Why study GE 172?

• In the practice of geodetic surveying, the

Introduction objective is to create a geodetic control
network.
and
• The original measurements/observations,
Review of Basic Concepts
however, are expected to contain random
errors so redundant measurements are
taken.

GE 172 (Geodetic Computation & Adjustment II)

Why study GE 172? Why study GE 172?

• Using the redundant measurements, the

random errors can be distributed, and a
Geodetic Control Network
unique and consistent solution to the
model can be achieved by means of data
adjustment.
• The adjusted observations are then Survey Data adjustment
Measurements
Need redundant
Adjusted
used to establish the geodetic control Random Errors measurements Observations
network.

Adjustment of Redundant Observations Review of Least Squares

Several adjustment techniques are available, two
of these that are used in surveying are:
• Simple Adjustment – approximate adjustment
• Least Squares Adjustment – most rigorous
and most commonly used approach
Least Squares Adjustment – used to solve problems
with redundant measurements (number of equations >
number of unknowns)
– applied to survey measurements and models
under the category of geodetic survey.
The least squares criterion:
φ = ν12 + ν22 + … + νn2 = minimum

1
 Review of Least Squares Adjustment of Indirect Observations
• General form: (matrix form)
Techniques of least squares: ν + B∆ = f
1. Adjustment of indirect observations where:
(Parametric adjustment) ν = residual matrix
2. Adjustment of observations only B = matrix of coefficients for unknown
(Conditional adjustment) parameters
∆ = matrix of unknowns
f = matrix of numerical constants

Adjustment of Indirect Observations Adjustment of Indirect Observations

• To solve the problem, the general form is • The solution to the normal equations is
transformed to: therefore:
N∆ = t ∆ = N-1t
equal to equal to

BTWB∆ = BTWf ∆ = (BTWB)-1BTWf

where:
N = matrix of normal equations where:
W = weight matrix N-1 = inverse of the matrix of normal
equations

Adjustment of Indirect Observations Adjustment of Indirect Observations

Example: The measured interior angles of a Solution:
plane triangle are: The condition equations are:
l1 = 52° 25’ 37” (w1 = 2) v1 + l1 = x1
l2 = 63° 18’ 20” (w2 = 1) v2 + l2 = x2
l3 = 64° 16’ 00” (w3 = 3) v3 + l3 = 180° - x1 - x2
Assuming uncorrelated measurement,
compute for the least-squares estimates of v1 - x1 = -l1
angles.
v2 - x2 = -l2
v3 + x1 + x2 = 180° - l3

2
 Adjustment of Indirect Observations Adjustment of Indirect Observations
Solution: Solution:
Writing it as the matrix form of ν + B∆ = f,
 v1   −1 0   −52°25'37"   5 3   x1   452°03'14" 
     x1       =  
v
  
2 + 0 − 1    =  −63°18' 20"   3 4   x2   410°30 '20" 
 v   1 1   x2   115°44 '00" 
 3    

The solution is therefore BTWB∆ = BTWf :

 2 0 0   −1 0   2 0 0   −52°25'37" 
x1 = 52° 25’ 37.82”
 −1 0 1     x1   −1 0 1    x2 = 63° 18’ 21.64”
   0 1 0   0 −1   =    0 1 0   −63°18' 20" 
 0 −1 1      x2   0 −1 1  0 0 3   115°44 '00" 
0 0 3 1 1     x3 = 180° - x1 - x2 = 64° 16’ 00.54”

Adjustment of Observations Only Adjustment of Observations Only

• General form: (matrix form) • To solve the problem, the general form is transformed
to:
Aν = f Qek = f
where: equal to
A = matrix of numerical coefficients of AQATk = f
residuals where:
ν = residual matrix Q = W -1 = inverse of the weight matrix
f = matrix of numerical constants k = matrix of Lagrange multipliers
AQAT = counterpart of the ‘matrix of normal
equations’ in the adjustment of indirect observations

Adjustment of Observations Only Adjustment of Observations Only

• To solve for the values of k: • Example: The measured interior angles of a
k = Qe-1f plane triangle are:
k = (AQAT)-1f l1 = 52° 25’ 37” (w1 = 2)
l2 = 63° 18’ 20” (w2 = 1)
• Finally, we can solve for the residuals using:
l3 = 64° 16’ 00” (w3 = 3)
Assuming uncorrelated measurement,
ν = QATWef compute for the least-squares estimates of
where: angles.
We = (AQAT)-1

3
 Adjustment of Observations Only Adjustment of Observations Only
Solution: Solution:
The minimum number of measurements to In matrix form, the form Aν = f can be written as:
solve for a plane triangle is 2. The redundancy  v1 
therefore is:
(1 1 1)  v2  = 03"
r = n – no = 3 – 2 = 1 v 
 3
This number also corresponds to the
number of observation equations needed,
which is: To solve for the residuals we use ν = QATWef.

x1 + x2 + x3 = 180°
v1 + v2 + v3 = 180° - l1 - l2 - l3 = 03”

Adjustment of Observations Only Adjustment of Observations Only

Solution: Solution:
−1
  1/ 2 0 0  1 
      0.82" 
We = (1 1 1)  0 1 0  1   
  0 0 1/ 3  1 
   
v =  1.64" 
 0.55" 
 
We = (1.833333333) = 0.545454545
−1

 1/ 2 0 0 1 x1 = 52° 25’ 37” + 0.82” = 52° 25’ 37.82”

  
v =  0 1 0 1 ( 0.545454545 )( 03") x2 = 63° 18’ 20” + 1.64” = 63° 18’ 21.64”
 0 0 1/ 3 1 x3 = 64° 16’ 00” + 0.55” = 64° 16’ 00.55”
  

Review of Linearization Review of Linearization

• most of the geodetic models are non-
Original function
linear such as the geodetic traverse
Linearized Function
and the triangulation.
P
• the process of linearization is used to
transform non-linear models into linear y P’

models O
yo

∆x

xo x

4
 Review of Linearization Review of Linearization
• uses the Taylor Series Expansion:
Example: Given the estimated values to be x1o = 50m,
 dy  x2o = 20m, and x3o = 30m, linearize the following
f ( x) = y = yo +   ∆x + higher-order terms equations:
 dx  xo
π 1
where: y1 = x32 + x1 x3
8 2
ignored!
yo = f(xo) 1 1
y2 = x1 x3 + x2 x3
∆x = x - xo 2 2

Review of Linearization Review of Linearization

The Jacobian matrix is: The estimated values are:

 π 2 1 
 δ y1
δx
δ y1 δ y1   1
x 0
π 1 
 x30 + x10  
 y10   8 x30 + 2 x10 x30   1103.43  2
δ x2 δ x3   2 3 0
4 2  y0 =   =  = m
J =
1 =  y2   1
 δ y2 δ y2 δ y2   1 1  1 1   0   x1 x3 + 1 x2 x3  1050.00 
δx δ x2 δ x3   2 3
x x3  x10 + x20   2 0 0 2 0 0
 1
0
2 0  2 2 
15 0 49  Using the linearized form y = y0 + J∆x:
J = 
15 15 35   ∆x1 
 1103.43  15 0 49    2
y=  + 15 15 35   ∆x2  m
 1050.00    
 ∆x3 

Review of Linearization
The linearized forms of the equations are therefore:

y1 = (1103.43 + 15∆x1 + 49∆x3 )m 2

y2 = (1050.00 + 15∆x1 + 15∆x2 + 35∆x3 ) m 2 Review of Statistics

GE 172 (Geodetic Computation & Adjustment II)

Engr. Abella
Department of Geodetic Engineering

5
 What is Statistics? Application of Statistics
Statistics may be applied to 2 different groups:
• It is a collection of methods for:
Planning Experiments 1. Populations -- Complete collection of all elements
Obtaining… to be studied.
Organizing… -- example, scores, people, measurements.
Summarizing… 2. Samples -- A sub-collection of elements drawn from
Presenting… a population.
Analyzing… -- example, this class is a sample from the
Interpreting… entire population of statistic students – statistic
and Drawing Conclusions from… students are a sample from the entire population of
students, etc.
DATA

Application of Statistics Mean

•The value obtained by adding all the values and
Populations
Parameters
dividing by the total number of values.
•Affected by extreme values or outliers.
A Parameter is a measurement describing some n

characteristic of a population. ∑X i
sample mean = X = i =1

n
Samples
Statistics n

∑X i
A Statistic is a measurement describing some population mean = µ = i =1
characteristic of a sample. N

Median Weighted Mean

• Middle value when all the values are arranged
in order (ascending or descending)
n
• Not affected by outliers
1 1 2 3 6 8 12
median is 3
∑ (W * X ) i
weighted mean = X = i =1

1 3 5 7 9 11
no single middle value ΣW

median is the average of the two
middle values (average of 5 and 7)

median = 5 + 7 = 6
2

6
 Standard Deviation Variance
•A measure of variation of the individual values about •Square of the standard deviation
the mean
n
n

∑ (Xi − X ) 2 ∑ (X i − X )2
sample std. dev. = s = i =1 sample variance = s 2 = i =1

n −1 n −1

∑(X − µ )2
n

∑(X i − µ) 2
i

pop. std. dev. = σ = i =1 pop. variance = σ 2 = i =1

N N

Sample Variance Expectation

• Sample variance s2 is the best point estimate of
the population variance σ2.
• Sample standard deviation s is the best point
estimate of the population standard deviation σ.
• Expected value
• Equal to the mean for a normal distribution
• represents the (probability-weighted) average
value for the random variable

Distribution Functions Distribution Functions

•Normal Distribution • Other than the mean, we cannot assume
• Assumed to be the basic probability model for all survey that all other statistics from a random
measurements
sample drawn from a normal population
• Bell-shaped
are normally distributed
• Mean=Median=mode
• Unimodal
• Symmetrical about the mean • It is therefore important to be familiar
• Continuous curve with other sampling distributions
• Curve is asymptotic
• Most common are the chi-square and student
• Area under the curve is 1
(t) distributions
• These sampling distributions can be used to
test for the normality of a sample and its
statistics

7
 Distribution Functions Distribution Functions
Chi-squared Distribution t (student) Distribution

• Arises frequently in applications because of its close • shape varies according

association with the normal distribution. to the degrees of freedom
• Not symmetric, unlike the normal and t distributions. • used instead of the
normal distribution
whenever the standard
deviation is estimated.

Confidence Interval Confidence Level

• Interval estimate • Degree of confidence or confidence
• A range or an interval of values likely to coefficient
contain the true value of the population • The probability 1-αα that the
parameter confidence interval containds the
• Lower number < Pop. Parameter< upper true value of the population
number parameter
 α represents the area in both tails of
the normal distribution