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SF027 1
A group of A group of
phenomena phenomena
associated with associated with
magnetic field. magnetic field.
UNIT 6: MAGNETISM UNIT 6: MAGNETISM
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Definition is defined as the region around a magnet where the region around a magnet where
a magnetic force can be experienced. a magnetic force can be experienced.
A stationary electric charge is surrounded by an electric field only.
When an electric charge moves, it is surrounded by an electric field
and a magnetic field. The motion of the electric charge produces motion of the electric charge produces
the magnetic field the magnetic field.
Magnetic field has two poles, called north (N) north (N) and south (S) south (S). This
magnetic poles are always found in pairs found in pairs whereas a single magnetic
pole has never been found.
Like poles (N Like poles (N- -N or S N or S- -S) repel S) repel each other.
Opposite poles (N Opposite poles (N- -S) attract S) attract each other.
6.1.1 Magnetic field lines
Magnetic field lines are used to represent a magnetic field.
By convention, magnetic field lines leave the north pole leave the north pole and enters enters
the south pole the south pole of a magnet.
Magnetic field lines can be represented by straight lines or curves.
The tangent to a curved field line at a point indicates the direction
of the magnetic field at that point as shown in figure 6.1.a.
6.1 Magnetic Field
Fig. 6.1a Fig. 6.1a
direction of magnetic direction of magnetic
field at point P. field at point P.
P P
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Magnetic field can be represented by crosses crosses of by dotted circles dotted circles
as shown in figures 6.1b and 6.1c.
A uniform field is represented by parallel lines of force. This means that
the number of lines passing perpendicularly through unit area at all
cross-sections in a magnetic field are the same as shown in figure
6.1d.
A non-uniform field is represented by non-parallel lines. The number of
magnetic field lines varies at different unit cross-sections as shown in
figure 6.1e.
Fig. 6.1b : magnetic field lines Fig. 6.1b : magnetic field lines
enter enter the page perpendicularly the page perpendicularly
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
Fig. 6.1c : magnetic field lines Fig. 6.1c : magnetic field lines
leave leave the page perpendicularly the page perpendicularly
unit cross unit cross- -sectional area sectional area
Fig. 6.1d Fig. 6.1d
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The number of lines per unit cross number of lines per unit cross- -sectional area is proportional sectional area is proportional
to the magnitude of the magnetic field to the magnitude of the magnetic field.
Magnetic field lines do not intersect do not intersect one another.
6.1.2 Magnetic field lines Pattern
The pattern of the magnetic field lines can be determined by using two
methods.
Using compass needles Using compass needles (shown in figure 6.1f)
stronger field in stronger field in A A
1 1
Fig. 6.1e Fig. 6.1e
A A
1 1
A A
2 2
weaker field in weaker field in A A
2 2
Fig. 6.1f : plotting a magnetic Fig. 6.1f : plotting a magnetic
field line of a bar magnet. field line of a bar magnet.
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Using sprinkling iron filings on paper Using sprinkling iron filings on paper (shown in figure 6.1g).
Figure below shows the various pattern of magnetic field lines around
the magnets.
Fig. 6.1g : Thin iron filing indicate the magnetic Fig. 6.1g : Thin iron filing indicate the magnetic
field lines around a bar magnet. field lines around a bar magnet.
a. Bar magnet a. Bar magnet
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b. Horseshoe or U magnet b. Horseshoe or U magnet
c. Two bar magnets (unlike pole) c. Two bar magnets (unlike pole) - - attractive attractive
d. Two bar magnets (like poles) d. Two bar magnets (like poles) - - repulsive repulsive
Neutral point ( Neutral point (point where point where
the resultant magnetic the resultant magnetic
force is zero force is zero). ).
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6.1.3 Magnetization of a Soft Iron
There are two methods to magnetized the soft iron.
Using the permanent magnet. Using the permanent magnet.
One permanent magnet
A permanent magnet is bring near to the soft iron and
touching the surface of the soft iron by following the path in
the figure 6.1h.
This method is called induced magnetization induced magnetization.
The arrows arrows in the soft iron represent the magnetization
direction with the arrowhead being the north pole and
arrow tail being the south pole. It is also known as
domains domains ( the tiny magnetized region because of spin
magnetic moment of the electron).
Fig. 6.1h Fig. 6.1h
N N S S
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In an unmagnetized piece of soft iron, these domains are
arranged randomly but it is aligned in one direction when
the soft iron becomes magnetized.
The soft iron becomes a temporary magnet with its south
pole facing the north pole of the permanent magnet and
vise versa as shown in figure 6.1h.
Two permanent magnets
Bring and touch the first magnet to one end of the soft iron
and another end with the second magnet as shown in
figure 6.1i and 6.1j.
Fig. 6.1i Fig. 6.1i
N N S S
Fig. 6.1j Fig. 6.1j
N N
N N S S S S
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Using Electrical circuit. Using Electrical circuit.
A soft iron is placed inside a solenoid (a long coil of wire
consisting of many loops of wire) that is connected to the
power supply as shown in figure 6.1k.
When the switch S is closed, the current I flows in the solenoid
and produces magnetic field.
The directions of the fields associated with the solenoid can be
found by viewing the current flows in the solenoid from viewing the current flows in the solenoid from
both end both end as shown if figure 6.1k or applying the right hand right hand
grip rule grip rule below.
N N
S S
I I I I
Fig. 6.1k Fig. 6.1k
S S N N
Switch, Switch, S S
Thumb Thumb north pole north pole
Other fingers Other fingers direction of current in solenoid. direction of current in solenoid.
Important
Current Current - -
anticlockwise anticlockwise
Current Current - - clockwise clockwise
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a. a.
N N S S
Other examples:
Note :
If you drop drop a permanent magnet on the floor or strike strike it with a
hammer, you may jar the domains into randomness domains into randomness. The magnet
can thus lose some or all lose some or all of its magnetism.
Heating Heating a magnet too can cause a loss of magnetism.
I I
I I
b. b.
I I I I
S S
N N
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The permanent magnet also can be demagnetized by placing it placing it
inside a solenoid that connected to an alternating source inside a solenoid that connected to an alternating source.
Example 1 : (exercise)
Sketch the magnetic field lines pattern around the bar magnets as
shown in figures below.
a.
6.2.1 Magnetic flux density, B
Definition is defined as the magnetic flux per unit area across an the magnetic flux per unit area across an
area at right angles to the magnetic field area at right angles to the magnetic field.
Mathematically,
It also known as magnetic induction magnetic induction (magnetic field intensity magnetic field intensity)
6.2 Magnetic Flux Density and Magnetic Flux

=
A
B
B
where
flux magnetic :
B

field magnetic the to angles right at area :

A
b.
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It is a vector quantity and its direction follows the direction of the
magnetic field.
Its unit is weber per metre squared (Wb m
-2
) or tesla (T).
Unit conversion :
6.2.2 Magnetic flux,
B
Magnetic flux of a uniform magnetic field uniform magnetic field,
Definition is defined as the scalar product between the magnetic the scalar product between the magnetic
flux density, B with the vector of the surface area, flux density, B with the vector of the surface area, A. A.
Mathematically,
It is a scalar quantity and its unit is weber (Wb).
Consider a uniform magnetic field B passing through a surface area A
as shown in figures 6.2a and 6.2b.
From the fig. 6.2a, =0, thus
BA A B
B
cos = =
r r
) (G gauss 10 Wb m 1 T 1
4 2 -
= =
A. and B of direction e between th angle :
where flux magnetic :
B

o
0 BA
B
cos =
BA
B
=
B
r
A
r
area, A
Fig. 6.2a Fig. 6.2a
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The magnetic flux is proportional to the number of field lines magnetic flux is proportional to the number of field lines
passing through the area. passing through the area.
Let us consider an element of area dA on an arbitrarily shaped surface
as shown in figure 6.2c.
From the fig. 6.2b, the angle
between B and A is , thus
Note that the direction of vector
A is always perpendicular perpendicular
(normal) to the surface area, A.
BA
B
cos =
area, A
Fig. 6.2b Fig. 6.2b

A
r
B
r
Fig. 6.2c Fig. 6.2c
B
r

A d
r
If the magnetic field at this element is
, the magnetic flux through the element
is
Where is a vector that is
perpendicular to the surface and has a
magnitude equal to the area dA.
Therefore, the total magnetic flux
through the surface is given by
A d B
r r

A d
r
B
r

= = BdA A d B
B
cos
r r
SF027 14
B
r
A
o
30
Example 2 :
Figure above shows a flat surface with an area of 3.0 cm
2
is placed in
the uniform magnetic field. The plane surface makes an angle 30 with
the direction of the magnetic field. If the magnetic flux through the
surface is 0.90 mWb, calculate the magnitude of the magnetic field.
Solution: A=3.0x10
-4
m
2
,
B
=0.90x10
-3
Wb
T 0 6 B . =
B
r
A
r
o
30

o
30
From the figure, the angle between B
and A is
By applying the equation of magnetic
flux for uniform B hence
o o o
60 30 90 = =
BA
B
cos =
A
B
B
cos

=
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The law can be stated as :
The magnitude of magnetic flux density The magnitude of magnetic flux density dB dB at a point P which is a at a point P which is a
distance distance r r from a very short length from a very short length dl dl of a conductor carrying a of a conductor carrying a
current current I I is given by is given by
where where is the angle between the short length and the line joining is the angle between the short length and the line joining
it to point P. it to point P.
This law can be summarized by using the diagram shown in figure 6.3a.
6.3 Biot-Savart Law
2
r
Idl
dB
sin

Fig. 6.3a Fig. 6.3a

P P
I
I

l d
r
r
into the paper into the paper B d
r
r
The direction of dB is given by the
right hand grip rule (figure 6.3b).
(6.3a) (6.3a)
Thumb Thumb direction of current direction of current
Other fingers Other fingers direction of magnetic field. direction of magnetic field.
Important
Fig. 6.3b Fig. 6.3b
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If the medium around the conductor is vacuum or air vacuum or air then the equation
6.3a can be written as
In vector form, using the unit vector , we have
To find the total magnetic field B at any point in space due to the current
in a complete circuit, eq. 6.3b needs to be integrated over all segment
that carry current, symbolically
2
0
r
Idl
4

dB
sin

=
r
(6.3b) (6.3b) Magnitude form Magnitude form
2
0
r
r Idl
4

dB

= (6.3c) (6.3c) Vector form Vector form

space free of ty permeabili :
0

where element current : Idl

1 7
A m T 10 x 4

=
l d
r

=
2
0
r
Idl
4

B
sin
(6.3d) (6.3d) Magnitude form Magnitude form
or

=
2
0
r
r Idl
4

(6.3e) (6.3e) Vector form Vector form

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Amperes law is an alternative to the Biot-Savart law.
For conductors in a vacuum or air the law states
This law can be summarized by using the diagram shown in figure 6.4a.
6.4 Amperes Law
enc 0
I l d B =

r r
(6.4a) (6.4a) or
enc 0
I Bdl =

cos
where
path closed a
around density flux the of integral line : cos

Bdl
l d B
r r
and of rection di e between th angle :
It is the sum of the terms Bdl cos for every
very short length dl of the closed path.
density flux magnetic the of magnitude : B
path by the enclosed current :
enc
I
l d
r
B
r

Part of closed path Part of closed path

Fig. 6.4a Fig. 6.4a
clockwise clockwise
or or
anticlockwise anticlockwise
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Note :
Both Biot-Savart and Amperes law can be used to determine the
magnetic field of a long straight conductor, a circular coil and a long
thin solenoid.
When a current flows in a conductor wire or coil, the magnetic field will
be produced.
The direction of magnetic field direction of magnetic field around the wire or coil can be
determined by using the right hand grip rule right hand grip rule as shown in figure 6.3b.
6.5.1 Magnetic field of a long straight conductor (wire) carrying current
The magnetic field lines pattern around a straight conductor carrying
current is shown in figures 6.5a and 6.5b.
6.5 Magnetic field produced by the electrical
current
or
Fig. 6.5a Fig. 6.5a
I
B
r
B
r
I
B
r
B
r
I
Current out of the page Current out of the page
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The equation of magnetic flux density at any point from a long straight
wire carrying current can be determined by using Biot-Savart law.
Consider a straight conductor with length 2a carrying a current I as
shown in figure 6.5c.
or
I
Fig. 6.5b Fig. 6.5b
B
r
B
r
I
Current into the page Current into the page
B
r
B
r
I X X
X X
0 0
a a
- -a a

x
P P
y
I
l d
r
2 2
y x r + =
2a 2a
Fig. 6.5c Fig. 6.5c
2
0
r
Idy
4

dB
sin

=
X X
B d
r
To find the field dB at point P caused by
the element of the conductor of length
dl=dy shown in figure 6.5c, firstly we use
Biot-Savart law.
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From the figure 6.5c,
Therefore dB at point P produced by element dl is given by
To find the magnitude of the total magnetic flux density B at point P
supplied by the whole conductor, integrate eq. 6.5a from -a to a then
2 2
y x r + =
2 2
y x
x
+
= = ) sin( sin and
2 2
2 2
0
y x
y x
x
dy
4
I
dB
+

+
=

( )
2 3
2 2
0
y x
xdy
4
I
dB
/
+
=

(6.5a) (6.5a)
( )


+
=
a
a
2 3
2 2
0
y x
xdy
4
I
dB
/

2 2
0
a x x
a 2
4
I
B
+
=

(6.5b) (6.5b)
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I
I X X
S S
N N
When the length of the conductor is infinitely long then a is much
larger than x so that
Therefore the B at point P produced by whole conductor is
6.5.2 Magnetic field of a Circular Shaped Coil
The magnetic field lines pattern around a circular shaped coil carrying
current is shown in figures 6.5d.
. a a x
2 2
+
x 2
I
B
0

=
where
conductor the from point any of distance : x
or
R
I
I
I
Fig. 6.5d Fig. 6.5d
S S
N N
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The equation of magnetic flux density at any point from a circular
shaped coil carrying current can be determined by using Biot-Savart law.
Consider a circular shaped conductor with radius R that carries a
current I as shown in figure 6.5e.
To find the field dB at a point P on the axis of the circular (loop) at
distance x from the centre O, we need to apply Biot-Savart law.
z
y
P P
y
dB
B d
r
l d
r
I
I
I
O O
R
x
2 2
R x r + =
x
dB
x

Fig. 6.5e Fig. 6.5e

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From the figure 6.5e, dl and r are perpendicular and the direction of
the field dB caused by the element dl lies in the yz-plane.
Since
dl is given by
The components of the vector dB are
x-component :
2 2
R x r + =
( )
2 2
0
R x
dl
4
I
dB
+
=
, the magnitude dB of the field due to element
2
0
r
Idl
4

dB
sin

=
o
90 = and
( )
2 1
2 2
R x
R
/
cos
+
= = cos dB dB
x
and
( )
2 3
2 2
0
x
R x
dl
4
IR
dB
/
+

=
( )
( )
2 1
2 2
2 2
0
x
R x
R
R x
dl
4
I
dB
/
+
+
=
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y-component :
By symmetry, when the component component dB dB
y y
are summed over all
elements around the loop, the resultant component is zero zero. It
because the current in any element on the one side of the loop current in any element on the one side of the loop
sets up a dB
y
that cancels cancels the dB
y
set up by the current through the current through
the element diametrically opposite it the element diametrically opposite it. (figure 6.5f)
Therefore the resultant field at point P must along the x axis resultant field at point P must along the x axis and
is given by
( )
2 1
2 2
R x
x
/
sin
+
= = sin dB dB
y
and
( )
2 3
2 2
0
y
R x
dl
4
Ix
dB
/
+

=
I
I X X
y
x
P P
B d
r
B d
r
O O
Fig. 6.5f Fig. 6.5f
( )

+

=
2 3
2 2
0
x
R x
dl
4
IR
dB
/
( )

+
= dl
R x 4
IR
B
2 3
2 2
0
x /
R 2 dl =

and
Circumference of Circumference of
the circular coil the circular coil
( )
2 3
2 2
2
0
x
R x 2
IR
B
/
+
=
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In general ,
The magnitude of magnetic field magnetic field B B at point O (centre of the centre of the
circular coil or loop circular coil or loop) , x=0 is given by
or
On the axis of On the axis of
a circular coil a circular coil
( )
2 3
2 2
2
0
R x 2
IR
B
/
+
=
On the axis of N On the axis of N
circular coils circular coils
( )
2 3
2 2
2
0
R x 2
NIR
B
/
+
=
( )
2 3
2
2
0
R 0 2
IR
B
/
+
=
R 2
NI
B
0
=
At the centre of N At the centre of N
circular coils circular coils
where
coil circular the of radius : R
(loops) coils of number : N
space free of ty permeabili :
0

1 7
A m T 10 x 4

=
current : I
coil the of centre a point with a between distance : x
SF027 26
Fig. 6.5g Fig. 6.5g
I
I
or
6.5.3 Magnetic field of a Solenoid
The magnetic field lines pattern around a solenoid carrying current is
shown in figures 6.5g.
S S
N N
I
I
X X X X X X X X
I
I
I
I
I
I
S S N N
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Fig. 6.5h Fig. 6.5h
The equation of magnetic flux density around a solenoid carrying
current I can be determined by using Amperes law.
Consider a very long solenoid with closely packed coils, the field is
nearly uniform and parallel to the solenoid axes within the entire
cross section, as shown in figure 6.5h.
To find the magnetic field inside the solenoid and at the centre, we
choose and draw the rectangle closed path abcd as shown in figure
6.5h (clockwise) for applying Amperes law.
By considering this path consists of four segment : ab, bc, cd and
da, then Amperes law becomes
) ( ) ( small very 0 outside B =
r
B
r
d
a
b
c
l
l d
r
l d
r
l d
r
l d
r
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The magnetic flux density at the end of the solenoid at the end of the solenoid is given by
nI B
0
=
l
NI
B
0
=
NI l d l d l d l d
0
a
d
d
c
c
b
b
a
= + + +

r r r r r r r r
B B B B
or or
where
n
l
N
=
encircles path our (loops) coils of number : N
NI 90 dl 0 dl 90 dl
0
a
d
d
c
c
b
= + +

o o o
cos cos cos B B B
NI dl
0
d
c
=

B l dl
d
c
=

and
and
where length unit per coils of number : n

=
enc 0
I l d
r r
B NI I
enc
= and
At the centre/ mid At the centre/ mid- -
point/ inside of N point/ inside of N
turn solenoid turn solenoid
( ) nI
2
1
B
0
=
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Example 3 :
Two long straight wires are placed parallel to each other and carrying
the same current I. Sketch the magnetic field lines pattern around both
wires
a. when the currents are in the same direction.
b. when the currents are in opposite direction.
Solution:
a.
I
I
I
I
I
I
or or
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b.
or or
I
I
I
I
I
I X X
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Example 4 :
A long wire (X) carrying a current of 30 A is placed parallel to and 3.0
cm away from a similar wire (Y) carrying a current of 6.0 A.
a. Find the magnitude and direction of the magnetic flux density midway
between the wires :
i. when the current are in the same direction.
ii. when they are in opposite direction.
b. When the currents are in the same direction there is a point
somewhere between X and Y at which the magnetic flux density is
zero. How far from X is this point ?
(Given
0
= 4 x 10
-7
H m
-1
)
Solution: I
X
=30 A, I
Y
=6.0 A, d=3.0x10
-2
m
a. i.
X
B
r
Y
B
r
X
I
Y
I
A
X
r
Y
r
X
B
r
Y
B
r
X
I
Y
I
d
A
X
r
Y
r
or or
m 10 x 5 1
2
d
r r
2
Y X
.

= = =
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By using the equation of magnetic field at any point near the
straight wire, then at point A
Magnitude of B
X
:
Magnitude of B
Y
:
Therefore the total magnetic flux density at point A is
a.ii.
T 10 x 2 3 B
4
A
.

=
Y X A
B B B
r r r
+ =
X
X 0
X
r 2
I
B

=
Direction : into the page Direction : into the page
T 10 x 0 4 B
4
X
.

=
Y X A
B B B =
(upwards) (upwards)
Y
Y 0
Y
r 2
I
B

=
Direction : out of page Direction : out of page
T 10 x 0 8 B
5
Y
.

=
(downwards) (downwards)
Direction : into the page Direction : into the page
(upwards) (upwards)
Into the page Into the page + (positive) + (positive)
Out of page Out of page - - (negative) (negative)
Sign convention of B
X
I
Y
I
d
A
X
r
Y
r
X
B
r
Y
B
r
X
B
r
Y
B
r
or or
m 10 x 5 1
2
d
r r
2
Y X
.

= = =
X
I
Y
I
A
X
r
Y
r
X X
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By using the equation of magnetic field at any point near the
straight wire, then at point A
Magnitude of B
X
:
Magnitude of B
Y
:
Therefore the total magnetic flux density at point A is
b.
T 10 x 8 4 B
4
A
.

=
Y X A
B B B
r r r
+ =
X
X 0
X
r 2
I
B

=
Direction : into the page Direction : into the page
T 10 x 0 4 B
4
X
.

=
Y X A
B B B + =
(upwards) (upwards)
Y
Y 0
Y
r 2
I
B

= T 10 x 0 8 B
5
Y
.

=
Direction : into the page Direction : into the page
(upwards) (upwards)
Direction : into the page Direction : into the page
(upwards) (upwards)
X
I
Y
I
d
A
X
r
Y
r
X
B
r
Y
B
r
Y
B
r
or or
r r
X
=
X
B
r
X
I
Y
I
A
X
r
Y
r
r d r
y
=
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By using the equation of magnetic field at any point near the
straight wire, then at point A
Magnitude of B
X
:
Magnitude of B
Y
:
Since the total magnetic flux density at point A is zero, hence
m 10 x 5 2 r
2
.

=
Y X A
B B B
r r r
+ =
r 2
I
B
X 0
X
= Direction : into the page Direction : into the page
Y X
B B 0 =
(upwards) (upwards)
r) (d 2
I
B
Y 0
Y

= Direction : out of page Direction : out of page

(downwards) (downwards)
r) (d 2
I
r 2
I
Y 0 X 0

=
Y X
X
I I
dI
r
+
=
SF017
SF027 35
Example 5 :
a. A 2000 turns solenoid of length 40 cm and resistance 16 is
connected to a 20 V supply. Find the magnetic flux density at the mid
point of the axis of the solenoid.
b. A solenoid 1.30 m long and 2.60 cm in diameter carries a current of
18.0 A. The magnetic field inside the solenoid is 23.0 mT. Find the
length of the wire forming the solenoid. (Halliday,Resnick&Walker,p.708,no.42)
(Given
0
=4 x 10
-7
H m
-1
)
Solution:
a. Given N=2000 turns, l=40x10
-2
m, R=16 , V=20 V
By applying the equation of magnetic flux density at the centre of the
solenoid, thus
T 10 x 9 7 B
3
.

=
l
NI
B
0
=
R
V
I =
lR
NV
B
0
=
and
SF027 36
b. Given l=1.30 m, d=2.60x10
-2
m, I=18.0 A, B=23.0x10
-3
T
By applying the equation of magnetic flux density inside the solenoid,
thus
Since the shaped of each coil forms the solenoid is circle, then the
circumference of one coil is
Therefore the length of the wire forming the solenoid, L is
Example 6 :
A closely wound circular coil a diameter of 4.00 cm has 600 turns and
carries a current of 0.500 A. Determine the magnitude of the magnetic
field
a. at the centre of the coil.
b. at a point on the axis of the coil 8.00 cm from its centre.
(Given
0
=4 x 10
-7
H m
-1
) (Young&Freedman,p.1098,no.28.28)
m 108 L =
l
NI
B
0
=
turns 1322 N =
I
Bl
N
0
=
d nce circumfere =
m 10 x 17 8 nce circumfere
2
= .
) ( nce circumfere N L =
SF017
SF027 37
Solution: N=600 turns, d=4.00x10
-2
m, I=0.500 A
a. By using the equation of magnetic flux density at the centre of the
coil, thus
b. Given x=8.00x10
-2
m.
By applying the equation of magnetic flux density at a point of
distance x on the axis of the circular coil from its centre, thus
T 10 x 43 9 B
3
.

=
R 2
NI
B
0
=
d
NI
B
0
=
2
d
R = and
( )
2 3
2 2
2
0
R x 2
NIR
B
/
+
=
2
d
R = and
2 3
2
2
2
0
4
d
x 8
NId
B
/

+
=
T 10 x 35 1 B
4
.

=
SF027 38
Example 7 :
The segment of wire in figures a and b carry a current of I=5.00 A,
where the radius of the circular arc is R=3.00 cm.
For each figure, find the magnetic flux density at origin (point O)
(Given
0
=4 x 10
-7
H m
-1
)
Solution: I=5.00 A, R=3.00x10
-2
m
Figure a : Sections (1) and (3) are straight line and the angle
between dl and the line joining dl to point O is 0or 180.
O
R
I
Fig. a Fig. a
O
R
I
Fig. b : exercise Fig. b : exercise
O
R
I
1
3
2
l d
r
l d
r
Hence B
1
and B
3
at point O is

=
2
0
1
r
0 Idl
4

B
o
sin
0 B B
3 1
= =

=
2
0
3
r
180 Idl
4

B
o
sin
and
SF017
SF027 39
Section (2) is a quarter of circular coil hence the B
2
at point O is
Therefore the total magnetic flux density at point O is
Figure b : Ans. :5.24 x 10
-5
T into the page.
Example 8 :
Four long, parallel power wires each carry 100 A current. A cross
sectional diagram for this wires is a square, 20.0 cm on each side. For
each case in figures a, b and c,
R 2
NI
4
1
B
0
2

=
R 8
I
B
0
2
=
1 N = and
T 10 x 62 2 B
5
2
.

=
3 2 1 O
B B B B + + =
T 10 x 62 2 B
5
O
.

=
Direction : into the page Direction : into the page
Direction : into the page Direction : into the page
Fig. a Fig. a
X X X X
X X X X
Fig. b :exercise Fig. b :exercise
X X
X X
Fig. c : exercise Fig. c : exercise
X X X X
Use right hand grip Use right hand grip
rule rule
SF027 40
i. sketch the magnetic field lines pattern on the diagram.
ii. calculate the magnetic flux density at the centre of the square.
(Given
0
=4 x 10
-7
H m
-1
)
Solution: I
1
=I
2
=I
3
=I
4
=I=100 A, l=20.0x10
-2
m
Figure (a) :
i.
Since r
1
=r
2
=r
3
=r
4
and I
1
=I
2
=I
3
=I
4
then the magnitude of B
1
,B
2
, B
3
and B
4
at point C are the same and given by
X X X X
X X
X X
1
r
1
I
2
I
4
I
3
I
2
r
4
r
3
r
C
X X X X
X X X X
ii.
l
l
1
B
r
2
B
r
4
B
r
3
B
r
2
l l
r r r r r
2 2
4 3 2 1
+
= = = = =
m 141 0 r . =
r 2
I
B B B B B
0
4 3 2 1
= = = = =
T 10 x 41 1 B
4
.

=
SF017
SF027 41
From the diagram, B
1
cancel the B
3
and B
2
cancel the B
4
, thus
Figure (b) : Ans. : 0
Figure (c) : Ans. : 4.0 x 10
-4
T direction : to the left (180)
A stationary stationary electric charge in a magnetic field will not experience any not experience any
force force. But if the charge is moving charge is moving with a velocity, v in a magnetic field,
B then it will experience a force. This force known as magnetic force magnetic force.
The magnitude magnitude of the magnetic force can be calculated by using the
equation below :
In vector form vector form,
4 3 2 1 C
B B B B B
r r r r r
+ + + =
0 B
C
=
6.6 Magnetic Force on a Moving Charge
Bqv F sin =
( ) B v q F
r
r
r
=
where force magnetic : F
density flux magnetic : B
charge a of velocity : v
charge the of magnitude : q
B v
r
r
and between angle :
(6.6a) (6.6a)
(6.6b) (6.6b)
SF027 42
Fig. 6.6b Fig. 6.6b
B
r
v
r
F
r
Fig. 6.6a Fig. 6.6a
B
r
v
r
F
r
The direction of the magnetic force can be determined by using the
Flemings hand rule.
Fleming Fleming s right hand s right hand rule : - for negative negative charge
Fleming Fleming s left hand s left hand rule : - for positive positive charge
Example 9 :
Determine the direction of the magnetic force, exerted on a charge in
each problems below.
a. b.
shown in figures
6.6a and 6.6b
Thumb Thumb direction of direction of Force Force
First finger First finger direction of direction of Field Field
Second finger Second finger direction of direction of Velocity Velocity. .
Important
F
r
+
B
r
v
r

B
r
v
r
SF017
SF027 43
c. d. e.
Solution:
a. By using Flemings left hand rule,
thus
c. By using Flemings right hand rule,
thus

B
r
v
r
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
v
r
+
I
I

v
r
+
B
r
v
r
F
r
(into the (into the
page) page)
b. By using Flemings right hand rule,
thus

B
r
v
r
F
r
(to the left) (to the left)

B
r
v
r
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
F
r
(to the left) (to the left)
d. Using right hand grip rule to
determine the direction of magnetic
field forms by the current I on the
charge position. Then apply the
Flemings right hand rule, thus
I

v
r
B
r
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X
F
r
(to the left) (to the left)
SF027 44
e. Using right hand grip rule to determine the direction of magnetic field
forms by the current I on the charge position. Then apply the Flemings
left hand rule, thus
Example 10 : (exercise)
Determine the sign of a charge in each problems below.
a. b.
Ans. : positive charge, positive charge
Example 11 : (exercise)
Determine the direction of the magnetic force exerted on a positive
charge in each figures below when a switch S is closed.
v
r
+
I
F
r
(upwards) (upwards)
B
r
X X X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X X X
B
r
v
r
F
r
B
r
v
r
F
r
SF017
SF027 45
a. b.
Ans. :a. into the page, b. out of page
Example 12 :
Calculate the magnitude of the force on a proton travelling 3.0
x10
7
m s
-1
in the uniform magnetic flux density of 1.5 Wb m
-2
, if :
a. the velocity of the proton is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
b. the velocity of the proton makes an angle 50 with the magnetic field.
(Given the charge of the proton is +1.60 x 10
-19
C)
Solution: v=3x10
7
m s
-1
, B=1.5 T, q=1.60x10
-19
C
a. Given = 90 then by applying the equation of magnetic force on a
moving charge, thus
Switch, S Switch, S
+
v
r
Switch, S Switch, S
+
v
r
sin Bqv F =
N 10 x 2 7 F
12
.

=
SF027 46
b. Given = 50 then by applying the equation of magnetic force on a
moving charge, thus
Example 13 : (exercise)
An electron experiences the greatest force as it travels 2.9 x 10
6
m s
-1
in
a magnetic field when it is moving north. The force is upward and of
magnitude 7.2 x 10
-13
N. Find the magnitude and direction of the
magnetic field. (Giancolli, pg.705, no.22)
(Given the charge of the electron is -1.60 x 10
-19
C)
Ans : 1.6 T to the east.
Example 14 : (exercise)
An electron is moving in a magnetic field. At a particular instant, the
speed of the electron is 3.0 x 10
6
m s
-1
. The magnitude of the magnetic
field on the electron is 5.0 x 10
-13
N and the angle between the velocity
of the electron and the magnetic force is 30. Calculate the magnitude
of the magnetic flux density on the electron in the field.
(Given the charge of the electron is -1.60 x 10
-19
C)
Ans : 1.2 T
sin Bqv F =
N 10 x 5 5 F
12
.

=
SF017
SF027 47
Fig. 6.7a Fig. 6.7a
B
r
I
F
r
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field B, thus
a magnetic force will acts on that conductor.
The magnitude magnitude of the magnetic force exerts on the current-carrying
conductor is given by
In vector form vector form,
The direction of the magnetic force can be determined by using the
Fleming Fleming s left hand rule s left hand rule as shown in figure 6.7a.
6.7 Magnetic Force on a current-carrying
conductor
BIL F sin =
( ) B L I F
r r r
=
where force magnetic : F
density flux magnetic the of magnitude : B
current : I
conductor the of length : L
B I
r
and of direction between angle :
Thumb Thumb direction of direction of Force Force
First finger First finger direction of direction of Field Field
Second finger Second finger direction of direction of Current Current. .
Important
(6.7a) (6.7a)
(6.7b) (6.7b)
SF027 48
Note :
It is clear from eq. (6.7a),
the magnetic force on the conductor has its maximum value
when the conductor (and therefore the current) and the
magnetic field are perpendicular (at right angles) to each other
then =90 (shown in figure 6.7b).
the magnetic force on the conductor is zero when the
conductor (and therefore the current) is parallel to the magnetic
field then =0 (shown in figure 6.7c).
One One tesla tesla is defined as the magnetic flux density of a field as the magnetic flux density of a field
in which a force of 1 in which a force of 1 newton newton acts on a 1 acts on a 1 metre metre length of a length of a
conductor which carrying a current of 1 ampere and is conductor which carrying a current of 1 ampere and is
perpendicular to the field. perpendicular to the field.
o
90 BIL F sin
max
=
BIL F =
max
B
r
o
90 =
I
Fig. 6.7b Fig. 6.7b
o
0 BIL F sin =
0 F =
B
r
o
0 =
I
Fig. 6.7c Fig. 6.7c
SF017
SF027 49
Example 15 :
Determine the direction of the magnetic force, exerted on a conductor
carrying current, I in each problems below.
a. b.
Solution:
For both problems, use Flemings left hand rule :
a.
B
r
I
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
B
r
I
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
B
r
I
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
B
r
I
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
b.
F
r
F
r
(to the left) (to the left)
(to the right) (to the right)
SF027 50
Example 16 :
A wire of 20 cm long is placed perpendicular to the magnetic field of
0.40 Wb m
-2
.
a. Calculate the magnitude of the force on the wire when a current 12 A
is flowing.
b. For the same current in (a), determine the magnitude of the force on
the wire when its length is extended to 30 cm.
c. If the force on the 20 cm wire above is 60 x 10
-2
N and the current
flows is 12 A, find the magnitude of magnetic field was supplied.
Solution: L=20x10
-2
m, B=0.40 T, =90
a. Given I = 12 A.
By applying the equation of magnetic force on a current-carrying
conductor, thus
b. Given I = 12 A and L = 30x10
-2
m
By applying the equation of magnetic force on a current-carrying
conductor, thus
BIL F sin =
N 96 0 F . =
BIL F sin =
N 4 1 F . =
SF017
SF027 51 d
2
I
2
I
1
I
1
I
X
Y
Fig. 6.8a Fig. 6.8a
c. Given I = 12 A, L = 20x10
-2
m , =90 and F = 60x10
-2
N
By applying the equation of magnetic force on a current-carrying
conductor, thus
Consider two identical straight conductors X and Y carrying currents I
1
and I
2
with length L are placed parallel to each other as shown in figure
6.8a.
BIL F sin =
T 25 0 B . =
IL
F
B
sin
=
6.8 Forces between two current-carrying
conductors
1
B
r
2
B
r
The conductors are in vacuum and
their separation is d.
The magnitude of the magnetic flux
density, B
1
at point P on conductor Y
due to the current in conductor X is
given by
Conductor Y carries a current I
2
and in
the magnetic field B
1
then conductor Y
will experiences a magnetic force, F
12
.
P
d 2
I
B
1 0
1

= Direction : into the Direction : into the

page/paper page/paper
12
F
r
21
F
r
Q
SF027 52
The magnitude of F
12
is given by
The magnitude of F
21
is given by
Conclusion :
sin L I B F
2 1 12
=
o
90 = and
o
90 L I
d 2
I
F
2
1 0
12
sin

Direction : to the left (towards X) Direction : to the left (towards X) L I

d 2
I
F
2
1 0
12

Use Fleming Use Fleming s left s left

hand rule hand rule
sin L I B F
1 2 21
=
o
90 = and
o
90 L I
d 2
I
F
1
2 0
12
sin

Direction : to the right (towards Y) Direction : to the right (towards Y) L I

d 2
I
F
1
2 0
12

d 2
L I I
F F F
2 1 0
21 12

= = =
r r
The properties of this force : Attractive force The properties of this force : Attractive force
(6.8a) (6.8a)
SF017
SF027 53
If the direction of current in conductor Y is change to upside down as
shown in figure 6.8b.
Note :
The currents are in the same direction same direction 2 conductors attract attract each
other.
The currents are in opposite direction opposite direction 2 conductors repel repel each
other.
The magnitude of F
12
and F
21
can
be determined by using eq. 6.8a and
its direction by applying Flemings left
hand rule.
Conclusion :
The properties of this force : The properties of this force :
Repulsive force Repulsive force
2
I
2
I
1
I
1
I
d
X
Y
Fig. 6.8b Fig. 6.8b
21
F
r
12
F
r
1
B
r
P
2
B
r
Q
SF027 54
Example 17 :
Two very long parallel wires are placed 2.0 cm apart in air. Both wires
carry a current of 8.0 A and 10 A respectively. Find
a. the magnitude of the magnetic force in newton, on each metre length
of wire.
b. the magnetic flux density at point P, midway between the wires if the
currents (exercise)
i. in the same direction.
ii. In opposite direction.
(Given
0
=4 x 10
-7
H m
-1
)
Solution: I
1
=8.0 A, I
2
=10 A, d=2.0x10
-2
m
a. Given L = 1.0 m
By applying the equation of force for two parallel current-carrying
conductors, thus
b. Ans. : 0.4 x 10
-4
T out of page (downwards), 3.6 x10
-4
T into the page
(upwards)
Hint : Example 4a.
d 2
L I I
F
2 1 0
=
N 10 x 0 8 F
4
.

=
SF017
SF027 55
Example 18 : (exercise)
Two long, straight, parallel wires in a vacuum are 0.25 m apart.
i. The wires each carry a current of 2.40 A in the same direction.
Calculate the force between the wires per metre of their length. Draw
a sketch showing clearly the direction of the force on each wire.
ii. The current in one of the wires is reduced to 0.64 A. Calculate the
current needed in the second wire to maintain the same force
between the wires per metre of their length as in (i).
(Given
0
=4 x 10
-7
H m
-1
)
Ans. : 4.6 N, 9.0 A
6.9.1 Definition of Ampere
From the eq. (6.8a), if two long, straight, parallel conductors , 1.0 m
apart in vacuum carry equal 1.0 A currents hence the force per unit
length that each conductor exerts on the other is
6.9 Definition of Ampere and Ampere Balance
d 2
I I
L
F
2 1 0

=
) 0 . 1 ( 2
) 0 . 1 )( 0 . 1 )( 10 x 4 (
L
F
7
=
1 7
m N 10 x 0 2
L
F

= .
SF027 56
m
Fig. 6.9a Fig. 6.9a
D D
Q Q
A A
E E
F F
B B
C C
G G
H H
P P
I
A
d
l
The ampere The ampere is defined as the constant current that, when it is the constant current that, when it is
flowing in each of two infinitely long, straight, parallel condu flowing in each of two infinitely long, straight, parallel conductors ctors
which have negligible of cross sectional areas and are 1.0 which have negligible of cross sectional areas and are 1.0 metre metre
apart in vacuum, would produce a force per unit length apart in vacuum, would produce a force per unit length
between the conductors of 2.0 x 10 between the conductors of 2.0 x 10
- -7 7
N m N m
- -1 1
. .
6.9.2 Ampere (current) Balance
An instrument used to measure a current absolutely, on the basis of the
definition of the ampere (due to the forces between two long, straight,
parallel conductors).
Figure 6.9a shows a schematic diagram for a current balance where the
current can be determined by measuring the force between two
conductors carrying the same current.
F
r
g m W
r
r
=
SF017
SF027 57
The plane ABCD and light rod PQ are adjusted so that the plane is
initially horizontal.
Conductors BC and EF are placed parallel to each other, equal in length
l and separated by a distance d.
When a current I flows, conductors BC and EF repels, hence the plane
ABCD is unbalanced.
The mass mneeded to restore the plane ABCD in torque equilibrium
where Torque due to the mass = Torque due to the force on BC Torque due to the mass = Torque due to the force on BC
PQ AB
l l =
and
AB PQ
Fl Wl =
d 2
l I I
mg
2 1 0

=
I I I
2 1
= =
and
d 2
l I
mg
2
0

=
then
l
mgd 2
I
0

=
where ) ( on accelerati l gravitiona :
2 -
m s 81 . 9 g
SF027 58
6.10.1 A charged particle moves perpendicular to the magnetic field.
Consider a charged particle moving in a uniform magnetic field with its
velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field.
As the particle enters the region, it will experiences a magnetic force
which the force is perpendicular to the velocity of the particle. Hence the
direction of its velocity changes but the magnetic force remains
perpendicular to the velocity.
This magnetic force, F
B
makes the path of the particle is a circular as
shown in figures 6.10a, 6.10b, 6.10c and 6.10d.
6.10 Motion of a Charged Particle in a
Uniform Magnetic Field
+
v
r
v
r
+
B
F
r
+
v
r
B
F
r
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
Fig. 6.10a Fig. 6.10a
+
v
r
v
r
+
B
F
r
+
v
r
B
F
r
Fig. 6.10b Fig. 6.10b
SF017
SF027 59
Since the path is circle therefore the magnetic force F
B
contributes the
centripetal force F
c
(net force) in this motion. Thus

v
r
v
r

B
F
r

v
r
B
F
r

v
r
v
r

B
F
r

v
r
B
F
r
Fig. 6.10d Fig. 6.10d
Fig. 6.10c Fig. 6.10c
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
c B
F F =
r
mv
Bqv
2
= sin
o
90 = and
Bq
mv
r =
where
particle charged the of mass : m
velocity the of magnitude : v
path circular the of radius : r
particle charged the of magnitude : q
SF027 60
The period of the circular motion, T makes by the particle is given by
Since
6.10.2 A charged particle moves not perpendicular to the magnetic field.
If the direction of the initial velocity is not perpendicular to the uniform
magnetic field, the velocity component parallel to the field is constant
because there is no force parallel to the field.
Therefore the particle moves in a helix path helix path as shown in figure 6.10e.
r v =
v
r 2
T

=
T
2
= and
Bq
m 2
T

=
or
f
1
T =
Bq
mv
r = and
thus the frequency of the circular motion makes by the
particle is
m 2
Bq
f

=
SF017
SF027 61
The radius of the helix, r is given by
Example 19 :
An electron at point A in figure below has a speed v
0
of 1.41 x 10
6
m s
-1
.
Given e = 1.60 x10
-19
C
m
e
= 9.11 x 10
-31
kg
v
r
B
r
z
y
x Fig. 6.10e Fig. 6.10e
//
v v v
r r r
+ =

Bq
mv
r

=

v
r
//
v
r
where
B v
r
r
the lar to perpendicu component velocity :

B v
r
r
the to parallel component velocity :
//

0
v
B
A
cm 0 10 .
Find
a. the magnitude and direction of the
magnetic field that will cause the electron
to follow the semicircular path from A to B.
b. the time required for the electron to move
from A to B. (Young&Freedman,p.1055,no.27.15)
SF027 62
Solution: v
0
=1.41x10
6
m s
-1
, d=10.0x10
-2
m
a. Since the path makes by the electron is semicircular thus the
magnitude magnitude of the magnetic field is given by
The direction direction of B : electron (use Flemings right hand rule)
b. Since the path is semicircular then the time required for the electron
moves from A to B is half of the period and given by
s .
7
10 x 11 1 t

=
; = r v
0
T
2
1
t = where
Be
v m
r
0 e
=
2
d
r = and
ed
v m 2
B
0 e
= T 10 x 61 1 B
4
.

=

0
v
B
A
F
r
Into the page. Into the page.
T
2
= and
2
d
r =
0
v
d
T

=
0
v 2
d
t

=
SF017
SF027 63
6.11.1 Lorentz Force
Definition is defined as the total force acting on a charge the total force acting on a charge q q moving moving
with a velocity with a velocity v v in the presence of both an electric field in the presence of both an electric field
E E and a magnetic field and a magnetic field B B.
Its formula is given by
It also known as electromagnetic force electromagnetic force.
6.11.2 Determination of q/m
The value of q/m is constant for any charged particle.
Consider a positive charged particle with mass m, charge q and speed
v enters a region of space where the electric and magnetic fields are
perpendicular to the particles velocity and to each other as shown in
figure 6.11a.
6.11 Lorentz Force and Determination of q/m
B E
F F F
r r r
+ =
E q F
E
r r
=
where
( ) B v q F
B
r
r
r
=
and
) ( B v E q F
r
r
r r
+ = where force Lorentz : F
r
SF027 64
E
r
The charged particle will experiences the electric force F
E
is downwards
with magnitude qE and the magnetic force F
B
is upwards with
magnitude Bqv (fig. 6.11a).
If the particle travels in a straight line with constant velocity hence the
electric and magnetic forces are equal in magnitude. Therefore
Only particles with speeds equal to E/B can pass through without being
deflected by the fields. Eq. (6.11a) also works for electron or other
negative charged particles.
++++++++++++++++++
Fig. 6.11a Fig. 6.11a
X X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X
B
r
v
r
+
v
r
+
v
r
+
B
F
r
E
F
r
B E
F F F
r r r
+ = 0 F =
r
and
qE Bqv =
B
E
v = (6.11a) (6.11a)
SF017
SF027 65
If no electric field in fig. 6.11a, then the particle will makes a circular path
where
In the J.J. Thomsons experiment , the speed v of electron with mass m
is determined by an accelerating potential difference V between two
plates where
Therefore by substituting eq. (6.11c) into eq. (6.11a) then the value of
e/m is given by
C B
F F =
rB
v
m
q
= and
r
mv
Bqv
2
=
B
E
v =
(6.11b) (6.11b)
2
rB
E
m
q
= therefore
eV mv
2
1
2
=
m
eV 2
v =
Kinetic energy of the Kinetic energy of the
electron electron
= =
Electric potential Electric potential
energy energy
(6.11c) (6.11c)
SF027 66
From the experiment the value of e/m is 1.758820174 x 10
11
C kg
-1
.
Example 20 :
An electron with kinetic energy of 5.0 keV passes perpendicular through
a uniform magnetic field of 0.40 x 10
-3
T. It is found to follow a circular
path. Calculate
a. the radius of the circular path.
b. the time required for the electron to complete one revolution.
(Given 1 eV=1.60x10
-19
J, e/m =1.76x10
11
C kg
-1
, m
e
=9.11x10
-31
kg)
Solution: B=0.40x10
-3
T, K=5.0x10
3
(1.60x10
-19
)=8.0x10
-16
J
a. The speed of the electron is
2
B
E
m
eV 2

=
(6.11d) (6.11d)
2
2
VB 2
E
m
e
=
2
mv
2
1
K =
m
K 2
v =
1 7
s m 10 x 2 4 v

= .
SF017
SF027 67
Since the path made by the electron is circular, thus
b. The time required for the electron to complete one revolution is
Example 21: (exercise)
A proton moving in a circular path perpendicular to a constant magnetic
field takes 1.00 s to complete one revolution. Determine the magnitude
of the magnetic field. (Serway & Jewett,pg.921,no.32)
(Given m
p
=1.67x10
-27
kg, charge of the proton, q=1.60 x 10
-19
C)
Ans. : 6.56 x 10
-2
T
C B
F F =
r
mv
Bev
2
= sin
o
90 = and
B
m
e
v
r

=
m 60 0 r . =
= r v
v
r 2
T =
T
2
= and
s 10 x 0 9 T
8
.

=
SF027 68
Q
P
b
a
Fig. 6.12a Fig. 6.12a
Consider a rectangular coil (loop) of wire with side lengths a and b that
it can turn about axis PQ. The coil is in a magnetic field of flux density B
and the plane of the coil makes an angle with the direction of the
magnetic field. A current I is flowing round the coil as shown in figure
6.12a.
6.12 Torque on a Coil in a Magnetic Field

B
r
B
r
B
r
B
r
B
r
F
r
F
r
1
F
r
I I
I
I
1
F
r
A
r

SF017
SF027 69
sin
2
b
sin
2
b
From the figure 6.12a, the force F
1
on the right side of the coil is to the
right and B is perpendicular to the current thus the magnitude of the
force F
1
is given by
Another force F
1
with the same magnitude but opposite direction acts
on the opposite side of the coil. (fig. 6.12a)
The forces F act on the side length b where the lines of action of both
forces lies along the PQ. (fig. 6.12a)

B
r
B
r
B
r
1
F
r
1
F
r
A
r

2
b
rotation rotation
rotation rotation
o
90 BIL F
1
sin = a L = and
IaB F
1
= (6.12a) (6.12a)
Fig. 6.12b : Side view Fig. 6.12b : Side view
SF027 70
The total force total force on the coil is zero zero but the net torque net torque is not zero not zero
because the forces F
1
are not lie along the same line thus the rotation
of the coil about an axis PQ is clockwise (fig. 6.12b).
The magnitude of the net torque about the axis PQ ( fig. 6.12b) is given
by

= sin sin
2
b
F
2
b
F
1 1
IaB F
1
=

= sin
2
b
F 2
1
and
( )

= sin
2
b
IaB 2
= sin IabB coil) of area ( A ab = and
= sin IAB
90 =
o
and
or
IAB cos =
(6.12b) (6.12b)
where coil on the torque :
density flux magnetic : B
coil in the flows current : I
SF017
SF027 71
For a coil of N turns, the torque is given by
Note :
The torque is zero when =90 or =0 but the magnetic flux is
maximum as shown in figure 6.12c.
The torque is maximum when =0 or =90 but the magnetic
flux is zero as shown in figure 6.12d.
= sin NIAB
or
NIAB cos =
where B A
r r
and area ctor between ve angle :
B
r
and coil the of plane e between th angle :
o
0 =
o
90 =
B
r A
r
Fig. 6.12c Fig. 6.12c
o
0 NIAB sin =
o
90 NIAB cos = or
0 =
but
o
0 BA
B
cos =
BA
B
=
maximum maximum
(6.12c) (6.12c)
(coils) turns of number : N
SF027 72
If
In vector form vector form is
where is called magnetic moment magnetic moment or electromagnetic moment electromagnetic moment.
Magnetic moment is a vector quantity.
Its direction can be determined by using right hand grip right hand grip rule.
E.g.
A NI
r
r
= then eq. (6.12c) can be written as
o
90 =
o
0 =
B
r
A
r
o
90 NIAB sin =
o
0 NIAB cos = or
NIAB = maximum maximum
but
o
90 BA
B
cos =
0
B
=
Fig. 6.12d Fig. 6.12d
= sin B Magnitude form Magnitude form
B
r
r r
=

r
I
I
Thumb Thumb direction of magnetic moment direction of magnetic moment
Other fingers Other fingers direction of current in the direction of current in the
coil coil
Important
SF017
SF027 73
In a radial field radial field, the plane of the coil plane of the coil is always parallel always parallel to the
magnetic field magnetic field for any orientation of the coil about the vertical axis
as shown in figure 6.12e.
Hence the torque torque on the coil in a radial field radial field is always constant constant
and maximum maximum given by
Radial field is used in moving coil galvanometer.
o
0 =
o
90 = or
o
90 NIAB sin =
o
0 NIAB cos = or
NIAB =
maximum maximum
S
S
N
N
coil coil
fixed soft fixed soft
iron cylinder iron cylinder
Fig. 6.12e : Plan view of moving coil meter Fig. 6.12e : Plan view of moving coil meter
radial field radial field
SF027 74
6.13.1 Moving-Coil Galvanometer
A galvanometer consists of a coil of wire suspended in the magnetic
field of a permanent magnet. The coil is rectangular and consists of
many turns of fine wire as shown in figure 6.13a.
6.13 Moving-Coil Galvanometer and Direct
Current (DC) Motor
Fig. 6.13a Fig. 6.13a
When the current I flows through
the coil, the magnetic field exerts
a torque on the coil as given by
This torque is opposed by a
spring which exerts a torque,
s
given by
The coil and pointer will rotate
only to the point where the spring
torque balances the torque due to
magnetic field, thus
NIAB =
k
s
=
where
constant torsional : k
coil the of angle rotation :
radian in
SF017
SF027 75
6.13.2 Direct-Current (DC) Motor
A motor is an instrument that converts electrical energy to mechanical
energy.
A motor works on the same principle as a galvanometer, except that
there is no spring so the coil can rotate continuously in one direction.
When a current flows in the coil, a torque is produced, which causes the
coil PQRS to rotate as shown in figure 6.13b.
s
=
k NIAB =
NAB
k
I =
C C
1 1
, C , C
2 2
: : Commutators Commutators
B B
1 1
, B , B
2 2
: Brushes : Brushes
PQRS PQRS : Rectangular coil : Rectangular coil
S
S
N
N
P P
Q Q
R R
S S
C C
2 2
C C
1 1
B B
1 1
B B
2 2
I I
I
I
Fig. 6.13b Fig. 6.13b
SF027 76
The commutators also rotate with the coil PQRS but the brushes are
stationary with the circuit.
When the coil rotates half revolution (180), each commutator changes
its connection to the other brush where C
1
touching B
2
and C
2
touching
B
1
. This arrangement will cause the direction of the current through the
coil to be reversed after every half revolution and ensures that the
direction of the torque is always the same. Therefore the coil can turn
continuously.
The torque on the coil PQRS of the motor is given by
Example 22:
A 20 turns rectangular coil with sides 6.0 cm x 4.0 cm is placed vertically
in a uniform horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 1.0 T. If the current
flows in the coil is 5.0 A, determine the torque acting on the coil when
the plane of the coil is
a. perpendicular to the field,
b. parallel to the field,
c. at 60 to the field.
= sin NIAB NIAB cos = or
SF017
SF027 77
Solution: N=20 turns, A=24x10
-4
m
2
,B=1.0 T, I=5.0 A
a.
b.
c.
From the figure, =90 and =0 ,
thus the torque on the coil is
= sin NIAB NIAB cos = or
0 =
B
r
A
r
o
90 =
From the figure, =0 and =90 ,
thus the torque on the coil is
= sin NIAB NIAB cos = or
m N 24 0 . =
B
r
A
r
o
90 =
B
r
A
r
o
30 =
o
60 =
From the figure, =60 and =30 ,
thus the torque on the coil is
= sin NIAB NIAB cos = or
m N 12 0 . =
SF027 78
y +
x +
z +
h
Q
d
P
Definition is defined as the production of a potential difference the production of a potential difference
within a conductor or semiconductor through which a within a conductor or semiconductor through which a
current flowing when there is a strong transverse current flowing when there is a strong transverse
magnetic field. magnetic field.
6.14.1 Explanation of Hall Effect
Consider a flat conductor (such as copper) carrying a current I in the
direction of +x-axis and is placed in a uniform magnetic field B (-z axis)
perpendicular to the plane of the conductor as shown in figure 6.14a.
6.14 Hall Effect

++ ++ ++ ++ ++++
B
r
B
r
d
v
r

I I
B
F
r
E
F
r
Fig. 6.14a Fig. 6.14a
d d : width of the conductor : width of the conductor
h h : thickness of the conductor : thickness of the conductor
E
r
H
V
SF017
SF027 79
In metal the charge carrier is electron. The electrons drift with a drift
velocity v
d
in the opposite direction of the current I (shown in figure
6.14a).
The magnetic force F
B
acts on the electron in the direction upwards
(Flemings right hand rule) and cause the electron deflected to the upper
surface (P).
As time passes, more and more electrons will accumulate on the upper
surface (P) and left behind positive charges at the lower surface (Q).
This results in an electric field E acting in the direction upwards and the
electrons will experience electric force F
E
in the direction downwards.
The electric force F
E
will gradually increase as more electrons
accumulate at the upper surface.
An equilibrium will be reached when the magnitude of the electric force
F
E
becomes equal to the magnitude of the magnetic force F
B
and then
the electrons will drift along the x axis without any more deflection.
At this instant, the upper surface (P) will be negative potential and the
lower surface (Q) will be positive potential. Hence a potential difference
will exist and known as Hall potential difference (voltage) Hall potential difference (voltage) V V
H H
.
SF027 80
If the flat conductor is replaced with the flat semiconductor and the
charge carrier is positive charge, explain the phenomenon of hall effect
in this flat based on figure 6.14b. (exercise)
6.14.2 Equation of Hall Voltage , V
H
According to the figures 6.14a and 6.14b, the Hall potential difference
(voltage) is
When the equilibrium is reached between the electric and magnetic
force then
Fig. 6.14b Fig. 6.14b
y +
x +
z +
I
+
B
r
B
r
P
I
H
V
h
Q
d
d d : width of the conductor : width of the conductor
h h : thickness of the conductor : thickness of the conductor
E B
F F =
Ed V
H
=
qE F
E
=
o
90 Bqv F
d B
sin = where and
qE Bqv
d
=
d
V
E
H
=
and
SF017
SF027 81
From the definition of the drift velocity v
d
,
Therefore eq. 6.14a can be written as
h
BI
nq
1
V
H

=
d Bv V
d H
=
nAe
I
v
d
= q e = where and

=
d
V
q Bqv
H
d
dh A =
( )q dh n
I
v
d
=
d
ndhq
I
B V
H

=
(6.14a) (6.14a)
(6.14b) (6.14b)
where t coefficien Hall :
nq
1
tor semiconduc conductor/ flat the of thickness : h
e unit volum per carriers charge of number : n
density) carrier (charge
SF027 82
6.14.3 Uses of the Hall Effect
The Hall effect can be used to
determine the sign of the charge carriers in a conductor /
semiconductor.
determine the density of the charge carriers in a conductor/
semiconductor.
measure the magnetic flux density B that is known as Hall probe.
Example 23:
A current of 3.00 A flows through a piece of metal of width 0.800 cm and
thickness 625 m. The metal is placed in a magnetic field of flux density
5.00 T perpendicular to the plane of the metal. If the Hall voltage across
the width of the metal is 24.0 V, determine
a. the drift velocity of the electron in the metal.
b. the density of the conduction electron in the metal.
(Given charge of the electron, e= 1.60 x 10
-19
C)
Solution: I=3.00 A, d=0.800x10
-2
m, h=625x10
-6
m,
B=5.00 T, V
H
=24.0x10
-6
V.
a. When the equilibrium is reached between the electric and magnetic
force then
E B
F F =
eE Bev
d
= and
d
V
E
H
=
SF017
SF027 83
b. By applying the equation of the Hall voltage, thus
Example 24: (exercise : unit 6.12)
A rectangular coil of 10 cm x 4.0 cm in a galvanometer has 50 turns and
a magnetic flux density of 5.0 x 10
-2
T. The resistance of the coil is 40
and a potential difference of 12 V is applied across the galvanometer,
calculate the maximum torque on the coil.
Ans. : 3.0 x 10
-3
N m.
Bd
V
v
H
d
=
1 4
d
s m 10 x 00 6 v

= .
eh V
BI
n
H
=
h
BI
ne
1
V
H

=
3 28
m 10 x 30 6 n

= electron .
SF027 84
Example 25: (exercise)
An electron moving at a steady speed of 0.50 x 10
6
m s
-1
passes
between two flat, parallel metal plates 2.0 cm apart with a p.d. of 100 V
between them. The electron is kept travelling in a straight line
perpendicular to the electric field between the plates by applying a
magnetic field perpendicular to the electrons path and to the electric
field. Calculate :
a. the intensity of the electric field.
b. the magnetic flux density needed.
Ans. : 0.50 x 10
4
V m
-1
, 0.010 T
Example 26: (exercise)
A moving coil meter has a 50 turns coil measuring 1.0 cm by 2.0 cm. It is
held in a radial magnetic field of flux density 0.15 T and its suspension
has a torsional constant of 3.0 x 10
-6
N m rad
-1
. Find the current is
required to give a deflection of 0.5 rad.
Ans. :1.0 mA