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Study on the lubrication properties of biodiesel as fuel lubricity enhancers

Jianbo Hu
*
, Zexue Du, Changxiu Li, Enze Min
Research Institute of Petroleum Processing, SINOPEC, Beijing 100083, Peoples Republic of China.
Received 7 September 2004; received in revised form 5 November 2004; accepted 10 February 2005
Available online 17 March 2005
Abstract
Unrened biodiesels containing small quantities of monoglycerides, diglycerides, and triglycerides, and rened biodiesels not containing
these glycerides were added to diesel fuel and the resulting lubricity was measured using the High Frequency Reciprocating Rig (HFRR)
method. The unrened biodiesels showed higher lubricity properties than rened biodiesels. The chemical factors inuencing the lubricity
properties of biodiesels were investigated. Methyl esters and monoglycerides are the main compositions that determine the lubricity of
biodiesels that meet international standards. Free fatty acids and diglycerides can also affect the lubricity of biodiesel, but not so much as
monoglycerides. Triglycerides almost have no effects on the lubricity of biodiesel.
q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Biodiesel; Lubricity; Vegetable oil; HFRR; Fatty acid methyl esters
1. Introduction
Biodiesel, which is dened as the monoalkyl esters,
mainly methyl esters (FAME), of long-chain fatty acids
derived from renewable biological sources, such as
vegetable oils or animal fats, is considered as a possible
substitute or extender of conventional diesel fuel. Because
of its good lubrication properties, biodiesel is also used
as an additive to improve the lubricity of petroleum fuels
[1,2]. Much research has been done to evaluate the impact
of biodiesels prepared from different vegetable oils such
as rapeseed oil, canola oil, soy oil, sunower oil, etc. and
different alcohols such as methyl, ethyl, propyl and butyl
alcohols, on the lubricity of low-sulfur diesel [310]. Jon
H. Van Gerpen et al. [3] tested and compared the lubricity
properties of soybean oil and biodiesel derived from it
when used as lubricity additives. The results showed that
biodiesel appeared to be slightly more effective than
soybean oil for equal treatment rates. D.C. Drown et al.
[4] determined the effects of type of alcohol (methanol
and ethanol) and fatty acid prole of vegetable oil on the
lubricity properties of biodiesels when used as jet turbine
fuel additive. They found that the type of alcohol
inuenced the lubrication properties of biodiesel, but
fatty acid prole did not. A.K. Dalai et al. [5] used
Munson ROCLE bench test developed at the University
of Saskatchewan to evaluate the lubricity of biodiesels
derived from different vegetable oils. They also used
methyl, ethyl, butyl and 2-propyl alcohols to make
biodiesels and tested their lubricating properties in a
base diesel. Statistical analyses indicated strong effects of
fatty acid compositions and alcohols on the lubricity of
biodiesels [6]. The results of Dr Drown and Dr Dalai are
not completely in accordance with each other. More
recently, Daniel P. Geller and John W. Goodrum studied
the effects of specic fatty acid methyl esters on diesel
fuel lubricity [10]. They found that the individual fatty
acid esters did not have as dramatic an effect on lubricity
as did methyl esters derived from vegetable oils composed
of a mixture of several fatty acids.
In the literatures referred above, there implies a
hypothesis that the monoalkyl esters are the only main
composition that inuences the lubricating properties of
biodiesel, so the effects of type of alcohol and fatty acid
prole of the vegetable oil on the lubricity properties of
biodiesel can be compared. However, biodiesel is not 100
percent monoalkyl esters, because it also contains small
quantities of monoglycerides (MG), diglycerides (DG),
triglycerides (TG) and free fatty acids (FFA), etc. These
compounds may also inuence the lubricating properties of
Fuel 84 (2005) 16011606
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0016-2361/$ - see front matter q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2005.02.009
* Corresponding author. Tel.: C86 106 232 7551 ext8153.
E-mail address: hujb@ripp-sinopec.com (J.B. Hu).
biodiesel, but no research has been done on them by this
time.
In this research, a series of fatty acid methyl esters (i.e.
biodiesel) were synthesized from methanol and four
different vegetable oils, and then rened by distillation at
reduced pressure and high temperature to obtain relatively
pure methyl esters. The lubrication properties of unrened
and rened biodiesels were evaluated and compared by
adding the biodiesels to a base diesel and measuring the
High Frequency Reciprocating Rig wear area diameter
(WSD). The effects of MG, DG, TG and FFA on the
lubricity properties of biodiesel were also examined.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
The vegetable oils, including sunower oil, corn oil,
canola oil, and soybean oil were food-grade. 1-monoolein
(O99%), 1,3-diolein (approx. 99%) and triolein (O99%)
were supplied by Fluka and Sigma. Methanol, potassium
hydroxide and oleic acid are of analytical grade. Base diesel
was from Renery, Beijing Yanshan Petrochemical Co.,
Ltd., SINOPEC. The properties of base diesel are shown in
Table 1.
2.2. Transesterication
The biodiesel was made by a transesterication reaction
carried out at 60 8C and atmospheric pressure for 2 hours.
Potassium hydroxide was used as a catalyst at a concen-
tration of 1% by weight of vegetable oil. 100% excess
methanol (6 mol) was used to obtain high conversion of oil
into esters. The crude ester was separated and washed with
distilled water to remove the catalyst and unreacted
methanol until the pH value of the water used was less
than 7. The water present in biodiesel was eliminated by
distillation at reduced pressure and 100 8C for 30 min. The
content of water in the unrened biodiesel as prepared is
about 40 ppm according to SH/T 0246-92 method [13].
Finally, part of the unrened biodiesel was rened by
distillation at reduced pressure (less than 5000 Pa) and high
temperature (higher than 250 8C) until about 80% distillate
by volume of the biodiesel was obtained.
2.3. Analytical methods
The composition of biodiesel was analyzed by gas
chromatography (GC) in HP6890 employing a 5 m!
0.53 mm, 0.15 mm lm thickness Ultra-ALLOY capillary
column (Frontier Laboratories Ltd.). Data collection and
analysis was performed with HewlettPackard Chemstation
software. N-pentadecane (NC15) was used as an internal
standard. A stock solution of acetone with a known amount
of N-pentadecane was prepared a priori and used for
analysis. Samples were prepared for analysis by adding
approximately 0.1 g oil phase to 2 g acetone. The mixture
was put into GC auto sampler vials. One microliter of the
sample was injected into the column. The oven temperature
program consisted of: start at 50 8C, ramp at 8 8C/min to
380 8C. Methyl ester of oleic acid, 1-monoolein, 1,3-diolein
and triolein were used as standard samples to determine the
retention times of FAME, MG, DG and TG. The fatty acid
prole was determined by using an HP5890 with a FID and
a 30 m!0.25 mm!0.20 mm PEG capillary column. Acid
value was measured according to GB/T 264 [14]. Lubricity
testing was done according to the HFRR method [15] with
addition of biodiesel at 2.0% by weight of base diesel. The
HFRR operating conditions used are as follows: uid
volume (mL), 2G0.2; applied load (g), 200G1; speed (Hz),
50G1; duration (min), 75G0.1; uid temperature (8C),
60G2; stroke (mm), 1.0G0.02; batch surface area (mm
2
),
600G100; repeatability (mm), 63; the relative humidity was
kept between 40 and 60%, while the ambient temperature
was between 24 and 26 8C. The wear scars quoted are
corrected to give the WSD values at a pressure of 1.4 kPa
(denoted WS1.4).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Composition and fatty acid prole analyses
A typical chromatogram of biodiesel is shown in Fig. 1.
It can be seen that FAME, MG, DG and TG were efciently
separated and trace residual glycerides were readily
detected in the biodiesel. The results of GC are shown in
Table 2. The contents of methyl esters in unrened
biodiesels were not more than 97% w/w, and small
quantities of MG, DG and TG were detected, while only
methyl esters were detected in the rened biodiesels.
This analytical method cannot distinguish free fatty acid
from FAME. In order to analyze the purity of biodiesels,
acid value was measured. The results are presented in
Table 2. The acid value of unrened biodiesel is about
0.2 mg KOH/g biodiesel, i.e. about 0.1% w/w FFA
Table 1
Base fuel properties
Property Method Base diesel
Density (20 8C, kg/L) ASTM D4052 0.7911
Viscosity (20 8C) ASTM D445 1.928
Sulfur (mg/L) SH/T 025392 [11] 166
Nitrogen (mg/L) SH/T 06571998 [12] 2.6
HFRR (mm) 735
Distillation (8C for
percentage off)
ASTM D86
Initial 188
10% 198
50% 208
90% 218
End point 231
J.B. Hu et al. / Fuel 84 (2005) 16011606 1602
(oleic acid as typical fatty acid) in biodiesel, while that of
rened biodiesel is higher. The composition of rened
biodiesel is mainly FAME containing little amount of FFA.
The fatty acid proles of the biodiesels are shown in
Table 3. As expected, similar fatty acid prole was observed
in unrened and rened biodiesels derived from the same
vegetable oil.
The content of methanol and free glycerol were also
determined by injecting the biodiesels into HP 5890 (OV1
capillary column) directly. No methanol and free glycerol
were detected, which means the contents are below the
lower detection limit of 0.05% w/w. The low contents of
methanol and free glycerol are due to washing and
distillation.
3.2. Lubricity testing
3.2.1. Lubricity properties of the unrened and rened
biodiesels
The results of the lubricity tests are shown in Table 4. All
the biodiesels, including unrened and rened biodiesels,
improved the lubricity of base diesel distinctly. When
unrened biodiesels were used as lubricity enhancers, the
WSD value of diesel decreased signicantly, from 735 to
351429 mm, and were lower than the acceptable limit of
460 mm of EN590. When rened biodiesels were used, the
WSD value decreased to 528w567 mm, but were still over
the acceptable limit of 460 mm. It can be obviously seen that
all the unrened biodiesels showed improved lubricity
properties over all the rened biodiesels.
Obviously, the lubricity enhancing properties of unre-
ned biodiesels are different from those of rened
biodiesels. The fatty acid prole of unrened and rened
biodiesels derived from the same vegetable oil was similar,
so it is not the different fatty acid prole that inuences the
lubricity properties. The acid value of rened biodiesel is
higher than that of unrened biodiesel. As fatty acid can
increase the lubricity of diesel [16], the decreasing lubricity
properties of rened biodiesel to unrened biodiesel are not
contributed to FFA. In the meantime, methanol and free
glycerol were very little (not detected) in biodiesels, which
means the lubricity difference is not due to methanol and
free glycerol. Therefore, MG, DG, and TG are the most
probable compounds that inuence the lubricity properties
of them.
To determine whether one kind or all kinds of the
glycerides inuence the lubricity, some typical compounds
were used, i.e. 1-monoolein used as monoglycerides, 1,3-
diolein used as diglycerides, and triolein and canola oil used
as triglycerides. Rened biodiesel derived from canola oil
Fig. 1. Typical chromatogram of biodiesel.
Table 2
Composition and acid value of biodiesels
Biodiesels Sunower
biodiesel
Corn
biodiesel
Canola
biodiesel
Soybean
biodiesel
Rened sun-
ower biodiesel
Rened canola
biodiesel
Rened soybean
biodiesel
Methyl esters
(w/w%)
96.46 94.88 96.19 96.70 98.48 98.00
Monoglycerides
(w/w%)
0.34 0.27 0.35 0.49 ND ND
Diglycerides
(w/w%)
0.46 0.37 0.20 1.10 ND ND
Triglycerides
(w/w%)
0.44 1.64 0.78 ND ND ND
Acid value
(mg KOH/g)
0.14 0.21 0.20 0.18 0.30 0.38
ND, not detected.
J.B. Hu et al. / Fuel 84 (2005) 16011606 1603
(RCME) was employed as base biodiesel. And in this
research, oleic acid was also used to test the effect of free
fatty acid on the lubricity properties of biodiesel.
3.2.2. Effects of monoglycerides on the lubricity properties
of biodiesel
1-monoolein was used as typical monoglyceride and
added to RCME with the addition of 0.25, 0.5, 0.8, and 2.0%
w/w each. Then RCME containing different amounts of
monoolein was added to base diesel by 2% w/w and HFRR
wear scar diameter was measured. Fig. 2 illustrates the
lubricity improvement due to the addition of monoolein to
RCME. Only 0.25% w/w monoolein can greatly enhance
the lubricity properties of rened canola oil methyl esters. If
0.25% w/w monoolein was added to RCME and then the
RCME was added to base diesel by 2% w/w, which means
only 50 ppm monoolein was added to RCME, the WSD
value decreased from 735 to 425 mm, while no monoolein
was added to RCME, the WSD value only decreased to
543 mm. That is to say, 50 ppm monoolein can change the
WSD of diesel (blended with 2% biodiesel) with a decrease
of 21.7%. It has been reported that when 125 ppm
monoglycerides (92%, derived from rapeseed oil) was
added to a base diesel, the WSD decreased from 630 to
366 mm, about 41.9% [17]. Obviously, monoglycerides are
good lubricity enhancers and have much more lubricity
enhancing properties than pure biodiesel (FAME). When
0.5, 0.8, and 2.0% w/w monoolein were added to RCME,
the WSD value of diesel with the additives decreased to 358,
274, and 199 mm each. Undoubtedly, the lubricity properties
of biodiesel are signicantly inuenced by the concentration
of monoglycerides in it.
3.2.3. Effects of diglycerides on the lubricity properties
of biodiesel
Biodiesels containing about 1.02.0% and 0.40.8% w/w
diolein were prepared and the lubricity properties were
evaluated by using them as diesel lubricity enhancers The
WSD value of diesel blended with 2% w/w RCME
containing 0.40.8% w/w diolein is 470 mm, while if
RCME contained 1.02.0% w/w diolein, the WSD value
of diesel is 453 mm. The lubricity properties of RCME
changed slightly due to the addition of diolein. If less than
0.4% w/w diolein was added to RCME, the WSD value of
diesel is expected to approach 543 mm, which is the WSD
value of diesel blended with RCME. The results show that
diglycerides have impact on the lubricity properties of
biodiesel, but not as signicantly as monoglycerides.
Table 3
Fatty acid proles of biodiesels
Biodiesels Fatty acid (% w/w)
Palmitic
C
16:0
Stearic
C
18:0
Oleic
C
18:1
Linoleic
C
18:2
Linolenic
C
18:3
Arachidic
C
20:0
Eicosenoic
C
20:1
Behenic
C
22:0
Erucic
C
22:1
Sunower biodiesel 5.79 5.68 20.43 66.02 0.58 1.01
Corn biodiesel 12.31 2.01 29.79 54.72 0.53 0.64
Canola biodiesel 4.58 2.01 60.00 21.66 7.92 0.78 1.52 0.33 0.79
Soybean biodiesel 10.32 3.99 22.42 53.48 7.82 0.54 0.30 0.56
Rened sunower biodiesel 6.15 5.53 20.61 67.09 0.22 0.34
Rened corn biodiesel 12.71 1.93 28.96 54.8 0.71 0.53 0.24
Rened canola biodiesel 5.82 2.04 59.08 23.24 7.34 0.51 0.91 0.26
Rened soybean biodiesel 14.15 3.67 22.14 52.57 6.91 0.31
Fig. 2. Wear performance of RCME with different content of monoolein in
base diesel.
Table 4
WSD values of base diesel blended with 2% w/w unrened and rened biodiesels
Biodiesels Sunower
biodiesel
Corn
biodiesel
Canola
biodiesel
Soybean
biodiesel
Rened sun-
ower biodiesel
Rened corn
biodiesel
Rened canola
biodiesel
Rened soybean
biodiesel
WS1.4(mm) 429 366 351 375 528 567 543 540
J.B. Hu et al. / Fuel 84 (2005) 16011606 1604
3.2.4. Effects of triglycerides on the lubricity properties
of biodiesel
Triolein was used as typical compound to evaluate the
effects of triglycerides on the lubricity enhancing properties
of biodiesel 2.0% w/w triolein and 0.8% w/w triolein were
added to RCME in turn and then the biodiesel was added to
base diesel by 2.0% w/w. The HFRR wear scar diameter
data were 545 mm and 528 mm each, very close to 543 mm.
So it can be concluded that triglycerides may not inuence
the lubrication properties of biodiesel if their concentration
is not too high.
In this research, food-grade canola oil was also used as
triglycerides. Generally speaking, food-grade canola oil
contains puried triglycerides (more than 96% w/w). The
composition of food-grade canola oil was measured by GC
method. A little amount of diglycerides was detected while
no monoglycerides were detected. Little amount of
diglycerides did not affect the lubricity of biodiesel when
canola oil was added to RCME by 2% w/w.
When RCME was blended with 2.0% w/w canola oil and
then added to base diesel, the WSD value of diesel was
536 mm, approximately 543 mm. No matter which triglycer-
ides source was used, the result is the same: triglycerides do
not affect the lubricity enhancing properties of biodiesel
when the content is not too high.
3.2.5. Effects of free fatty acids on the lubricity properties
of biodiesel
Four samples were prepared by adding 0.2, 0.5, 0.8, and
2.0% w/w oleic acid to RCME each time. Because the
RCME biodiesel still contained little amount of FFA, and
the acid value was 0.30, about 0.15% w/w oleic acid in
RCME, the relatively exact contents of oleic acid in the four
biodiesels as prepared were 0.35, 0.65, 0.95, and 2.15% w/w
each. The decreasing WSD lubricity value of diesel as a
function of FFA in biodiesel is shown in Fig. 3. The
lubricity of diesel with 2% RCME was signicantly
improved by adding oleic acid to RCME. The WSD values
of diesel blended with RCME with different content of oleic
acid were 488, 449, 419, and 235 mm in turn, and decreased
almost linearly with the increasing content of oleic acid. If
0.5% w/w oleic acid was added to RCME and then the
RCME was added to base diesel by 2% w/w, which means
only 100 ppm oleic acid was added to RCME, the WSD
value decreased from 735 mm to about 460 mm, the upper
limit of EN590, while no oleic acid was added to RCME, the
WSD value only decreased to 543 mm. FFA has good
lubricity enhancing properties. Other researchers have got
the same results. C. Kajdas et al. [16] reported that when
100 ppm stearic acid (O90%) was added to a base diesel,
the WSD decreased from 691 to 493 mm, about 28.7%.
The results in Fig. 3 show FFA can also inuence the
lubricity properties of biodiesel. By comparing the results in
3.2.23.2.5, it can be seen that the effects of FFA on the
improvement of lubricity properties of biodiesel are less than
those of MG, but more signicant than DG and TG. The
linearity of WSD values versus oleic acid concentrations in
RCMEwas drawn by a linear t (dashed in Fig. 3). The WSD
value of diesel blended with non-FFA RCME was obtained
by extending the line to Y-axis, about 552 mm.
3.2.6. Comparing all variables investigated with biodiesel
quality standards
Parts of the requirements of the current world standards
are listed in Table 5 [18]. Some of the maximum contents of
Fig. 3. Wear performance of RCME with different content of oleic acid in
base diesel (dashed is the regression t line between WS1.4 mm of diesel
and oleic acid content in RCME).
Table 5
International biodiesel standards
Austria Czech
Republic
France Germany Italy Sweden USA
Standard ON CSN 65 Journal DIN E UNI SS ASTM
Specication C1191 6507 Ofcial 51606 10635 155436 PS12199
Water (mg/kg) !500 !200 !300 !700 !300 !500
Acid value (mg KOH/g) !0.8 !0.5 !0.5 !0.5 !0.5 !0.6 !0.8
Methanol (% w/w) !0.20 !0.1 !0.3 !0.2 !0.2
Ester content (% w/w) O96.5 O98 O98
Monoglycides (% w/w) !0.8 !0.8 !0.8 !0.8
Diglyceride (% w/w) !0.2 !0.4 !0.2 !0.1
Triglyceride (% w/w) !0.2 !0.4 !0.1 !0.1
Free glycerol (% w/w) !0.02 !0.02 !0.02 !0.02 !0.05 !0.02 !0.02
J.B. Hu et al. / Fuel 84 (2005) 16011606 1605
different compositions in biodiesel in all the standards are
as follows: MG!0.8% w/w; DG!0.4% w/w; TG!0.4%
w/w; acid value!0.8 mgKOH/g biodiesel, i.e. FFA!0.4%
w/w (oleic acid as typical FFA). Based on the results above,
the lubricity enhancing properties of a biodiesel meeting the
standards are affected not only by the methyl esters, which
are the main composition in biodiesel, but also by the small
quantities of MG, FFA, and DG. The concentrations of FFA
and DG are too low by the standards and just inuence the
lubricity properties slightly. However, the concentration of
MG is high enough to greatly affect the properties.
Therefore, the lubricity properties of biodiesels are
determined mainly by methyl esters and monoglycerides.
As the content of methyl esters is very high, exceeding 96%
w/w, the small changes of content do not affect the lubricity,
but because the concentration of MG is very low, less than
0.8% w/w by the standards, and the concentration of MG
inuence the lubricity properties markedly, the biodiesels
with different content of MG may have different lubricity
properties. It is not easy to obtain biodiesels with the same
low content of MG in the lab even by the same researchers
using the same reaction conditions, so to compare the effects
of type of alcohol and fatty acid prole of the vegetable oil
on the lubricity enhancing properties of biodiesel is
probably not so exact if the impacts of MG and other
compounds are not excluded.
Based on the research, it can be seen that the lubricity
properties of pure biodiesel, i.e. FAME, is not as good as it
should be. If the compound(s) with the addition amount less
than 1% is not called as additive. Therefore, biodiesel free of
MG, FFAet al. cannot be used as diesel lubricity additive, but
it can be used as diesel blend to improve the lubricity of diesel.
4. Conclusions
In this research, a study on the lubricity enhancing
properties of biodiesels was performed. Unrened biodiesels
and rened biodiesels derived fromvegetable oils were made
and then were added to a base diesel. The WSD values were
measured by HFRR method. Unrened biodiesels showed
higher lubricity properties than rened biodiesels. The
factors that affected the lubricity of biodiesels were also
studied. Fatty acid methyl esters and monoglycerides were
the main compositions affecting the lubricity properties of
biodiesel if the biodiesel met the international standard, and
free fatty acids and diglycerides affected themslightly, while
triglycerides almost had no effects.
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