types of reactions o synthesis A + X AX reactions of elements with O and S two reactants, one product metals with halogens oxides of active metals react with water to form hydroxides oxides of nonmetals react with water to form oxyacids o decomposition AX A + X electrolysis decomposition of a substance by an electric current decomp of metal carbonate products of metal oxide and CO2 decomp of metal hydroxide products of metal oxides and water decomp of metal chlorate products of metal chloride and oxygen decomp of acid products of nonmetal oxides and water o single displacement A + BY AY + B displacement of a metal in a compound by another metal displacement of hydrogen in water by a metal displacement of hydrogen in an acid by a metal displacement of halogens reactivity of halogens decreases down the group, therefore any halogen can replace any element below it o double displacement AX + BY AY + BX formation of a precipitate formation of a gas formation of water o combustion a reaction in which a substance combines with oxygen releasing a large amount of energy in the form of heat and light burning of hydrocarbons writing chemical equations in word and chemical formulas o identify elements in equation o write formula using compound names o balance equation activity series and single displacement reactions o a list of elements arranged by the ease with which the elements undergo certain chemical reactions o usually determined in single displacement reactions o most active element placed at top and can replace any element below it but not above it o trend in activity of halogens o reactivity of halogens decreases down the group, therefore any halogen can replace any element below it o they undergo synthesis reactions with many metals o form ionic compounds with group 1 and group 2 metals
Chapter 9 Stoichiometry solving stoichiometry problems set up below mole ratio 2 2 1 balanced equation 2HgO 2Hg + O2 moles mass 95.2 g check
percent yield actual yield / theoretical yield o theoretical yield max amount of product that can be produced from a given amount of reactant o actual yield measured amount of a product obtained from a reaction
Chapter 10 States of Matter kinetic molecular theory for o solids strong intermolecular forces hold particles in relatively fixed positions with only vibrational motion definite melting point kinetic energy of particles overcomes the attractive forces between them high density low incompressibility low rate of diffusion o liquids relative high density relative incompressibility transmits pressure equally in all directions particles close together and attractive forces between particles can slow diffusion surface tension force that tends to pull adjacent parts of a liquids surface together, decreasing surface area to the smallest possible size capillary action the attraction of the surface of a liquid to the surface of a solid o gases large particles that are far apart relative to their size collisions between gas particles and between particles and containers are elastic elastic collisions no net loss of kinetic energy particles are in continuous, random, rapid motion there are no forces of attraction between gas particles the temperature of the gas depends on the average kinetic energy of the particles of gas ideal gas hypothetical gas that perfectly fits all of the assumptions of the kinetic molecular theory of gas o most gases exhibit ideal gas behavior when at high temperature and low pressure o noble gases and nonpolar diatomic molrcules show essentially ideal behavior o polar molecules deviate from ideal behavior intermolecular forces in liquids o dipole-dipole o London dispersion forces o Hydrogen bonding properties of o solids definite shape and volume crystalline solids crystals where particles are arranged in ordered geometric patterns ionic crystals positive and negative ions; electrostatic charge covalent network crystals each atom covalently bonded to its neighbor; in diamonds and oxides of transition metals metallic crystals metal cations surrounded by a sea of electrons; cause of high conductivity in metals covalent molecular crystals covalently bonded molecules held together by intermolecular forces o non polar weak London dispersion forces o polar dispersion forces, dipole-dipole, and hydrogen bonding amorphous solids particles randomly arranged; without shape o liquids definite volume takes the shape of its container attraction between particles are caused by intermolecular forces stronger intermolecular forces and lower mobility than gases not bound in fixed positions particles have mobility/fluidity o gases expansion due to assumption of continuous, random, rapid motion and no forces of attraction between particles fluidity ability of gas particles to glide past each other; due to assumption that there are no forces of attraction between particles low density - due to assumption that particles are tiny and far apart compressibility - due to assumption that particles are tiny and far apart diffusion spontaneous mixing of two substances due to their random motion; due to assumption that particles are in continuous, random, rapid motion effusion process by which gases pass through a tiny opening; due to assumption that particles are in continuous, random, rapid motion liquid vapor equilibrium pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with its corresponding liquid at a given temperature o smell indicator of vapor pressure; higher vapor pressure, the stronger the smell o particles above average kinetic energy vaporized, they lose kinetic energy and go back into liquid o volatile liquid evaporates readily, weak intermolecular forces o non volatile molten ionic compounds vapor pressure curves
Chapter 11 Gases Daltons law of partial pressure total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the component gases gas laws o Boyles PV=k P1V1=P2V2 constant T, n o Charles V=kT V1/T1 = V2/T2 constant P, n o Gay Lussac P=kT P1/T1 = P2/T2 constant V, n o Avogadros V=kn Avogadros number = 6.022 x 10 23 molecules, atoms, ions/mol o combined gas law P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 calculating molar mass of a gas o standard molar volume of a gas at STP, one mole of gas occupies 22.4 L o multiply using 22.4 L/1 mol as the conversion ideal gas law PV=nRT o R = 0.08206 L x atm / mol x K o used to calculate when there is no change
Chapter 14 Acids electrolytes all aqueous acids are electrolytes naming acids o ate ic o ite - ous acid-base theories o Arrhenius acid increases concentration of hydrogen ions (H + ) strong acid releases lots of H + ; completely ionize in aqueous solution weak acid releases few H + in aqueous solution base increases concentration of hydroxide ions (OH - ) strong bases dissociate in water strong bases are strong electrolytes o Bronsted-Lowry acid molecule or ion that is a proton donor base molecule or ion that is a proton acceptor Bronsted-Lowry acid-base reaction protons are transferred from one reactant (the acid) to another (the base) o Lewis acid atom, ion, or molecule that accepts an electron pair to form a covalent bond any compound where the central atom has three valence electrons can react as a Lewis acid base atom, ion, or molecule that donates an electron pair to form a covalent bond Lewis acid-base reaction formation of one or more covalent bonds between an electron pair donor and electron pair receiver conjugate acid-base pairs o conjugate base of an acid the species that remains after a Bronsted-Lowry acid has given up a proton o conjugate acid of a base the species that remains after a Bronsted-Lowry base has gained a proton o conjugate acid-base pairs in equilibrium both the forward and reverse reactions occur o strong acid weak base o weak acid strong base amphoteric can act as either acid or base
Chapter 15 Acid Base Titration calculating pH o pH = -log [H30 + ] o [H30 + ] = 10 -pH
titration calculation o MA VA = MB VB
Chapter 16 Reaction Energy temperature the measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a sample of matter heat energy transferred between samples of matter because of a difference in temperatures specific heat the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by 1 degree C or 1 K o Cp = q / m x T o specific heat = heat transferred / mass x T H enthalpy change amount of energy absorbed or released by a system as heat during a process at constant pressure o H = Hproducts Hreactants o enthalpy change depends on number of moles Hesss Law the overall change in enthalpy change in a reaction is equal to the sum of enthalpy changes for the individual steps in the process o Hesss Law problem write steps of equation with H balance equations to cancel out **if multiply equation, make sure you multiply H what cant cancel should be final equation add H to find total H entropy measure of the randomness of the particles in a system o represented by S o measured in kJ / (mol x K) o positive S system increases more random o negative S system decreases more ordered o solid particles in fixed positions low entropy o liquid particles close together a bit higher in entropy o gas particles far apart and in random, rapid motion high entropy spontaneous reactions H S G Is this reaction spontaneous? negative positive negative yes, at all temperatures negative negative positive or negative only if T < H / S positive positive positive or negative only if T > H / S positive negative positive never o reaction spontaneous if G < 0 Gibbs free energy enthalpy-entropy function at a particular temperature and constant pressure that assesses the tendency of a reaction to proceed in a particular direction o G = H TS *at a constant temperature and pressure
Chapter 17 Reaction Kinetics reaction mechanism step by step sequence of reactions by which overall chemical changes occur intermediates species that appear in some steps but not in the net equation homogeneous reaction reactants and products exist in a single case collision theory set of assumptions regarding collisions and reactions activation energy minimum energy required to transform reactants into an activated complex o required to merge valence electrons and to loosen bonds sufficiently for molecules to react o has to overcome repulsive forces between molecules activated complex transitional structure that results from an effective collision; it persists while old bonds are breaking and new bonds are forming o not an intermediate factors affecting reaction rate o nature of reactants reaction rate depends on particular reactants and bonds involved o surface area heterogeneous reactions involve reactants in two different phases; reactions can only occur when surfaces are in contact increase in surface area increases rate of heterogeneous reactions o temperature an increase in temperature increases average kinetic energy of particles and can result in a greater number of effective collisions energy of collisions must be equal to or greater than activation energy o concentration in homogeneous reactions, reaction rates depend on concentration of the reactants depends in slowest step in reaction mechanism o presence of catalysts catalysts substance that changes the rate of a reaction without itself being permanently consumed; does not appear as a product o provides alternate pathway of lower energy where the potential energy is lowered and may help to form an activated complex that requires lower activation energy rate limiting step if the reaction proceeds in a series of steps, the slowest-rate step is the rate limiting step writing a rate law o rate law an equation that relates reaction rate and concentrations of reactants o determined by how concentration affects the reaction rate o R = k [A] n [B] m
o k = specific rate constant o [A] and [B] molar concentrations
Chapter 18 Chemical Equilibrium reversible reactions a reaction in which the products can react to reform the reactants equilibrium conditions pressure, concentration, temperature equilibrium constant K = [C] c [D] d / [A] a [B] b
o independent of initial concentrations o dependent on temperature Le Chtliers principle a system subjected to stress will shift in the direction that tends to relieve the stress reactions running to completion when ions are removed from the reaction either as a gas or precipitate causing the reaction to cease
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