20-Aug-11

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Functional Devices Functional Devices EE5433R: Optical Devices : Optical Devices
A/Prof. Hong Minghui
Room No: E2-04-09 Tel: 6516-1636
E-mail: elehmh@nus.edu.sg
Lecture 2
Chapter 2 Solar cell
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
h E
1
Chapter 3 LED
3.1 LED, its characteristics and applications
3.2 LED physics
3.3 LED devices and structures
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Crystalline silicon solar cells
Single crystal Silicon (c-Si) solar cell
Polycrystalline silicon (poly-Si) solar cell
Thin film solar cells
Amorphous silicon (a-Si) solar cell
Cadmium telluride (CdTe / CdS) solar cell
Copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS) alloy solar cell
New generation solar cells
Dye sensitized solar cell (DSSC)
Nano-structured / plasmonic solar cell
Up/Down conversion solar cell
H i l ll
2
Hot carrier solar cell
Thermal photovoltaic / Thermal-photonic solar cell
Technology improvements
Multi-junction (Tandem cell) solar cell
Concentrator photovoltaic (CPV) solar cell
Solar cell: light energy to electrical energy
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~ 85% commercial production market!
Si crystals and granular Si;
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
First-generation solar cell
Crystalline silicon solar cells
Substrate thickness ~ 300 m;
Firstly high purity Si, then doped" with other elements to form p-n junction;
One EHP per photon absorbed;
Life expectancy: > 25 years;
Energy payback in 2-8 years.
3
Why Si solar cell dominates? We need 100s MW ~ TW power. Only Si can
have enough raw materials supply in the earth to generate such high energy
capacity. Other material supplies are limited : Rare earth elements.
Solar cell: light energy to electrical energy
Si: broad spectral absorption, high
carrier mobility, potential high efficiency;
Material (lab.) (production)
Monocrystalline 24.7% 18%
Polycrystalline 20% 16%
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
First-generation solar cell
Crystalline silicon solar cells
Si is available unlimited: second most
element of the earths crust;
Involved materials & processes: less
toxic, less harmful to environment;
Si technology matures and available;
Broad knowledge of Si and devices;
Polycrystalline 20% 16%
Amorphous 13% 8%
Material Crystalline
order
Thickness Wafer
Monocrystalline One ideal
lattice
50~300m One single
crystall
Polycristalline Many small
crystalls
50~300m grain
(0.1mm~
af ewcm)
4
g
Expensive manufacturing technologies;
Ingots growing & sawing: highly energy
intensive process;
High EHP recombination before being collected by electrodes;
Higher energy photons (blue, UV light) are wasted as heat.
Amorphous No crystalline
order; Groups
of some
regularly
bound atoms
< 1m No wafer
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Mono-crystalline Silicon Solar Cell
Silicon wafers were cut from one
h m s st l All Si t ms
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Crystalline silicon solar cells
homogenous crystal. All Si atoms are
arranged in the same direction. It is
manufactured by "CZOCHRALSKI
growth technology: a round bar of
silicon is drawn at a speed (cms per
hour) from pure molten silicon.
Si ingots
5
Source: Wafertech
Si purification process
Solar cell: light energy to electrical energy
6
Si purification: SOG Si 6N (99.9999%)
20-Aug-11
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7
Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cell
Cheaper and simpler to make than mono-crystalline Si. While setting different
crystals are formed giving the material its characteristic flaky blue metallic color
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Crystalline silicon solar cells
crystals are formed giving the material its characteristic flaky blue metallic color.
Efficiency of poly-crystalline cells is somewhat lower than mono-crystalline cells.
8
Source: Kyocera Co. J apan
Solar cell: light energy to electrical energy
20-Aug-11
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2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Cost of Solar Electricity
Crystalline silicon solar cells
Cost goals for solar cells
Reducing fabrication cost/increasing efficiency
Thinner wafers: wire sawing, laser cutting and etching;
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Crystalline silicon solar cells
Higher efficiencies: Semiconductor technologies on single crystal wafers;
Thin film technologies (flat panel display).
Intrinsic efficiency limit for Si solar cell ~30%.
1) Light with energy below bandgap is not absorbed;
2) Excess photon energy above bandgap is lost, in the form of heat.
10
Solar cell: light energy to electrical energy
Multijunction (MJ) tandem cell: Maximum thermodynamically achievable
efficiencies ~ 50%, 56%, and 72% for stacks of 2, 3, and 36 junctions with
appropriately optimized energy gaps
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Low Cost Substrate Solar Cells
Still Silicon wafer based;
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Crystalline silicon solar cells
Thickness around 10 ~ 30 m;
This is 10 times thinner than current wafers;
Processed at lower temperature;
Needs light trapping because
- Impurity interaction with substrate
11
Solar cell: light energy to electrical energy
- Imperfect crystallinity, structural defects.
Solution to have light trapping feature:
Si films with large grain size.
C-Si solar cell thickness ~ 300 m
Solar cell: Loss Issues
Reflection loss: surface reflection and front electrode reflection;
Shadowing loss: front electrods obscure the light shining on solar cell;
b l f d l b d d d b lk d f
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Crystalline silicon solar cells
Recombination loss: surface dangling bonds and semiconductor bulk defects;
Phonons interaction loss: heat dissipation from insufficient photon
energy: h < Eg and excessive photon energy: h > Eg;
Thin substrate loss: some light is not absorbed and passes through the device;
V
oc
loss: EHP recombination in trap levels of depletion region;
Fill Factor loss:
12
F F
series resistance Rs,
shunt resistance Rsh.
20-Aug-11
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2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Solar cell: Loss Issues
Crystalline silicon solar cells
SOLAR SPECTRUM AM 1,5
(1000 watt/m2)
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
I
r
r
a
d
i
a
n
c
e
,

w
a
t
t
/
m
2
IrradiationAM 1,5
Useful irradiation(c-Si)
0
2
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
wavel ength, nm
Understanding solar cell efficiency
1 = Thermalization loss
2, 3 = Junction, contact voltage loss
4 = Recombination loss
Solar cell: Reflection
Anti reflection coating (ARC): Reflection reduction from ~30 to ~5%; SiNx or
transparent layers TiO
2
, Ta
2
O
5
ITO can be used as ARC and transparent electrode;
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Crystalline silicon solar cells
p y
2 2 5,
p
Double ARCs ZnS or MgF
2.
ARC needs to have proper selection of refractive index.
Texturing (light trapping): NaOH/KOH wet
chemical etching; anisotropic etching, size
2~10m; pyramids on (100) oriented planes.
Construction of cell surface in pyramid or
14
Solar cell: light energy to electrical energy
py
spherical structure, incoming light hits
surface several times, being trapped and
absorbed. Pyramid surface structuring: lower cost and higher efficiency > 20%.
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Light Trapping
Advantages:
M lti fl ti
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Crystalline silicon solar cells
Multi-reflection;
Light path increases;
Surface area becomes bigger;
Total reflection inside the solar cell.
Disadvantages:
Difficult to form light trapping on
15
Solar cell: light energy to electrical energy
polycrystalline & amorphous silicon surfaces;
Surface area increased: higher surface
carrier recombination.
Laser ablation to create textured surfaces.
Thermal oxidation:
1) Reduction of state density on interfaces;
Solar cell: Passivation
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Crystalline silicon solar cells
2) Oxygen over hot wafer surface and reacts with Si to form SiO
2;
3) This results in an amorphous layer; Process Temperature ~ 1000C;
4) Thickness > 35nm: efficiency decreases.
Passivation with SiN
x
1) Reduction of state density on interfaces;
16
Solar cell: light energy to electrical energy
2) Gases silane SiH
4
and methane NH
3
form a layer of Si
3
N
4;
3) Process Temperature ~ 350C; lower production temperature;
4) Passivation quality rises with silane amount;
5) Nitride is a much better ARC; better passivation.
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2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Surface Recombination
Crystalline silicon solar cells
Solar cell: Passivation
Recombination via interface states
Electron and hole concentrations
determine recombination rate
Recombination via interface states
Reduction of interface state density D
it
decreases recombination
Chemical passivation
Fixed charges reduce surface
concentration of one species
Field-effect passivation
Solar cell: light energy to electrical energy
Rear reflection of light
Al- LBSFR
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Crystalline silicon solar cells
70.53

2ndBounce

1stBounce
Emitter:
Low resistivity
High resistivity
Dielectric layer
18

Al-LBSF
Dielectric layer
Al-LBSFR: ~ 5 % Al area
Rear reflection: > 90 % direct
Al Local-BSF rear contact + dielectrical layer for
passivation and reflection
Dielectric layer
Local back surface field
Solar cell: light energy to electrical energy
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Al
2
O
3
Passivation of p
+
Emitters
on n-type Si Cells
PERL cell (4 cm
2
)
Back-contact EWT cell (4 cm
2
)
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Crystalline silicon solar cells
J . Benick et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 92, 253504 (2008).
F Kiefer et al IEEE JPV submitted(2011)
19
S. Glunz et al., Proc. 35th IEEE PVSC; p. 50 (2010).
F. Kiefer et al., IEEE JPV, submitted (2011).
Cell type V
oc
[mV]
J
sc
[mA/cm
2
]
FF
[%]
h
[%]
PERL 705 41.1 82.5 23.9
EWT 661 40.4 80.8 21.6
Solar cell: light energy to electrical energy
Solar cell contacts
Laser Grooved Buried Contact (LGBC)
Laser ablation creates a deep trench in the front side of solar cell;
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Crystalline silicon solar cells
Trench is ~35m deep and ~20m wide in U or V shape;
Trench is then chemically filled up with contact material, usually silver;
Large metal height-to-width aspect ratio
for closely spaced metal findgers;
for low parasitic resistance loss.
Shadowing loss: only 2% ~ 3%;
Reduced metallic grid and contact
resistance; Reduced emitter
resistance because of closely packed fingers; Efficiency:>17%
Solar cell: light energy to electrical energy
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Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Thin film solar cells
Thin-film deposition to grow a thin layer
of materials onto substrate; of materials onto substrate;
Layer thickness can be controlled within
10s nm; different single layers of atoms
can be deposited;
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) using
gas-phase precursor, often halide or
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Solar cell: light energy to electrical energy
hydride of deposited elements. High toxicity.
PECVD using an ionized vapor or plasma
as a precursor, electromagnetic means
(electric current, microwave excitation) to produce plasma.
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Thin film solar cells
Amorphous silicon cells deposited on stainless steel ribbon:
Can be deposited over large areas by PEVCD; Band gap ~ 1.7 eV. Not stable.
Can be doped, similar to c-Si to form p- or n-type layers; p p yp y
Cadmium telluride (CdTe) cells deposited on glass:
Crystalline compound formed from cadmium and tellurium with a zinc blended
(cubic) crystal structure; Band gap ~ 1.58 eV.
Usually sandwiched with cadmium sulfide (CdS)
to form p-n junction solar cell;
Cheaper than Si thin-film cell but lower efficiency;
22
Solar cell: light energy to electrical energy
p y
Copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS) alloy cells
Deposited on either glass or stainless steel;
substrates; Band gap ~ 1.38 eV;
Complex hetero-junction.
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Based on semiconductor thin-film deposition;
Cheap, greatly reduced mass of materials required for
solar cell, lower cost per watt; Allow fitting solar panels
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Thin film solar cells
, p ; w f ng p n
on flexible or light materials, even textiles.
Low efficiency due to no crystalline structure.
III/V solar cells with higher efficiency, but made of
very expensive semiconducting materials.
Source: GFa - Visolar
Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell: the best developed thin
23
film material, commercial production since 1980. Cheap,
low temperature (< 300
0
C) deposition on a variety of
substrates. Lattice of a-Si contains a range of bond
lengths and orientations, dangling bonds.
Solar cell: light energy to electrical energy
Thin Film Solar Cells
Produced from cheaper polycrystalline materials and glass
High optical absorption coefficients; Bandgap suited to solar spectrum
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
CIGS substrate configuration
CdTe superstrate configuration
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device
type
q
[%]
J
sc
[mA/cm
2
]
V
oc
[V]
ff
[%]
area
[cm
2
]
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Thin film solar cells
CIGS 19.90.3 35.5 0.692 81.0 0.419
CdTe 16.50.5 25.9 0.845 75.5 1.032
a-Si 9.50.3 17.5 0.859 63.0 1.07
* Martin A. Green, et al, Solar
Cell Efficiency Tables (Version
31), Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl.,
vol. 16, 2008, pp. 61-67.
CIGS CdTe
Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC)
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
New generation solar cells
Smallest AE possible
Molecules: atoms bonded together;
More energy states than atoms;
More electron jumps: light at a range
of frequencies can be absorbed.
Inexpensive: made in non-vacuum
setting mainly at room temperature;
Simple manufacturing process;
Thin, lightweight, flexible;
Short return on investment: ~3
months to produce energy savings
equivalent to cost of production.
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How a Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell Works?
Light with high enough energy excites electrons in dye molecules;
Excited electrons infused into semiconducting TiO
2
, transported out of cell;
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
New generation solar cells
Positive holes left in dye molecules;
Separation of excited electrons and holes creates a voltage.
Solar cell: light energy to electrical energy
Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC)
Efficiency > 11%. Structure with transparent wide bandgap n-type semiconductor
configured optimally in nanoscale network of columns (nanoparticles, coral-like
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
New generation solar cells
protrusions). Surface area designed to be huge, covering with monolayer dye or
coating quantum dots functioning as dye.
28
HOMO (LUMO): highest (lowest) occupied molecular orbital.
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Nanostructured solar cell
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
New generation solar cells
Large-area 3D Si nanostructure fabricated
29
Surface nanostructuring: Bandgap engineering, applications could be tandem solar cells and
energy selective contacts for hot carrier solar cells. Fabrication of nanostructures consists
of quantum well and quantum dot super lattices for bandgap control
Large area 3D Si nanostructure fabricated
by laser interference lithography
Black Silicon: light trapping
Cooperative electron oscillations
(plasmons) reradiate incident light
( ) f l l
Plasmonic solar cell
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
(scattering) from metal nanoparticles or
nanostructures.
Reradiated light coupled into solar cell, to
control light distribution with strong near
fields around metal nanofeatures, greatly
enhanced light absorption at resonance
wavelengths., which is designed by tuning
di b d f i medium, substrate, and feature sizes.
For broadband Sunlight absorption,
randomly arranged metal nanoparticles or
nanostructures placed near interface in
heterojunction or 2D lattice on solar cell
front surface are explored.
30
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Up/Down converters with luminescent materials:
1) absorb one high energy photon emit more low energy
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
New generation solar cells
1) absorb one high energy photon, emit more low energy
photons just above bandgap (down-conversion);
2) absorb more low energy photons below bandgap,
emit one photon just above bandgap (up-conversion).
Hot carrier Cells
down-conversion
up-conversion
Next generation technology
to tackle major PV loss mechanism of thermalisation of carriers. Objective is to
slow down cooling rate of photo-excited carriers, caused by phonon interaction in
the lattice to allow enough time for carriers to be collected while they are still
hot, and hence increasing the solar cell voltage.
up-conversion
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Thermophotovoltaic Cell (TPV)
New generation solar cells
Filter passes radiations of energy equal to bandgap of solar cell material;
Emitter radiation matched with spectral sensitivity of cell;
High illumination intensity ~ 10 kW/m
2
. Efficiency ~ twice of ordinary photocell.
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Thermo-photonic Cells
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
New generation solar cells
an extension of TPV, where emitter
is ti f ti i s h t d is active, functioning as a heated
diode, which increases the rate of
energy transfer at a given emitter
temperature and concentrates
emission in an energy range more
suited for conversion by the
Heated semiconductor emits narrow bandwidth radiations
Diode with higher temperature has lower voltage
receiver.
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Multi-junction (Tandem) solar cells
Different semiconductor materials are
arranged one on top of the other to
Technology improvements
decrease the amount of energy lost
during absorption. The cells are
arranged so that they are in descending
order in terms of bandgap Eg.
Eg1 > Eg2 > Eg3.
Current output matched for each cell;
34
Solar cell: light energy to electrical energy
Current output matched for each cell;
Ideal efficiency for infinite stack:
86.8%; GaInP/GaAs/Ge tandem cells
efficiency 40%.
Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory
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Concentrator photovoltaic (CPV) solar cell
High light intensity is focused on high efficiency solar
ll b i d l Th k
2.3 Solar cell devices and structures
Technology improvements
cells by mirrors and lens systems. The system tracks
the Sun, and always using direct radiation.
Efficiency increases: ~35%
35
Solar cell: light energy to electrical energy
2.1 General introduction
New Materials solar cells
Copper indium diselenide CuInSe
2
Bandgap of 1 eV, Voc <0.5 V, Bandgap is 0.5
V l th i d f i l j ti eV less than required for a single junction,
with additional gallium Ga, increases
bandgap to 1.2 eV which leads efficiency to
more than 15%, Still not stable due to high
processing temperature, Planned to increase
its bandgap to 1.4 and 1.6 eV by adding more
Ga and/or S as additional alloy element
Cadmium Telluride CdTe
Unstable commonly because of rear
36
Solar cell: light energy to electrical energy
Unstable commonly because of rear
contact, Cu-doped on rear contact
High processing temperature, Concerns
about uniformity or large area, and
robustness of the process, Current
efficiency ranges from 12% to more than
14%, Too much losses in Voc, Causes to
have less Jsc
Theoretical maximum levels of efficiency of
solar cells at standard condition.
Source: Solar Energy Ireland
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Chapter 3 LED
3.1 LED, its characteristics and applications
LED: Light-emitting diode;
S i d t d h l it Semiconductor and has polarity;
When p-n junction is forward
biased, large number of carriers
are injected across the junction
and recombine to emit light for a
direct bandgap semiconductor.
For visible light output, the
bandgap should be 1.8 ~ 3.1 eV.
1. Transparent Plastic Case; 2.Terminal Pins; 3. Diode 37
3.1 LED, its characteristics and applications
AlInGaP
Communication (fiber optics)
Blue Laser Diodes
Video Recording
AlInGaP
InGaN
g
Data Storage
Televisions
Video Games
High Density DVDs
DVD-ROM drive
LED lighting
DVD M
First company to produce efficient,
reliable, cost-effective WHITE
LEDs will make lots of money.
38
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3.1 LED, its characteristics and applications
LED lighting: different colors
3.1 LED, its characteristics and applications
LED table lamp
Wall lights
LED Lighting Rechargeable Flash Light
40
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3.1 LED, its characteristics and applications
Up to 60% energy savings;
No lead, mercury etc. harmful substances;
No noise no radiation no ultraviolet; No noise, no radiation, no ultraviolet;
Lifespan > 40,000 hours, 30 times longer
than incandescent lamps, 6 times longer
than fluorescent lamps;
Easy replacement of old magnetic & starter
fluorescent lamp systems
LED Tubes replace Fluorescent tubes & save energy
f u n mp y m
(100-240v wide voltage design)
Small size ~ 5mm in diameter;
Cool: less heat radiation;
41
3.1 LED, its characteristics and applications
Savings calculation
42
Compact fluorescent light (CFL) bulbs
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LED, its characteristics and applications
43
Singapore's Safra Club Sport City Tower, Qatar Agbar Tower, Barcelona
LEDs are reinventing look and feel of skylines, bridges, facades etc. architectural surfaces
around the globe. Light bulb is being unscrewed by energy-efficient LEDs that are both
environmentally friendly and cost-effective. $10.2 billion industry is growing to provide new
design options for architects and planners.
44
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Mobile applications (phones,
consoles, MP3 players)
remains the main market
3.1 LED, its characteristics and applications
-Displays, also keyboard, flash
Display backlighting for large LCD
(12 and beyond) is emerging and
poised to grow very fast
-emerging market in projectors
45
Distribution of LED market value by applications
(Source: strategies unlimited)
Compared to other applications, solid
state lighting exploits only a fraction
of its potential in short terms
3.1 LED, its characteristics and applications
Light output
p
Epitaxial
layers
Substrate
n
+
n
+
46
Aschematic illustration of one possible LED device structure. First n
+
is
epitaxially grown on a substrate. Athin p layer is then epitaxially grown on
the first layer.
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3.2 LED physics
Semiconductors
Electrons in a Lattice
Atom has bound states
V(r)
E
Discrete energy levels
Partially filled by electrons
Periodic array of atoms:
Effectively continuous
bands of energy levels
Al i ll fill d
r
V(x)
E
47
Also partially filled
V(x)
r
3.2 LED physics
Semiconductors
Indirect gap: Si
E
Direct gap: GaAs
E
Electron and hole
recombine, producing a
k
E
C
E
V
E
k
E
C
E
V
k
C
Need something
e
h
photon, Need to conserve
energy, momentum, mass,
and charge.
48
E
C
E
V
E
C
E
V
+?
Need something
else to conserve k
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3.2 LED physics
Semiconductors
P-type
N-type
49
P-type N-type
DIODE
3.2 LED physics
PN Junction
P-Type
(Charge neutral)
N-Type
(Charge neutral)
Bring together
Electrons diffuse to P-Type side.
Positive donor ions left behind
Holes diffuse to N-Type side.
Negative acceptor ions left
behind
Depletion layer forms
50
P-Type
(Charge neutral)
D
+
ions
A
-
ions
N-Type
(Charge neutral)
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3.2 LED physics
PN Junction
P-Type
(Charge neutral)
N-Type
(Charge neutral)
Depletion
Region
A
-
D
+
(Charge neutral) (Charge neutral)
A n
p
=0
A n
p
n
p
Excess electrons
A n
p
=0
p
n
A p
n
Excess holes
Zero bias
Forward bias
51
n
p
p
n
Forward bias
Reverse bias
3.2 LED physics
PN Junction
P = 10
15
N
+
= 10
17
Depletion
Region
Most of action is on
this side.
A n
p
= 100* Ap
n
Not much action
on this side
52
Excess holes
on this side.
Excess electrons
For LED: place higher density side close to surface for surface emission.
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3.2 LED physics
PN Junction
P-Type
(Charge neutral)
A
-
Electrons diffuse to
left
A n
p
=n
p0
exp(qV/kT)-n
p0
Silicon:
Electronics
III-V:
Electronics
Photonics
53
Recombines with hole
Electrons diffusing
across depletion layer
Hole injected to
replace hole lost
3.2 LED physics
PN Junction
A n
p
= n
p0
[exp(qV/kT) - 1]
P-Type
(Neutral
Charge)
Depletion
layer
Excess Charge changes with diode voltage
54
Silicon diode:
Current increases exponentially
with forward voltage
III-V LED:
1. Current increases exponentially with
forward voltage
2. Light output increases similarly
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3.2 LED physics
p
n
+
eV
p
n
+
E
c
Electron energy
p-n junction energy band diagram
hu E
g
E
g
V
E
g
eV
o
E
F
Electron in CB
E
v
E
v
E
F
eV
o
Distance into device
E
c
55
(a) The energy band diagram of a p-n
+
(heavily n-type doped) junction
without any bias. Built-in potential V
o
prevents electrons from diffusing
from n
+
to p side. (b) The applied bias reduces V
o
and thereby allows
electrons to diffuse, be injected, into the p-side. Recombination around
the junction and within the diffusion length of the electrons in the p-side
leads to photon emission.
(b) (a)
ect o C
Hole in VB
3.2 LED physics
p-n Junction
P N
+
Our View Until Now: Horizontal
Excess minority
carriers
Light emitted through spontaneous
recombination - all directions
Vertical Structure on Substrate
56
P Substrate
Depletion Layer
Implanted
P
Vertical Structure on Substrate
Implanted
N
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3.2 LED physics
p-n Junction
Excess minority
carriers
Implanted P-Type Region
Emerging LED Light
P
Depletion Layer
I l t d N T R i
57
Light emitted in all directions
through e-h recombination
P-Type Substrate
Implanted N-Type Region
3.2 LED physics
Amplification of Light: Laser
Stimulated emission of a photon
by e-h recombination (gain)
Starting photon
Laser Output
Implanted P-Type Region
Region of
Excess minority
carriers
58
Depletion Layer
Implanted N-Type Region
Fully reflecting mirror
Partially transparent mirror
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3.2 LED physics
Radiative and Non-radiative Recombination
(1) Classification: Inter-band transition: Intrinsic emission (bandgap), Higher energy emission (hot carriers);
(2) Classification: Transitions involving impurities or defects (electronic states in forbidden gap);
(3) Classification: Intra-band transitions involving hot carriers.
59
In radiative recombination, energy is converted into an emitted photon;
Electron-hole recombination for light emission
3.2 LED physics
Electrons and holes can be combined radiatively or non-radiatively, they are
in competition;
For low level excitation, photogenerated carrier concentration is much
smaller than majority carrier concentration but much larger than minority
carrier concentration
h d d Once photo-excitation is terminated, minority carrier concentration decays
exponentially with a characteristic time constant (minority carrier lifetime)
Majority carrier decays but a very small fraction disappear by
recombination.
60
20-Aug-11
31
3.2 LED physics
Non-radiative Recombination
In non-radiative recombination, energy is dissipated inside the material
due to defects existing in crystal structure;
Th m in n n di ti mbin ti n t p s: Three main non-radiative recombination types:
1). Shockley Read and Hall recombination: free carriers recombination via
deep levels, minority carrier lifetime limited by capture cross section,
deep level trap concentration and energy;
2). Auger Recombination: electron-hole recombination by free electron
(h l ) it ti hi h (d l ) i t CB (VB)
61
(hole) excitation high (deeply) into CB (VB);
3). Surface Recombination: dangling bonds due to abrupt change of lattice
periodicity, introducing electronic states in forbidden gap, reduced
luminescence efficiency, heating of surface. (occurs when carriers are
present, carriers injected active region need to be far from the surface)
Defect concentration of deep levels in active region
should be minimum. Surface recombination to be also
minimized to avoid reducing LED lifetime, by keeping
3.2 LED physics
ohmic contact
all surfaces at several diffusion lengths away from
active region.
Non-radiative recombination at misfit dislocations
needs to be controlled as it drops efficiency. Density
of misfit dislocation proportional to lattice mismatch.
Ohmic contact: tunneling through narrow depletion region.
Energy bands bend in so as to encourage transport of
majority carriers through, inhibit minority carriers. Junction passes current
easily in either direction, low resistance contact for majority carriers.
62
Non-radiative Recombination
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32
3.2 LED physics
Efficiency
Internal quantum efficiency q
in
efficiency: ratio of the number of electrons
flowing in the external circuit to the number of photons produced within the
device has been improved up to 80% device, has been improved up to 80%.

in
= number of photons emitted internally
number of carriers passing junction
Also written in terms of their lifetimes
q
in
R
r
t
nr
63
Non-radiative lifetime is attributed to trap density Nt or recombination centers
q
in
R
r
R
nr
+ t
nr
t
r
+
t
nr
1
o u
th
N
t

3.2 LED physics

Efficiency
Optical efficiency q
op
Major loss mechanisms that reduce the quantity of emitted photons
Absorption within the LED material p
Fresnel loss
Critical angle loss
(a) Internal reflection: light can not escape. (b) shaping
semiconductor into a dome: incidence angle at semiconductor-
air interface < critical angle. (c) economic way for light
escaping: encapsulate LED in a transparent plastic dome.
64
20-Aug-11
33
3.2 LED physics
Efficiency
External Quantum Efficiency q
ex q
ex
q
in
q
op

Definition: percentage of photons that can be extracted to the ambient Definition: percentage of photons that can be extracted to the ambient.
Typically ~ 10%
Limiting factor of LED efficiency
Improvement techniques: dome-shaped package, textured surface,
photonic crystal,
65
Optical Properties-Light Escape Cone
3.2 LED physics
Internal reflection at semiconductor-air interface reduces external quantum efficiency.
Angle of total internal reflection defines light escape cone: sin
c
= n
air
/n
s
Area of the escape cone = 2r
2
(1-cos
c
)
P
escape
/ P
source
= (1-cos
c
)/2 =
c
2
/4 = (n
air
2
/n
s
2
)/4
66
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34
Optical Properties-Epoxy encapsulants
3.2 LED physics
Light extraction efficiency increases: dome shaped encapsulants at a high refractive index.
Efficiency of a typical LED increases by a factor of 2~3 upon encapsulation with an epoxy
of n = 1.5. Dome shape of the epoxy implies that light is incident at an angle of 90
o
at the
epoxy-air interface. Hence there is no total internal reflection. 67
3.2 LED physics
Efficiency
Power efficiency q
p
optical power out number of photons emitted externally hv
q
P
p _p _
electrical_power_in
_ _p _ _ y
IV
Luminous efficiency q
lu
Incorporating eye response (sensitive to green light), it takes less power in green
color than in other colors to achieve the same brightness.
683 V ( ) P ( )
(
(
d
68
luminusflux L
0
V ( ) P
op
( )
(
(
(
]
d
q
lu
683 V ( ) P
op
( )
(
(
]
d
VI
20-Aug-11
35
3.2 LED physics
Frequency responce
Important parameter for high speed applications in optical fiber communication
Cut-off frequency of an LED is given by
f
T
1
2tt
1
t
1
t
r
1
t
nr
+
69
t
r
decreases as doping in active layer is increased, f
T
becomes larger. For speed,
increase doping concentration in the middle active layer of the heterostructure
3.2 LED physics
Light Emission
Emission wavelength depends on energy bandgap
h 24 1
Semiconductor compounds have different
Energy band gaps
Atomic spacing (called lattice constants)
Combining semiconductor compounds
1 2
E E E
g
=
g g
E E
h c 24 . 1
= =
70
To adjust the band gap;
Lattice constants (atomic spacing) must be matched;
Compound must be matched to a substrate (GaAs or InP).
20-Aug-11
36
3.2 LED physics
Lattice matching
Lattice mismatch reduces efficiency
Two crystals with mismatched Two crystals with mismatched
lattice constants results in
dislocation at or near the interface
between the two semiconductors.
71
Temperature dependence
Emission intensity decreases with increasing temperature.
Causes include non-radiative recombination via deep levels, surface
l
3.2 LED physics
recombination, and carrier loss over hetero-structure barriers.
Getting heat away from the junction is critical to LED performance;
The package is typically attached to a heat sink.
Lens
LED chip
Silicon
Thermal heatsink
Bond wire
Package
Cathode lead
72
20-Aug-11
37
1
Relative intensity
E
g
+ kT
(2.5-3)kT
E
Electrons in CB
CB
LED characteristics
3.2 LED physics
Relative intensity
1
hu 0
E
g
hu
1
hu
2
hu
3
hu
(c)
E
c
E
v
Holes in VB
VB
1
/
2
kT
E
g
1 2 3
2kT
CB
73
(a) Energy band diagram with possible recombination paths. (b) Energy distribution of electrons in CB and holes in VB.
Highest electron concentration is (1/2)kT above Ec, (c) Relative light intensity as a function of photon energy based on (b),
(d) Relative intensity as a function of wavelength in the output spectrum based on (b)and (c).
0

3
(d)
Carrier concentration
per unit energy
Holes in VB
VB
(a) (b)
Electron concentration: a function of energy in CB, N(E)f(E). N(E) density of
states, f(E) Fermi-Dirac function. Similar energy distribution for holes in VB.
Electron concentration in CB is asymmetrical peak at kT above E
c
. Energy
3.2 LED physics
spread is ~2kT from E
c
. Hole concentration is similarly spread from E
v
in VB.
Rate of direct recombination proportional to electron and hole concentration at
energies involved. Transition involves direct recombination of electron at E
c
and
hole at E
v
. Carrier concentration near band edge is very small, the recombination
does not occur frequently. Relative light intensity at this photon energy is small.
Transitions involving largest electron and hole concentrations occur most
frequently: Transition 2 in the last figure has maximum probability as both
electron and hole concentrations are largest at these energies. Relative light
intensity corresponding to this transition energy is then close to maximum.
LED characteristics
20-Aug-11
38
Transitions 3 emits higher energy photons, but electron and hole concentrations
are small. Light intensity at these photon energies is small;
Relative light intensity versus photon energy characteristic of output spectrum
3.2 LED physics
represents an important LED characteristic; Linewidth of output spectrum is
defined as width between half-intensity points (FWHM), ~3kT;
Wavelength for peak intensity and linewidth of output spectrum are related to
energy distribution of electrons and holes and density of states in CB and VB.
Photon energy for peak emission is ~ Eg +kT as it corresponds to peak-to-peak
transitions in energy distributions of electrons and holes;
Output spectrum or relative intensity versus wavelength characteristics
depends not only on semiconductor material but also junction structure, dopant
concentration levels. The last figure represents an idealized spectrum without
effect of heavy doping on energy bands and re-absorption of photons.
LED characteristics
Typical characteristics of red LED (655 nm). Output spectrum exhibits less asymmetry.
Linewidth spectrum is ~24 nm (~2.7kT in energy distribution of emitted photons).
As LED current increases, injected minority carrier concentration increases, and thus
recombination rate and output light intensity increase
3.2 LED physics
LED characteristics
recombination rate and output light intensity increase.
Output light power increase is not linear with current.
Turn-on voltage is ~ 1.5 V from, at which point the current increases steeply with voltage.
(a)
1.0
Relative
intensity
655nm
(b)
Relativelight intensity
V
2
(c)
600 650
700
0
0.5

24 nm

0
20 40
I (mA)
0
1
0
20 40 I (mA)
0
(a) Output spectrum of GaAsP LED (b)Output light power vs. forward current.(c) I-V characteristics. Turn-on voltage ~ 1.5V
20-Aug-11
39
Spontaneous emission dominates
Random photon emission
l l f
3.3 LED devices and structures
Spatial implications of random emission
Broad far field emission pattern;
Dome used to extract more light;
Critical angle between semiconductor and
plastic;
l b l d l Angle between plastic and air: near normal.
Spectral implications of random emission
Broad spectrum
kT
p
2
45 . 1 ~ A
3.3 LED devices and structures
78
LED structures
20-Aug-11
40
3.3 LED devices and structures
Characteristics of commercial LEDs
( )
% 100 =
IV
optical P
out
external
q
3.3 LED devices and structures
Luminous performance of semiconductor LEDs
20-Aug-11
41
Flexible Organic LED
1). Top Layer: Cathode layer made of
3.3 LED devices and structures
tungsten to releases electrons when
current is run through it;
2). Emissive Layer: remove electrons
from cathode layer and make light;
3). Conductive layer: organic plastic;
4). Anode Layer: current running ) y g
through (graphite particles);
5) Substrate: to support Organic LED
(glass, plastic).
81 OLEDs
3.3 LED devices and structures
LED: small point light sources based on different
semiconductor materials and doping levels.
OLED: organic materials, made in sheets, diffuse
area light source. Thin film of organic material
imprinted between electrodes on glass or plastic.
Semiconductor circuits carry electrical charges to
imprinted organic material pixels, emits bright light.
82 OLEDs
20-Aug-11
42
3.3 LED devices and structures
Advantages of Organic LED
Flexible organic LED: easily mass produced by
inkjet printing or screen printing. j p g p g
Allowing people to see a wider range of colors
and from almost any angle without degrading
picture quality.
Less energy consumption and faster response
time than other LEDs.
83
Disadvantages:
shorter lifetime, can be overcome by adding a
thin sheet of metal in it.
OLEDs
3.3 LED devices and structures
White LED lighting 84
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43
White LED
3.3 LED devices and structures
White light LEDs generally made by doping a blue LED with yellow phosphors
85
3.3 LED devices and structures
White LED lighting 86
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44
Quantum Dots
Colloidal inorganic semiconductor
t l II VI i d t
3.3 LED devices and structures
nanocrystals: II-VI semiconductor
materials (i.e. CdS, CdSe)
2-10 nm in diameter: strongly size
dependent optical and electrical
Properties and Quantum
confinement effects
White LED lighting 87
Quantum Confinement
Light-Emitting Diode (LED) is a PN
junction with recombination of an
3.3 LED devices and structures
junction with recombination of an
electron and hole.
Electron-hole pair known as an exciton
Size of semiconductor crystal on
e
-
h
+
the order of Exciton Bohr Radius
Discrete energy levels
Tunable band gap
Exciton Bohr Radius
White LED lighting 88
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45
Isolated atom
Diamond lattice
3.3 LED devices and structures
Isolated Atoms > Crystal > Artificial Atoms
89
RGB Colloidal Quantum Dot Monolayer
Electron transport layer
Cathode
At 9V:
Brightness:
92 cd/m
2
3.3 LED devices and structures
Hole blocking layer
Quantum dot layer
Hole transport layer
Hole injection layer
Anode
Charge injection
Red: CdSe/ZnS (=620 nm)
Green: ZnSe/CdSe (=540 nm)
Blue: ZnCdS (=440 nm)
into blue QDs more
efficient at higher
applied biases
White LED lighting
Nano Letters (2007) 7 [8] 2196-2200
90
20-Aug-11
46
3.3 LED devices and structures
Homo-junction LED
A pn junction between two differently doped
Hetero-junction LED
A junction between two
semiconductors that are of the same material
91
(a) A blue InGaN/AlGaN Double HJ-LED and (b) its structure.
different bandgap
semiconductors
3.3 LED devices and structures
2 eV
eV
o
Electrons in CB
No bias
E
c
E
(a)
E
c
AlGaAs AlGaAs GaAs
1 4 eV
~ 0.2 m
p p
Hetero-junction LED
(c)
2 eV
o
Holes in VB
E
v
E
c
E
v
E
F
E
F
(b)
1.4 eV
With forward
bias
(d)
GaAs
AlGaAs
AlGaAs
p p n
+
(a) Double hetero-structure diode: two junctions between different bandgap GaAs and AlGaAs. (b, c) Energy band diagram
with and without a forward bias. Illustration of photons escaping re-absorption in AlGaAs layer, emitted out from LED.
20-Aug-11
47
Double hetero-junction LED: increasing the output light intensity;
Semiconductors: AIGaAs (Eg ~ 2 eV), GaAs (Eg ~ 1.4 eV);
Two pn junctions: 1) n
+
p hetero-junction of n
+
-AlGaAs and p-GaAs; 2). Pp
3.3 LED devices and structures
hetero-junction of p-GaAs and p-AIGaAs;
P-GaAs region: thin layer, typically a fraction of a micron, lightly doped;
Energy band diagram without a bias: E
F
continuous throughout whole structure.
Potential energy barrier eV
o
for electrons in CB of n
+
-AlGaAs against diffusion
into p-GaAs;
Bandgap changes at pn junction of p-GaAs and p-AlGaAs resulting in step
93
Bandgap changes at pn junction of p GaAs and p AlGaAs, resulting in step
change AE
c
between two CB of p-GaAs and p-AlGaAs. It is an effective
potential energy barrier, preventing electrons in CB of p-GaAs passing to CB
of p-AlGaAs. (There is also a step change AE
v
in E
v
but is not shown).
Double Hetero-junction LEDs
3.3 LED devices and structures
With a forward bias, most of this bias drops between n
+
-AlGaAs and p-GaAs,
reduces potential energy barrier e Vo, same as a normal pn junction. It allows
electrons in CB of n
+
-AlGaAs to be injected into p-GaAs. These electrons,
however, are confined inside the CB of p-GaAs since there is a barrier AEc
between p-GaAs and p-AlGaAs. Wide bandgap AlGaAs layers therefore act as
confining layers that restrict injected electrons to the p-GaAs layer.
Recombination of injected electrons and the holes already present in the p-
GaAs layer results in spontaneous photon emission. Since bandgap Eg of AlGaAs
Hetero-junction LED
is greater than GaAs, the emitted photons are not re-absorbed as they escape
active region and reach surface of device . Since light is also not absorbed in p-
A1GaAs, it can be reflected , increasing light output.
20-Aug-11
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3.3 LED devices and structures
Confinement barriers are typically several hundred meV (>>kT);
Due to carriers Fermi-Dirac distribution in active region, some carriers have
energy higher than barriers: AlGaAs/GaAs & AlGaN/GaNs barriers are high
while InAlGaInP/GaInPs barrier is lower, resulting in higher leakage currents.
Resistivity of confinement regions should be low so that heating is minimal.
High p-type concentration in cladding region keeps electrons in active region and
prevents them from diffusing into the confinement region.
Electron leakage out of the active region is more severe than hole leakage.
Hetero-junction LED
To increase radiative recombination probability, while reducing non-radiative
recombination probability. High carrier concentration in active region, by double
hetero-structure (DH) design, improves radiative recombination. This design is
3.3 LED devices and structures
Double Hetero-junction LEDs
used extensively in high efficiency designs today.
Doping of active and cladding regions strongly affect internal efficiency. Active
region should not be heavily doped, as it causes carrier spill-over into
confinement regions and decrease radiative efficiency. Doping levels: 10
16
-
10
17
cm
-3
. P-type doping of active region is normally done due to larger electron
diffusion length.
High internal efficiency LED designs
Carrier lifetime depends on the concentration of majority carriers.
In low excitation, radiative carrier lifetime decreases with increasing free
carrier concentration. Efficiency increases with doping. At high concentration,
dopants induce defects acting as recombination centers.
96