Biology Chapter 4: Reproduction and Growth

Reproduction: Production of new individuals of the same species for the continuation of the
species.
Types of reproduction:
Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction
The production of new individuals involving
sex cells or gametes
The production of new individuals without
involving sex cells
Gametes are formed by meiotic division The process relies entirely on mitotic
division
Involves 2 individuals Involves only one individual (single parent)
New individual inherit genes from both
parents
New individuals get their genes from one
parent
Occur in humans, other mammals, birds,
reptiles, amphibians, fish, flowering plant
Occurs in simple organism like Amoeba sp.,
Paramecium sp., Hydra sp.
Produces offspring that are genetically
different from their parents
Ensure the survival of the species if the
environmental conditions undergo changes
constantly
Produces offspring that are genetically
identical from their parents
Ensure the adaptations of the parent for
survival are pass downed unchanged to the
offspring

Necessity for the formation of gametes:
1) Formation of gametes happens in reproductive organs (gonads)
2) Male gonads are known as testes and female gonads are known as ovaries
3) Formation of gametes is through meiosis in which 46 chromosomes are halved to 23.
4) During fertilisation, a fusion of a sperm and an ovum which has 23 chromosomes
each produces a zygote with 46 chromosomes


The male reproductive system











1) Testis: produce both the male gametes (sperms) and male sex hormones. Has
thousands of seminiferous tubules inside.
2) Scrotum: hold the testes and located outside the main body cavity. Has lower
temperature (2-3 C lower than normal temp) for development of healthy sperm.
3) Epididymis: Combination of thousands of seminiferous tubules coiled together
outside the testis. Sperms are formed in the seminiferous tubules and mature within
the epididymis. The functions is to store and mature the sperm.
4) Vas deferens or sperm duct: Connected to epididymis. Stores the sperm and transfer
the sperm from the apididymis to the ejaculatory duct. The vas deferens leaves the
scortum and enters the abdominal cavity
5) The 2 sperm ducts are joined to urethra which connects the urinary bladder to the
penis.
6) Seminal vesicles: secrete a thick, clear fluid containing nutrients for the sperms
7) Prostate gland: secretes a milky white fluid that activates or increase the mobility of
the sperm.

Spermatogenesis



1 2 3 4 5
1) Primordial germ cells undergo mitosis to form many spermatogonia
(spermatogomium) (2n)
2) Each spermatogonium (2n) develops into primary spermatocytes
3) Upon puberty, primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis I and form 2
secondary spermatocyte (n)-haploid
4) These spermatocytes undergo second meiosis and form 4 spermatids
5) Spermatids differentiate to form spermatozoa (sperm cells)
mitosis mitosis
Cell growth Meiosis I
Meiosis II differentiation
The female reproductive system









1) Ovaries: produce the female gametes (ova/ovum) and secrete female sex hormones;
oestrogen an progesterone
2) Fallopian tube: Move the ovum along. Has fimbriae which surround ovaries.
3) Uterus: thick-walled, muscular organ that holds the developing embryo and foetus

Oogenesis


1) Embryonic gonads of foetus contains primordial germ cells that undergo mitosis to
produce oogonia
2) At the 5
th
month of fetal development, these ooginia (2n) develop into primary oocyte
(2n). Each primary oocyte is surrounded by the follicular cells known as primary
follicle.
3) A baby girl is born with all the primary follicles which then mature after puberty.
4) Primary oocyte undergoes first meiosis to form secondary oocyte and a polar body.
5) During ovulation, secondary oocyte is released into Fallopian tube by ruptured
Graffian follide.
6) If sperm penetrate the secondary oocyte during fertilization, meiosis II will be
completed and ovum and second polar body are formed.
The formation of twins:
Identical twins Differences Fraternal twins or non-identical
twins
One ovum is fertilised by one
sperm to form a zygote
The zygote then split into 2
separate embryos
The division complete
Fertilisation Two ova are released at the
same time during menstrual
cycle, each ovum is
fertilised by a sperm
Two zygotes are formed
which divide and develop
into 2 seperate embryos
Both twin have same genetic
constitution
Genetic
constitution
Both twin do not share the same
genetic constitution
Share one placenta Numbers of
placentas
Each embryo has its own placenta
and umbilical cord
Have same sex Sex May have same or different sexes
Same physical characteristics Physical
characteristics
Do not share same physical
characteristics

The functions of placenta in foetal development:







The placenta:
(a) Is the site of the exchange of nutrients, respiratory gas and waste between mother
and foetus
(b) Secretes oestrogen and progesterone: help to maintain the thick blood enriched
endometrium
The placenta is connected to the foetus by the umbilical cord
The umbilical cord is a tube with one umbilical vein and 2 umbilical arteries
(a) Umbilical arteries: carry blood rich in carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste
products from the foetus to placenta
(b) Umbilical vein carries blood rich in oxygen and nutrients from placenta to the
foetus.
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants











Sexual reproduction in flowering plants (angiosperms) takes place in the distinctive
reproduction structure called the flower.
There are 4 flower parts, namely sepals, petals, stamens and carpel.

The male reproductive structure are the stamens which consists of:
Filament: a long stalk which support the anther
Anther: the structure that produces pollen grains. Pollen grains contain the
male gamete
The female reproductive structures are the carpels. Several carpels fuse together to
form a pistil. Pistil has 3 parts:
Stigma: a sticky structure at the apex of the style to which pollen grain adhere
Style: a stalk that joins the stigma to the ovary
Ovary: contains ovule

The formation of pollen grains in the anther:










(1) Pollen is produce in the anther which consists of four pollen sacs.

(2) In each pollen sacs, are hundred of pollen mother cells (2n) or microsporocyte

(3) Each pollen mother cell undergoes meiosis to produce four haploid microspores (n)

(4) The nucleus of each microspore then divides by mitosis to form a tube nucleus and a
generative nucleus. The microspores develop into pollen grains.


Formation of the embryo sac in the ovule: