DISTILLATION COLUMN DESIGN

As mentioned, distillation columns are designed using VLE data for the mixtures to
be separated. The vapour-liquid equilibrium characteristics (indicated b the shape of
the equilibrium curve! of the mixture "ill determine the number of stages, and hence
the number of tras, required for the separation. This is illustrated clearl b
appling the #c$abe-Thiele method to design a binar column.
McCABE-THIELE DESIGN METHOD
The #c$abe-Thiele approach is a graphical one, and uses the VLE plot to determine
the theoretical number of stages required to effect the separation of a binar
mixture. %t assumes constant molar overflo" and this implies that&
molal heats of vaporisation of the components are roughl the same
heat effects (heats of solution, heat losses to and from column, etc.! are
negligible
for ever mole of vapour condensed, ' mole of liquid is vaporised
The design procedure is simple. (iven the VLE diagram of the binar mixture,
operating lines are dra"n first.
)perating lines define the mass balance relationships bet"een the liquid and
vapour phases in the column.
There is one operating line for the bottom (stripping! section of the column, and
on for the top (rectification or enriching! section of the column.
*se of the constant molar overflo" assumption also ensures the the operating
lines are straight lines.
Operating Line for the Rectification Section

The operating line for the rectification section is constructed as follo"s. +irst the
desired top product composition is located on the VLE diagram, and a vertical
line produced until it intersects the diagonal line that splits the VLE plot in half.
A line "ith slope ,-(,.'! is then dra"n from this instersection point as sho"n
in the diagram belo".
, is the ratio of reflux flo" (L! to distillate flo" (/! and is called the reflux ratio and
is a measure of ho" much of the material going up the top of the column is returned
bac0 to the column as reflux.
Operating Line for the Stripping Section
The operating line for the stripping section is constructed in a similar manner. However,
the starting point is the desired bottom product composition. A vertical line is drawn from
this point to the diagonal line, and a line of slope Ls/Vs is drawn as illustrated in the
diagram below.
Ls is the liquid rate do"n the stripping section of the column, "hile Vs is the vapour
rate up the stripping section of the column. Thus the slope of the operating line for
the stripping section is a ratio bet"een the liquid and vapour flo"s in that part of the
column.
Equilibrium and Operating Lines
The #c$abe-Thiele method assumes that the liquid on a tra and the vapour above it
are in equilibrium. 1o" this is related to the VLE plot and the operating lines is
depicted graphicall in the diagram on the right.
A magnified section of the operating line for the stripping section is sho"n in relation
to the corresponding n2th stage in the column. L2s are the liquid flo"s "hile V2s are
the vapour flo"s. x and denote liquid and vapour compositions and the subscripts
denote the origin of the flo"s or compositions. That is 2n-12 "ill mean from the
stage below stage 'n2 "hile 'n+1' "ill mean from the stage above stage 'n'.
The liquid in stage 2n2 and the vapour above it are in equilibrium, therefore, xn and n
lie on the equilibrium line. 3ince the vapour is carried to the tra above "ithout
changing composition, this is depicted as a hori4ontal line on the VLE plot. %ts
intersection "ith the operating line "ill give the composition of the liquid on tra
2n.'2 as the operating line defines the material balance on the tras. The
composition of the vapour above the 2n.'2 tra is obtained from the intersection of
the vertical line from this point to the equilibrium line.
Number of Stages and ra!s
/oing the graphical construction repeatedl "ill give rise to a number of 2corner2
sections, and each section "ill be equivalent to a stage of the distillation. This is the
basis of si4ing distillation columns using the #c$abe-Thiele graphical design
methodolog as sho"n in the follo"ing example.
(iven the operating lines for both stripping and rectification sections, the graphical
construction described above "as applied. This particular example sho"s that 5
theoretical stages are required to achieve the desired separation. The required
number of tras (as opposed to stages! is one less than the number of stages since
the graphical construction includes the contribution of the reboiler in carring out the
separation.
The actual number of tras required is given b the formula&
"number of theoretical tra!s#$"tra! efficienc!#
Tpical values for tra efficienc ranges from 6.7 to 6.5 and depends on a number of
factors, such as the tpe of tras being used, and internal liquid and vapour flo"
conditions. 3ometimes, additional tras are added (up to '68! to accomodate the
possibilit that the column ma be under-designed.
he %eed Line "q-line#
The diagram above also sho"s that the binar feed should be introduced at the 92th
stage. 1o"ever, if the feed composition is such that it does not coincide "ith the
intersection of the operating lines, this means that the feed is not a saturated liquid.
The condition of the feed can be deduced b the slope of the feed line or q-line. The
q-line is that dra"n bet"een the intersection of the operating lines, and "here the
feed composition lies on the diagonal line.
/epending on the state of the feed, the feed lines "ill have different slopes. +or
example,
q : 6 (saturated vapour!
q : ' (saturated liquid!
6 ; q ; ' (mix of liquid and vapour!
q < ' (subcooled liquid!
q ; 6 (superheated vapour!
The q-lines for the various feed conditions are sho"n in the diagram on the left.
&sing Operating Lines and the %eed Line in 'c(abe-hiele )esign
%f "e have information about the condition of the feed mixture, then "e can
construct the q-line and use it in the #c$abe-Thiele design. 1o"ever, excluding the
equilibrium line, onl t"o other pairs of lines can be used in the #c$abe-Thiele
procedure. These are&
feed-line and rectification section operating line
feed-line and stripping section operating line
stripping and rectification operating lines
This is because these pairs of lines determine the third.
OVERALL COLUMN DESIGN
/etermining the number of stages required for the desired degree of separation and
the location of the feed tra is merel the first steps in producing an overall
distillation column design. )ther things that need to be considered are tra spacings=
column diameter= internal configurations= heating and cooling duties. All of these can
lead to conflicting design parameters. Thus, distillation column design is often an
iterative procedure. %f the conflicts are not resolved at the design stage, then the
column "ill not perform "ell in practice. The next set of notes "ill discuss the factors
that can affect distillation column performance.
EECTS O THE NUMBER O TRA!S OR STAGES
1ere "e "ill expand on the design of columns b loo0ing briefl at the effects of
the number of tras, and
the position of the feed tra, and
on the performances of distillation columns.
Effects of the Number of ra!s
%t can be deduced from the previous section on distillation column design that the
number of tras "ill influence the degree of separation. This is illustrated b the
follo"ing example.
$onsider as a base case, a '6 stage column. The feed is a binar mixture that has a
composition of 6.7 mole fraction in terms of the more volatile component, and
introduced at stage 7. The stead-state terminal compositions of about 6.>7 at the
top (stage '! and 6.' at the bottom (stage '6! are sho"n belo"&
(omposition *rofile+ 1, stages- feed at stage .
3uppose "e decrease the number of stages to ?, and 0eep the feed at the middle
stage, i.e. stage 9. The resulting composition profile is&
(omposition *rofile+ / stages- feed at stage 0
@e can see that the top composition has decreased "hile the bottom composition
has increased. That is, the separation is poorer.
Ao", if "e increase the number of stages to 'B, and again introduce the feed at
mid-column, i.e. stage >, the composition profile "e get is&
(omposition *rofile+ 11 stages- feed at stage 2
Again, the composition has changed. This time the distillate is much richer in the
more volatile component, "hile the bottoms has less, indicating better separation.
hus- increasing the number of stages will improve separation
Effect of %eed ra! *osition
1ere "e loo0 at ho" the position of the feed tra affects separation efficienc.
3uppose "e have a B6 stage column, again separating a binar mixture that has a
composition of 6.7 mole fraction in terms of the more volatile component. The
terminal compositions obtained "hen the feed is introduced at stages 7, '6 and '7
(at fixed reflux and reboil rates! are sho"n in the follo"ing plots.
(omposition profile+ 1, stages- feed at stage .
(omposition profile+ 1, stages- feed at stage 1,
(omposition profile+ 1, stages- feed at stage 1.
As the feed stage is moved lo"er do"n the column, the top composition becomes
less rich in the more volatile component "hile the bottoms contains more of the
more volatile component. 1o"ever, the changes in top composition is not as mar0ed
as the bottoms composition.
The preceding examples illustrate "hat can happen if the position of the feed tra is
shifted for this particular sstem. The should not be used to generalise to other
distillation sstems, as the effects are not straightfor"ard.
ACTORS AECTING DISTILLATION COLUMN O"ERATION
The performance of a distillation column is determined b man factors, for example&
feed conditions
state of feed
composition of feed
trace elements that can severel affect the VLE of liquid mixtures
internal liquid and fluid flo" conditions
state of tras (pac0ings!
"eather conditions
3ome of these "ill be discussed belo" to give an idea of the complexit of the
distillation process.
%eed (onditions
The state of the feed mixture and feed composition affects the operating lines
and hence the number of stages required for separation. %t also affects the
location of feed tra. /uring operation, if the deviations from design
specifications are excessive, then the column ma no longer be able handle the
separation tas0. To overcome the problems associated "ith the feed, some
column are designed to have multiple feed points "hen the feed is expected to
containing varing amounts of components.
3eflu4 (onditions
As the reflux ratio is increased, the
gradient of operating line for the
rectification section moves to"ards
a maximum value of '. Chsicall,
"hat this means is that more and
more liquid that is rich in the more
volatile components are being
reccled bac0 into the column.
3eparation then becomes better
and thus less tras are needed to
achieve the same degree of
separation. #inimum tras are
required under total reflux
conditions, i.e. there is no
"ithdra"al of distillate.
)n the other hand, as reflux is
decreased, the operating line for
the rectification section moves
to"ards the equilibrium line. The DpinchE bet"een operating and equilibrium
lines becomes more pronounced and more and more tras are required.This is
eas to verif using the #c$abe-Thiele method.
The limiting condition occurs at minimum reflux ration, "hen an infinite number
of tras "ill be required to effect separation. #ost columns are designed to
operate bet"een '.B to '.7 times the minimum reflux ratio because this is
approximatel the region of minimum operating costs (more reflux means
higher reboiler dut!.
5apour %low (onditions
Adverse vapour flo" conditions can cause
foaming
entrainment
"eeping-dumping
flooding
%oaming
+oaming refers to the expansion of liquid due to passage of vapour or
gas. Although it provides high interfacial liquid-vapour contact, excessive
foaming often leads to liquid buildup on tras. %n some cases, foaming
ma be so bad that the foam mixes "ith liquid on the tra above.
@hether foaming "ill occur depends primaril on phsical properties of
the liquid mixtures, but is sometimes due to tra designs and condition.
@hatever the cause, separation efficienc is al"as reduced.
Entrainment
Entrainment refers to the liquid carried b vapour up to the tra above
and is again caused b high vapour flo" rates. %t is detrimental because
tra efficienc is reduced& lo"er volatile material is carried to a plate
holding liquid of higher volatilit. %t could also contaminate high purit
distillate. Excessive entrainment can lead to flooding.
6eeping$)umping
This phenomenon is caused b lo" vapour flo". The pressure exerted b
the vapour is insufficient to hold up the liquid on the tra. Therefore,
liquid starts to lea0 through perforations. Excessive "eeping "ill lead to
dumping. That is the liquid on all tras "ill crash (dump! through to the
base of the column (via a domino effect! and the column "ill have to be
re-started. @eeping is indicated b a sharp pressure drop in the column
and reduced separation efficienc.
%looding
+looding is brought about b excessive vapour flo", causing liquid to be
entrained in the vapour up the column. The increased pressure from
excessive vapour also bac0s up the liquid in the do"ncomer, causing an
increase in liquid holdup on the plate above. /epending on the degree
of flooding, the maximum capacit of the column ma be severel
reduced. +looding is detected b sharp increases in column differential
pressure and significant decrease in separation efficienc.
(olumn )iameter
#ost of the above factors that affect column operation is due to vapour flo"
conditions& either excessive or too lo". Vapour flo" velocit is dependent on
column diameter. @eeping determines the minimum vapour flo" required "hile
flooding determines the maximum vapour flo" allo"ed, hence column capacit.
Thus, if the column diameter is not si4ed properl, the column "ill not perform
"ell. Aot onl "ill operational problems occur, the desired separation duties
ma not be achieved.
State of ra!s and *ac7ings
,emember that the actual number of tras required for a particular separation
dut is determined b the efficienc of the plate, and the pac0ings if pac0ings
are used. Thus, an factors that cause a decrease in tra efficienc "ill also
change the performance of the column. Tra efficiencies are affected b fouling,
"ear and tear and corrosion, and the rates at "hich these occur depends on the
properties of the liquids being processed. Thus appropriate materials should be
specified for tra construction.
6eather (onditions
#ost distillation columns are open to the atmosphere. Although man of the
columns are insulated, changing "eather conditions can still affect column
operation. Thus the reboiler must be appropriatel si4ed to ensure that enough
vapour can be generated during cold and "ind spells and that it can be turned
do"n sufficientl during hot seasons. The same applies to condensors.
These are some of the more important factors that can cause poor distillation column
performance. )ther factors include changing operating conditions and throughputs,
brought about b changes in upstream conditions and changes in the demand for the
products. All these factors, including the associated control sstem, should be
considered at the design stages because once a column is built and installed, nothing
much can be done to rectif the situation "ithout incurring significant costs. The
control of distillation columns is a field in its o"n right, but that2s another stor.