abl e i n Un st r uct ur ed
l ear ni ng si t uat i ons:
Br oad assi gnm ent s
No t i m et abl es
St udent s com f or t abl e i n st r uct ur ed l ear ni ng
si t uat i ons:
Pr eci se i nst r uct i ons
Det ai l ed assi gnm ent s
St r i ct t i m et abl es
Teacher s expect ed t o have al l t he answ er s

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Im pl i cat i ons of Uncer t ai nt y Avoi dance on Teachi ng
Good t eacher s use pl ai n l anguage Good t eacher s use academ i c l anguage
St udent s r ew ar ded f or i nnovat i ve appr oaches St udent s r ew ar ded f or accur acy
Teacher s vi ew i nt el l ect ual di sagr eem ent as
st i m ul at i ng
Teacher s vi ew i nt el l ect ual di sagr eem ent as
per sonal di sl oyal t y


e. Long Ter m Or i ent at i on (LTO)

The l ast el em ent of cul t ur e i s t he Long Term Ori ent at i on w hi ch i s t he ext ent t o w hi ch a soci et y
exhi bi t s a f ut ur e-or i ent at ed per spect i ve r at her t han a near t er m poi nt of vi ew . Low scor i ng
count r i es l i ke t he USA and West Eur opean count r i es ar e usual l y t hose under t he i nf l uence of
m onot hei st i c r el i gi ous syst em s, such as t he Chr i st i an, Isl am i c or Jew i sh syst em s. Peopl e i n
t hese count r i es bel i eve t her e i s an absol ut e and i ndi vi si bl e t r ut h. In hi gh scor i n g count r i es such
as Hong Kong, Tai w an, Chi na, f or exam pl e t hose pr act i ci ng Buddhi sm , Shi nt oi sm or Hi ndui sm ,
peopl e bel i eve t r ut h depends on t i m e, cont ext and si t uat i on.





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Im pl i cat i ons of Long Term Or i ent at i on on Teachi ng
Low Hi gh

St udent s w ant t o f i nd t he one and onl y
sol ut i on

St r ong em phasi s on educat i on as obl i gat i on t o
par ent s and soci et y
St abi l i t y r at ed as t he m ost i m por t ant vi r t ue Per sever ance r at ed as t he m ost i m por t ant
vi r t ue


IV. Best pract i ces: can we l earn f rom each ot her?

a. Best pr act i ces
In anal yzi ng t he r esul t s of educat i onal m easur es, a t er m bei ng used f r equent l y i n t he l ast f ew
best pract i ces ew or k j ust expl ai ned, even
t hi s t er m and appr oach f or count r y com par i son i s cul t ur al l y bound. Focus on "best pr act i ces" i s
a ver y Angl o-Saxon appr oach. Al l Angl o Saxon cul t ur es scor e l ow on Uncer t ai nt y Avoi dance.
Thi s m eans t hat t he f ocus i s not on t heor et i cal appr oaches and exper t know l edge but on
pr act i ces and t he exper i ence of pr act i t i oner s, and t he t hi nki ng st yl e i s i nduct i ve. As a
consequence handbooks on al l subj ect s i n t hese cu l t ur es begi n w i t h a descr i pt i on of cases
t aken f r om pr act i ce. These cases ar e anal yzed and l ead t o a st at em ent about best pr act i ces.
Thi s appr oach val ues pr act i cal appl i cat i on over "academ i c" r esear ch.

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Thi s Angl o Saxon br and of i nduct i ve r easoni ng can be f ur t her under st ood by addi ng t he
i nf l uence of a hi gh scor e on M AS: st r ong act i on- and achi evem ent or i ent at i on. Thi s w ay of
t hi nki ng i s cal l ed pr agm at i sm . Pr agm at i st s ar e unw i l l i ng t o be i nvol ved i n t oo m uch
specul at i on on w hat i s goi ng on i n t he m i nds of peopl e. Abst r act ar gum ent at i on i s som et hi ng
w het her speci f i c act i ons l ead t o desi r ed obser vabl e behavi or :
f i ne. It m ay
hel p. If not t




In cont r ast , deduct i ve t hi nki ng i s t he nor m i n hi gh UAI cul t ur es. These cul t ur es t r y f i r st t o get
an under st andi ng of w hat i s know n about a subj ect . The f i r st st ep i s al w ays t o l ook i nt o w hat
ot her s, especi al l y exper t s f r om t he past and t he pr esent , have al r eady sai d on a subj ect . Then a
phi l os
f or m ul at ed. The l ast st ep i s appl i cat i on. In t hi s appr oach phi l osophy and t hi nki ng i s m or e
hi ghl y r egar ded t han t he act i ons of pr act i t i oner s t hat f ol l ow . As a r esul t , peopl e of t hese
cul t u
t hat l ed t o successf ul appr oaches.


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b. Can w e l ear n f rom anot her cul t ur e?
ci pi ent s and
cr eat or s of cul t ural pat t er ns: over t he l ong t er m t hey hel p t o shape nor m s f or t he next
t o cr eat e a "cul t ur e f r ee" best school syst em w hi ch ot her count r i es can si m pl y "copy and past e"
w hat has been successf ul i n anot her count r y?

The answ er i s t hat cul t ur al val ues ar e deepl y r oot ed and ar e ver y consi st ent over t i m e. The
bor n. They l ear n
f r om t hei r par ent s t o obey absol ut el y or t o speak up. Thi s pr ogr am mi ng cont i nues at school as
w as descr i bed above how t he f i ve di m ensi ons appl y t o l ear ni ng si t uat i ons. Ar e st udent s
expect ed t o f i nd t hei r ow n pat h and ar e t hey al l ow ed t o cont r adi ct t he t eacher ? Ar e t hey
expect ed t o com pet e w i t h each ot her i n cl ass? Thi s al l depends on t he count r y cul t ur e. It i s t hi s
count r y and w het her or how t hose appr oaches can be appl i ed t o anot her count r y. It i s
shor t si ght ed t o expect count r i es t o be ef f ect i ve i n i nt r oduci ng new i deas i f t hese i deas ar e not
l i kel y t o f i t i n t he cont ext of t hei r val ues.
These com m ent s ar e not suggest i ng t hat w e cannot l ear n f rom ot her s. Of cour se w e shoul d
keep an open m i nd about w hat i s happeni ng el sew her e. But i t i s nave t o t hi nk t hat a best
pr act i ces i n a cer t ai n speci f i c cul t ur e can be aut om at i cal l y copi ed and past ed i n anot her cul t ur e
w i t h di f f er ent basi c pr ef er ences. What i s
t o anot her t o m ake i t w or k. Pr of essi onal s w or ki ng i n an i nt er nat i onal envi r onm ent shoul d
under st and t he di f f er ent expect at i ons of col l eagues and st udent s i n t he t eachi ng-l ear ni ng
pr ocess. They shoul d b
accor di ng t o t he di f f er ent nor m s of t he soci et y at hand.


16

V Anal yzi ng som e key i ssues i n educat i on, w i t hi n a cul t ur al f r am ew or k

i ssues w er e gl obal l y r ecogni zed as t he cor e
of under st andi ng educat i onal qual i t y:
a. a suppor t i ve cul t ur e f or educat i on and
b. t he need f or a hi gh st at us of t eacher s.
These t w o f eat ur es of educat i on ar e hi ghl y i nf l uenced by cul t ur e and t her ef or e i m pl em ent ed i n
di f f er ent w ays i n di f f er ent count r i es. Som e exam pl es ar e pr ovi ded bel ow .

a. Suppor t i ve cul t ur e f or educat i on

In expl ai ni ng t he success of Kor ea and Fi nl and, The Econom i st concl udes t hat i n bot h t hese
count r i es t her e i s a suppor t i ve cul t ur e f or educat i on. How ever , w hat t r ansl at es as "suppor t " i s
ver y di f f er ent i n t hese t w o si t uat i ons. In t he f i r st i nst ance, Kor ea i s a hi gh pow er di st ance
count r y, w her e peopl e accept t op dow n pol i cy deci si ons by a gover nm ent . In f act i t i s seen as
t he t ask and pr i vi l ege of a gover nm ent . For exam pl e, Sout h Kor ea m ade a "t op-dow n" deci si on
dat i ng back 30 year s t o m ake t he count r y m or e com pet i t i ve i n t he gl obal m ar ket . To do so t hey
f ocused on t he educat i on of t he f ut ur e w or kf or ce. A l ot of r esour ces w er e al l ocat ed t o m ake use
of t he f ul l avai l abl e pot ent i al . By com par i son, l ow pow er di st ance cul t ur es such as Fi nl and,
have a di f f er ent appr oach t o educat i on pol i cy. Because of t he l ow PDI r at i ng, pow er i s
decent r al i zed i n t hese cul t ur es, so i t i s a necessi t y t o i nvol ve al l t he st akehol der s and t o
appr oach i nf l uenci ng f r om t he bot t om up..

b. Hi gh st at us of t eacher s


17
Anot her ar ea w her e cul t ur e pl ays an essent i al r ol e i n def i ni ng t he how and w hat of "st at us." For
i nst ance, i n Fi nl and a cr i t i cal m om ent i n educat i on pol i cy occur r ed w hen t he Gover nm ent
deci ded t hat t eacher s shoul d onl y be r ecr ui t ed f r om Uni ver si t i es t o gi ve t he pr of essi on "hi gh
st at us." In ot her cul t ur es an academ i c cr edent i al i s not as hi ghl y val ued. For exam pl e, i n a M ay
20 13 speech by t he educat i on secr et ar y i n t he UK, M r . Gove t ol d hi s audi ence t hat he w ant s
t hem sel ves shoul d conduct r esear ch i nt o w hat produces gr eat t eachi ng and l ear ni ng, rat her
t han l eavi ng such st udi es t o uni ver si t i es, w hi ch he bel i eves have of f er ed l i t t l e of pr act i cal val ue
i n t er m s of i m pr ovi ng school s. Leader s shoul d be t rai ned w i t hi n school s r at her t han bei ng sent
aw ay t o acqui r e abst r act di pl om as. Teacher s shoul d equal l y be t r ai ned w i t hi n t he school s
Her e w e see cr edi bi l i t y and st at us of academ i cs conf er r ed ver y di f f er ent l y bet w een Fi nl and, a
count r y scor i ng 59 on UAI, and t he UK, w hi ch scor es 35.


VI

a. Aut onom y of school s, t est i ng and account abi l i t y

aut onom y i n t he t eachi ng pr ocess w hi l e al so m aki ng t hem m or e account abl e f or achi evi ng
t he UK,
educat i on secr et ar y i n t he m oder n er a has m at ched hi s vi si on of a l ar gel y aut onom ous
educat i on syst em i n w hi ch i ndi vi dual school s, heads and t eacher s ar e gi ven back t hei r
i ndependence and cr eat i vi t y. Onl y by r el easi ng dynam i sm i n t hi s w ay does he bel i eve t hat

18
Br i t i sh school s w i l l be abl e t o com pe
(*10 ). The aut onom y he bel i eves shoul d be accom pani ed by account abi l i t y. To be abl e t o hol d
t eacher s account abl e t her e i s a need f or t est i ng t o see i f t he st udent s ar e get t i ng t he qual i t y
t hey deser ve.

In som e count r i es t he aut hor i t i es t r y t o est abl i sh and adm i ni st er st andar di zed t est t o al l
i n school year 20 13/ 14
m or e t han one m i l l i on st udent s i n 22 st at es ar e expect ed t o t ake t he t est s, i n an ef f or t t o hel p
devel op a nat i onal exam m odel ed on t he new st andar ds, know n as t he Com m on Cor e. The bi g
t he pr essur e com i ng f r om show i ng i m pr ovem ent s t hr ough t hese t est s cause t eacher s and
st udent s t o di scuss and st udy w hat i s necessar y t o pass t hese t est s? Ther e ar e al r eady
i n t he USA sounded an al ar m .
Padr n, a com m i ssi on m em ber . But w i t hout t he hum ani t i es and soci al sci ences, he added,
as i f t
co-
m ost successf ul and cr eat i ve peopl e had exact l y t hi s ki nd of educat i on." (*11)

It i s not sur pr i si ng t hat t hi s "r educt i oni st " appr oach i s com m on i n m ascul i ne count r i es w her e
t he m ot i vat i on t o com pet e and t o achi eve i s hi gh. In m or e f em i ni ne count ri es, how ever , t he
f ocus on "qual i t y of l i f e" pr event s school s f r om onl y of f er i ng subj ect s t hat ar e di r ect l y r el at ed t o
m easur abl e r esul t s t hat l ead t o em pl oyabi l i t y. These count r i es r et ai n an em phasi s on a
br oader cur r i cul um , t hat r et ai ns t he hum ani t i es, ar t s and soci al sci ences as essent i al el em ent s
of educat i on and pr epar at i on f or adul t l i f e.

19

Agai n: aut onom y and t est i ng ar e ver y m uch cul t ur al i ssues. Aut onom y, t he bot t om up
appr oach, i s accept abl e onl y i n Low Pow er Di st ance cul t ur es. Li ke em pow erm ent i n
m anagem ent t heor i es i t i m pl i es t hat aut hor i t i es/ m anager s dar e t o gi ve t he pow er t o t he
l ow est possi bl e l evel w i t hout t oo m any i nst ruct i ons and st r uct ur al l i m i t s, al so i m pl i es a l ow
scor e f or UAI. Thi s com bi nat i on, l ow PDI and l ow UAI, i s i n pr i nci pl e onl y f ound i n t he Angl o-
Saxon count ri es, i n Scandi navi a and t he Net her l ands. Thi s educat i onal st rat egy can be adapt ed
t o f i t ot her count r i es l i ke Ger m any, Aust ri a, Hungar y and t he Czech Republ i c, by addi ng m or e
expl i ci t r ul es and pr ocedur es w hen t he aut onom y i s gi ven. In Hi gh pow er di st ance cul t ur es,
em pow er m ent and aut onom y i s not i m possi bl e, but i t m ust t ake t he f or m of cl ear l y-def i ned
del egat i on. The l evel of aut onom y w oul d be cl ear l y def i ned and l i m i t ed w i t hi n a ver y st r i ct set
of m andat es. If t hi ngs happen t hat ar e not f or eseen by t hei r m andat e, school s w oul d not be
al l ow ed t o act i ndependent l y t o r espond t o t he new si t uat i on. They w oul d be r equi r ed t o go
back up t he chai n of aut hor i t y and ask f or i nst ruct i ons f i r st .

St andar di zed t est s and quant i f i abl e obj ect i ves w i t h consequences f or pass/ f ai l deci si ons and
vi si bl e ranki ng i s an appr oach sui t ed t o cul t ur es w i t h t he m ascul i ne t hi nki ng st yl e. In ot her
cul t ur es peopl e ar e m or e hesi t ant t o f ocus so heavi l y on achi evi ng t op scor es and com par i ng
st udent s and school s on st andar di zed t est s. Fi nl and, f or exam pl e, w i t h t he t op r anki ng i n TLC, i s
a hi ghl y f em i ni ne count r y and does not use t hi s ki nd of hi ghl y com pet i t i ve or i ent at i on. Pasi
Sahl ber g, di r ect or gener al of t he Cent r e f or Int er nat i onal M obi l i t y and Cooper at i on (CIM O)
i n Fi nl and has st rong opi ni ons on w hy Fi nl and st ands out i n com par i son w i t h count r i es l i ke t he
Sahl ber g says t hat f i ve aspect s of t he Fi nni sh syst em set s i t apar t . At t he f or ef r ont , t he Fi nni sh
syst em w as bui l t w i t hout t r yi ng t o be n um ber one. He em phasi zed t hat com pet i t i on w as never
par t of t he syst em . Inst ead t he f ocus has ai m ed at cr eat i ng good school s f or al l chi l dr en.

20
com pet i t i on. The i m pact of com pet i t i on has r esul t ed i n st andar di zat i on and cr eat ed i m m ense
has st r essed per sonal i zat i on of educat i on w her e ever y school set s i t s ow n st andar ds based on
a nat i o
com pet i t or i s hi m or her sel f . A di r ect r esul t of st andar ds i n t est s i n count r i es l i ke Am er i ca i s
s l ef t w hen
-
based r esponsi bi l i t y.(*12)

Beyond t he l ack of em phasi s on com pet i t i on, Fi nl and al so has a cul t ur e t hat t r ul y val ues
educat i on. The Fi nni sh al so t rust publ i c educat i on. It i s t he second m ost t r ust ed i nst i t ut i ons i n
t he count r y, next t o pol i ce, ear ni ng 89 per cent . Thi s i s i n st ar k cont r ast t o t he Uni t ed St at es,
Sahl ber g asser t s, w her e onl y 29 per cent t r ust t he publ i c educat i on syst em . A f ai r l y equal
weal t h di st ri but i on w i t hi n Fi nl and al so i m pact s t he educat i on syst em . As a r esul t , Fi nl and
t echnol ogi cal advances, chi l d w el l -bei ng, and pr osper i t y.
Concl usi on: t he di scussi ons on aut onom y of school s, t est i ng, and account abi l i t y i s ver y m uch

b. Per f or m ance l evel s i n East Asi an count r i es. St r engt hs and w eaknesses

Anot her i nt er est i ng r esul t t o anal yze f r om a cul t ur al per spect i ve i s t he successf ul per f or m ance
of st udent s i n East Asi an count r i es. The cul t ur al si de of t hi s r esul t can be under st ood by t he 5
t h

Di m ensi on of cul t ur e LTO:: t he st r ong em phasi s on educat i on as obl i gat i on t o par en t s and
soci et y.:

21

Anal ysi s of t hei r educat i on syst em s has poi nt ed out how ever t hat t hese ar e st eeped i n
di sci pl i ne, r ot e l ear ni ng and obsessi ve t est pr epar at i on . M any educat or s say how ever t hat t hi s
st r engt h i s i n educat i on i s al so a w eakness. In t hei r opi ni on t he educat i on syst em i s t oo t est -
or i ent ed, school s st i f l e cr eat i vi t y and par ent al pr essur es of t en depr i ve chi l dr en of t he j oys of
chi l dhood.

Ji ang Xueqi n, a deput y pr i nci pal at Peki ng Uni ver si t y Hi gh School i n Bei j i ng sai d i n The Wal l
St r eet Jour na
t oo m uch, and pr oduced st udent s w ho l acked cur i osi t y and t he abi l i t y t o t hi nk cr i t i cal l y or


ol s ar e ver y good at pr epar i ng t hei r
st udent s f or st andar di zed t est s. But f or t he sam e r eason t hey f ai l t o pr epar e t hem f or hi gher


One m or e i ssue of concer n i s t hat t he st r ess t o succeed m akes t hat sui ci de r at es am ong
st udent s ar e ver y hi gh i n count r i es l i ke Sout h Kor ea, Chi na and Japan.

M r . Zhang Chun f r om t he Nanj i ng Sui ci de Rescue Hot l i ne sai d: "Chi l dr en now adays ar e under
t oo m uch pr essur e f rom m i ddl e school t o hi gh school . They don't have m uch t i m e t o go out and
exper i ence bei ng i n soci et y. They have no ot her w ay of l ear ni ng, and have no w ay of bl ow i ng

In Sout h Kor ea t he m ost com m on cause of yout h sui ci de i s pr essur e r el at ed t o t he Col l ege
Schol ast i c Abi l i t y Test .


22
VII Concl usi on

We have show n t hat w el l r esear ched syst em at i c di f f er ences i n val ue pr ef er ences per count r y
ar e f undam ent al i n under st andi ng t he w ay t he t eachi ng l ear ni ng pr ocesses ar e handl ed. The 5
cul t ur e di m ensi ons f ound by Geer t Hof st ede pr ovi de an anal yt i cal t ool f or under st andi n g t he
l ocal di f f er ences i n t he educat i onal pol i cy and school syst em s.

Thi s br i ngs us t o concl ude t hat :

1. A t r ul y i nt er nat i onal appr oach t o ranki ng count r i es on educat i on shoul d t ake cul t ur al
e char act er i st i cs of good
school syst em s and good t eacher s.
2. We can and shoul d l ear n f r om each ot her . But w e shoul d al so under st and t hat t o m ake a
.
Exam pl e: Fi nl and i s seen by som e Am er i can educat i onal i st s as t he exam pl e of how t o
i m pr ove t he educat i onal syst em . Anal yzi ng t he di f f er ences Pahl ber g (12) concl uded t hat t he
bi g di f f er ence i s t hat i n t he USA t he dr i vi ng f act or i s com pet i t i on w hi l e i n Fi nl and i t i s
cooper at i on. Thi s i s not a coi nci dence, som et hi ng t hat can be changed easi l y. No i t i s a
basi c cul t ur al di f f er ence bet w een M ascul i ne cul t ur es and Fem i ni ne cul t ur es. To be
ef f ect i ve i n l ooki ng f or i m pr ovem ent t hi s di f f er ence shoul d be a l eadi ng el em ent i n t he
pl anni ng of change. (see 16 )
The sam e appl i es t o t he di scussi on on t he aut onom y of school s. In hi gh pow er di st ance
count r i es (by f ar t he m aj or i t y of count ri es i n t he w or l d) Aut onom y w i l l onl y be possi bl e i n a
cl ear l y def i ned and l i m i t ed m andat e t hat i s gi ven by t he cent r al pow er hol der s. It shoul d be
def i ned t op dow n.


23

3. The 5 di m ensi ons of cul t ur e pr ovi de a gui del i ne f or t he t r ansl at i on

4. The qual i t y of t eacher s i s r el at ed t o how count r y cul t ur es ar e def i ni ng t he r ol e of t eacher s
i n t he educat i on pr ocess. It i s a m at t er of ef f ect i veness t o accept t hi s and t o under st and
t hat r esul t s can be obt ai ned i n di f f er ent w ays. Look at t he di f f er ences bet w een t he f i r st
t w o count r i es i n t he r anki ng syst em Fi nl and and Sout h Kor ea.:

Fi nl and Sout h Kor ea
St udent cent er ed educat i on Teacher cent er ed educat i on
Ef f ect i veness of l ear ni ng r el at ed t o am ount of
t w o-w ay com m uni cat i on
Ef f ect i veness of l ear ni ng r el at ed t o excel l ence
of t eacher
Teacher expect s st udent s t ake i ni t i at i ve St udent s expect i ni t i at i ve f r om t eacher
Teacher expect s st udent s f i nd t hei r ow n pat h St udent s expect t eacher t o out l i ne pat hs
A good t eacher uses pl ai n l anguage A good t eacher uses academ i c l anguage
Teacher s i nt er pr et i nt el l ect ual di sagr eem ent as
st i m ul at i ng
Teacher s i nt er pr et i nt el l ect ual di sagr eem ent
as per sonal di sl oyal t y
Face consci ousness w eak Nei t her t eacher nor st udent shoul d ever be
m ade t o l ose f ace

.



24
5. Pl anni ng and i m pl em ent at i on of change i n t he educat i onal f i el d shoul d t ake t he count r y
cul t ur e i nt o account . For i nst ance i n hi gh PDI count r i es i t shoul d be done t op dow n,
com m i t t i ng f i r st t he t op of t he educat i onal f i el d. In l ow PDI count r i es w i t h a hi gh scor e on
UAI i t i s a m ust t o com m i t f i r st t he r ecogni zed exper t s i n t he f i el d, w hi l e i n count ri es w i t h
l ow PDI and Fem i ni t y al l st ake hol der s m ust be i nvol ved f r om scr at ch .


6. About t he aut hors (*17)

Hui b Wur st en ( hui b@i t i m .or g )
Unt i l 20 0 7 Hui b w as co-ow ner and M D of t he Inst i t ut e f or Tr ai ni ng i n Int er cul t ur al
m anagem ent ITIM . He i s exper i enced i n t r ansl at i ng i nt er nat i onal and gl obal st r at egi es and
pol i ci es i nt o pr act i cal consequences f or m anagem ent . He has been w or ki ng i n t hi s f i el d si nce
19 89 w i t h For t une 10 0 0 com pani es, as w el l as w i t h publ i c and pol i t i cal or gani zat i ons i n 85
count r i es i n al l cont i nent s.

Car el Jacobs (car el @i t i m .or g)
Car el i s seni or consul t ant / t r ai ner f or ITIM i n The Net her l ands and i s Cer t i f i cat i on Agent f or t he
Educat i onal sect or of t he Hof st ede Cent r e. Af t er a car eer as M D of an i nt er nat i onal l ear ni ng
com pany and pr oj ect m anager i n i nt er nat i onal busi ness pr oj ect s he concen t r at ed on
i nt er cul t ur al m anagem ent i n bot h t he publ i c and pr i vat e sect or i n t he ar ea of educat i on,
or gani zat i on devel opm ent and m anagem ent of change.

Ref erences
1.The Progress i n Int ernat i onal Readi ng Li t eracy St udy (PIRLS) i s an i nt er nat i onal st udy of
r eadi ng achi evem ent i n f our t h gr ader s. It i s conduct ed by t he Int er nat i onal Associ at i on f or t he

25
l i t er acy achi evem ent , t o pr ovi de a basel i ne f or f ut ur e st udi es of t r ends i n achi evem ent , and t o

The Programme f or Int ernat i onal St udent Assessment (PISA) i s a w or l dw i de st udy by t he OECD
i n m em ber and non-m em ber nat i ons of 15-year -ol d school pupi l s' schol ast i c per f or m ance on
m at hem at i cs, sci ence, and r eadi ng. It w as f i r st per f or m ed i n 20 0 0 and t hen r epeat ed ever y
t hr ee year s. It i s done w i t h vi ew t o i m pr ovi ng educat i on pol i ci es and out com es. The dat a has
i ncr easi ngl y been used bot h t o assess t he i m pact of educat i on qual i t y on i ncom es and gr ow t h
and f or under st andi ng w hat causes di f f er ences i n achi evem ent acr oss nat i ons.
The Trends i n Int ernat i onal Mat hemat i cs and Sci ence St udy (TIMSS) i s an i nt er nat i onal
assessm ent of t he m at hem at i cs and sci ence know l edge of 4t h and 8t h gr ader st udent s ar ound
t he w or l d. TIM SS w as devel oped by t he Int er nat i onal Associ at i on f or t he Eval uat i on of
Educat i onal Achi evem ent (IEA) t o al l ow par t i ci pat i ng nat i ons t o com par e st udent s' educat i onal
achi evem ent acr oss bor der s.
2. As quot ed i n t he LCDB. See 3.
3.The Learni ng Curve Dat a Bank (LCDB) cr eat ed by t he Econom i st Int el l i gence Uni t as par t of
t he br oader Lear ni ng Cur ve pr ogr am m e i s an ef f or t t o advance st udy i n t hi s ar ea. It i s
pur pose-bui l t , subst ant i al col l ect i on of dat a w hi ch i ncl udes m or e t han 60 com par at i ve
i ndi cat or s gat her ed f r om over 50 count ri es. M any of t hese i ndi cat or s i n t urn r el y on m ul t i pl e
pi eces of i nf or m at i on, so t hat , even w i t h som e i nevi t abl e gaps, t he LCDB encom passes over
2,0 0 0 i ndi vi dual dat a poi nt s. These go w el l beyond t r adi t i onal educat i on m et r i cs, such as
t eacher -st udent r at i os and var i ous spendi ng m et r i cs, t o cover a br oad range of educat i onal
i nput s and possi bl e out put s, f r om t he degr ee t o w hi ch par ent s dem and good r esul t s of school s
t o t he pr opor t i on of adul t s w ho end up i n j ai l .

26
4.Educat i onal at t ai nment i s a t er m com m onl y used by st at i st i ci ans t o r ef er t o t he hi ghest
degr ee of educat i on an i ndi vi dual has com pl et ed

5.Bl ack box:
In phi l osophy and psychol ogy, t he school of behavi or i sm sees t he hum an m i nd as a bl ack box.
The m i nd cannot be opened t o "l ook i nsi de" and see how i t w or ks. What i s possi bl e i s t o guess
how i t w or ks based on w hat happens w hen som et hi ng i s done t o i t (i nput ), and w hat occur s as
a r esul t of t hat (out put ). The bl ack box t heor y of consci ousness, st at es t hat t he m i nd i s f ul l y
under st ood once t he i nput s and out put s ar e w el l def i ned and gener al l y coupl es t hi s w i t h a
r adi cal skept i ci sm r egar di ng t he possi bi l i t y of ever successf ul l y descr i bi ng t he under l yi ng
st r uct ur e, m echani sm , and dynam i cs of t he m i nd
6 . Geert Hof st ede, (2 Oct ober 19 28) i s an i nf l uent i al Dut ch r esear cher i n t he f i el d of
or gani zat i onal st udi es. He pl ayed a m aj or r ol e i n devel opi ng a syst em at i c f ram ew or k f or
assessi ng and di f f er ent i at i ng nat i onal cul t ur es and or gani zat i onal cul t ur es. Hi s st udi es
dem onst r at ed t hat t her e ar e nat i onal val ues t hat i nf l uence behavi or of soci et i es and
or gani zat i ons.

27
He i s consi der ed t o be one of t he 20 m ost i nf l uent i al busi ness t hi nker s. See
bel ow

7. Hof st ede, G
8. Hof st ede, G.
val ues. (Bever l y Hi l l s, CA: Sage).
9 . Hof st ede, Geert H. Consequences. Com par i ng val ues, behavi or s, i nst i t ut i ons
and or gani zat i ons acr oss nat i ons (Sage publ i cat i ons)
10 . The Tel egraph. M onday 24 June 20 13. M i chael Gove i s w i nni ng t he hear t s of st at e heads. By
Ant hony Sel don
11.Humani t i es Commi t t ee Sounds an Al arm. Edi t or i al i n The New Yor k Ti m es. By Jenni f er
Schuessl er . Publ i shed: June 18, 20 13

12.Askwi t h Forum on Apri l 23 ,2013. Pasi Sahl ber g, di r ect or gener al of t he Cent r e f or
Int er nat i onal M obi l i t y and Cooper at i on (CIM O) i n Fi nl and. 5.

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ht t p:/ / w w w .gse.har var d.edu/ new s-i m pact / 20 13/ 0 4/ sahl ber g-advocat es-f or -f i nni sh-w ay-at -
askw i t h-f or um / # i xzz2Rj or W0 6 m

13.The Test Chi nese School s St i l l Fai l . Hi gh scor es f or Shanghai 's 15-year -ol ds ar e act ual l y a si gn
of w eakness. The Wal l St r eet Jour nal 8 dec. 20 10

14. 6 sep. 20 12 m ot i on i n l i f e www.dai l ymot i on.com/ .../ xt cgvr _chi na-s-st udent -sui ci .


15. Educat i on f or al l . The qual i t y Imperat i ve. EFA Gl obal M oni t or i ng Repor t 20 0 5 Publ i shed i n
20 0 4 by t he Uni t ed Nat i ons Educat i onal ,
Sci ent i f i c and Cul t ur al Or gani zat i on
7, Pl ace de Font enoy, 75352 Par i s 0 7 SP
16 . Hui b Wurst en. Cul t ure and Change management ;
ht t p:/ / w w w .i t i m .or g/ ar t i cl eonchangem anagem ent .pdf
17. We ar e gr at ef ul f or t he edi t i ng suggest i ons
Fadr honc






w w w .i t i m .or g

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