Mastering Concepts

11.1
1. What is evolution?
Evolution is genetic change in a population over time.
2. How did people think that species arose and diversified before Charles Darwin
published his theor of evolution b natural selection?
!he ma"or belief was in a special creation in which #od formed all species and placed
them on the earth. $ean %aptiste de &amarck proposed that ac'uired characteristics were
heritable( differential use and disuse of bod parts accounted for changes between
generations and species diversification.
). What did Darwin observe that led him to develop his ideas about the origin of species?
*s Darwin "ourneed in the H+, Beagle- he observed the uniformit of geological
processes such as volcanism- earth'uakes- and erosion. He collected fossils and observed
that each continent had animals that were characteristic and different from those on other
continents. .n the #alapagos- he observed and collected finches from different islands
and noted differences in giant tortoises on different #alapagos /slands. !hese
observations led Darwin to the idea of 0descent with modification.1
2. How is artificial selection different from natural selection?
/n artificial selection- humans select for the traits the desire in plants or animals. /n
natural selection- environmental factors favor some traits over others.
3. How did Darwin4s ideas challenge prevailing beliefs about life4s diversit and the
status of humans?
Darwin4s ideas challenged prevailing beliefs about life4s diversit b using natural
processes to e5plain how species arise. Darwin saw humans as "ust another species and
re"ected the idea that humans were speciall created. He thereb demoted humans from
an e5alted position- putting them on an e'ual footing with other species competing for
resources.
6. What is the modern evolutionar snthesis?
!he modern evolutionar snthesis combines the work of Darwin with a modern
understanding of genes- chromosomes- and the origins of variation.
11.2
1. What is an adaptation- and how do adaptations become more common within a
population?
*n adaptation is a characteristic that helps an individual survive and reproduce in its
environment. *daptations become more common within a population when the are
heritable and when the increase the odds of survival and reproduction.
2. What is the role of genetic variation in natural selection?
#enetic variation is the raw material that natural selection acts on since genetic variation
creates variations in phenotpes- some of which are better suited to the current
environment.
). How can natural selection favor different phenotpes at different times?
7atural selection can favor different phenotpes at different times because environments
are alwas shifting in dramatic or subtle was.
2. Wh doesn4t natural selection produce perfectl adapted organisms?
7atural selection does not produce perfectl adapted organisms because each
population4s evolution is constrained b its e5isting gene pool- which limits the possible
allele combinations and ma not contain ever allele necessar to confront ever
challenge. Chance events ma also wipe out adaptive allele combinations. #enetic
illnesses that produce smptoms onl after reproductive age also can maintain harmful
alleles in a population.
3. What is evolutionar fitness?
Evolutionar fitness is measured b reproductive success.
11.)
1. What are the five conditions re'uired for Hard8Weinberg e'uilibrium?
!he five conditions re'uired for Hard9Weinberg e'uilibrium are:
- no mutations(
- random mating(
- no emigration or immigration(
- the population is large enough to eliminate random changes in allele fre'uencies
;genetic drift<(
- natural selection does not occur.
2. Wh is the concept of Hard8Weinberg e'uilibrium important?
!he concept of Hard9Weinberg e'uilibrium is important because it shows that evolution
has the potential to occur at all times( in fact- evolution is probabl occurring at all times
in all populations.
). E5plain the components and meaning of the e'uation p
2
= 2pq = q
2
> 1.
/n the Hard9Weinberg e'uation- p> the fre'uenc of the dominant allele in a population-
q> the fre'uenc of the recessive allele- and pq> the product of p and q. !he e'uation p
2

= 2pq = q
2
> 1 sas that all individuals in a population are homo?gous dominant-
hetero?gous- or homo?gous recessive ;for a gene with onl two alleles<. % appling
the Hard9Weinberg e'uation at different times- it is possible to observe changes in allele
fre'uenc and determine whether evolution is occurring.
2. Wh doesn4t Hard8Weinberg e'uilibrium occur in real populations?
Hard9Weinberg e'uilibrium does not occur in real populations because the conditions
for it are never met in real populations.
11.2
1. Distinguish among directional- disruptive- and stabili?ing selection.
Directional selection selects against phenotpes at one end of the variation spectrum in a
population( the variation in the population shifts in the opposite direction. /n disruptive
selection- e5treme phenotpes are more fit than the intermediate phenotpe( the
fre'uenc of the intermediate phenotpe decreases in the population. /n stabili?ing
selection- both e5treme variations of phenotpe are selected against( the most common
phenotpe in the population remains around the median.
2. How can natural selection maintain harmful alleles in a population?
7atural selection can onl select against phenotpes. /f the dominant phenotpe is
selected for- hetero?gous individuals will retain the recessive allele in the population.
*lso there are times when the hetero?gous condition gives advantages to the individual
;e.g.- cstic fibrosis carriers are less susceptible to cholera<. /n these instances a balanced
polmorphism is seen in the population.
11.3
1. How does se5ual selection promote traits that would seem to decrease fitness?
,e5ual selection selects for e5treme phenotpes in one se5- and those e5treme variations
often place the individual at a disadvantage for survival ;e.g.- a peacock4s longer tail will
make him more visible to predators and slower in escaping<. However- since these traits
increase fitness b increasing mating success- se5ual selection remains an active force in
the population.
2. What is the difference between intrase5ual selection and interse5ual selection?
/ntrase5ual selection occurs when members of the same se5 compete for mating
opportunities with the opposite se5. /nterse5ual selection occurs between males and
females of the same species: one se5 chooses a mate of the other se5 based on the
presence of a characteristic.
11.6
1. What are some was that mutations affect an organism4s phenotpe?
+utations introduce new alleles- which ma or ma not alter the phenotpe of an
organism.
2. @nder what conditions does a mutation in one organism pass to subse'uent
generations?
* mutation in one organism passes to subse'uent generations if it is a mutation that can
be inherited. /n se5uall reproducing organisms- the mutation must appear in a gamete9
producing cell. +utations in somatic cells will not be passed to the ne5t generation. %
contrast- a mutation in an organism that produces ase5uall will be transmitted to all of
its offspring.
). How does sampling error cause genetic drift?
,ampling error occurs when the selected sample ;e.g. the alleles making it to the ne5t
generation< does not match the larger original pool. ,uch chance sampling errors result
in a change in the allele fre'uencies of the population- not as a result of adaptive fitness-
but as a result of pure chance.
2. What is the difference between the founder effect and a population bottleneck?
/n the founder effect- a new population is started b a small group of individuals that
coloni?e a new area. /n a population bottleneck- a large and geneticall variable
population e5periences a massive die9off- and onl a few individuals survive to continue
the population. %oth effects result in populations with restricted variet in their gene
pools and are therefore prone to genetic drift.
3. How do nonrandom mating and gene flow disrupt Hard8Weinberg e'uilibrium?
7onrandom mating means that not all individuals have an e'ual chance of reproducing-
and this will shift the e'uilibrium e'uation. /n gene flow- alleles enter or leave the
population( this b its ver nature disrupts the allele balance in the population.
11.A
1. What hpothesis did Conover and +unch test?
!he researchers tested the hpothesis that fishing results in population shifts towards fish
that are smaller at maturit or that mature more slowl.
2. How is a population reared in a tank different from a population in the 0real world1?
/n the real world the population would be sub"ect to gene flow as fish entered or left. !he
artificial population might also be sub"ect to genetic drift.
). !he heritabilit of a trait ranges from B ;entirel under environmental control< to 1.B
;1BBC controlled b genes<. /n *tlantic silversides- the heritabilit of bod si?e is about
B.2. How would the results of this e5periment differ if heritabilit of bod si?e were
higher? What if it approached B?
/f heritabilit of bod si?e were higher then the results of the e5periment would be even
more pronounced with the ellow and blue lines even farther from the random control
line. /f heritabilit approached ?ero then all three lines on the graphs should remain
about the same.
Write It Out
1. How did $ames Hutton- #eorges Cuvier- #eorges9&ouis %uffon- $ean %aptiste de
&amarck- Charles &ell- and !homas +althus influence Charles Darwin4s thinking?
$ames Hutton influenced Darwin b suggesting that changes in nature were gradual and
uniform ;a concept called uniformitarianism<. #eorges Cuvier suggested that catastrophic
events ma cause e5tinctions and that nature can act abruptl. #eorges %uffon said that
species change as the spread from their original location. $ean %aptiste de &amarck
proposed the inheritance of ac'uired characteristics. Charles &ell renewed the argument
of uniformitarianism and applied gradual geologic change to the histor of the Earth and
life( &ell also suggested that the Earth was much older than 6BBB ears- allowing plent
of time for evolution b means of natural selection to occur. !homas +althus illustrated
that populations produce man offspring and compete for resources. Darwin e5tended
+althus4 theor- suggesting that those individuals that are able to obtain resources best
would be most likel to survive and reproduce.
2. Dour boss is a plant breeder who asks ou to develop a sweeter variet of apple. How
would ou use artificial selection to achieve this goal? How might natural selection
produce the same result? Which process would occur faster?
Have a group of volunteers taste the apples and categori?e them based on sweetness. !ake
the seeds from the sweetest apples- plant them- and repeat the e5periment. 7atural
selection could mimic this if some animal relied on the apple as a food source- and the
animal were more attracted to sweeter apples. !he seeds of the sweeter apples might get
carried farther awa from their parent plants than the less sweet apples- increasing the
chance of the seeds of the sweeter apple maturing. *rtificial selection would be much
faster since scientists could ensure that all seeds from the sweetest trees successfull
germinate.
). How does variation arise in an ase5uall reproducing population? * se5uall
reproducing population?
Eariation arises in all species through mutations. /n se5uall reproducing species-
variation spreads rapidl as a result of genetic recombination during meiosis.
2. What happens to a population if conditions change and no individuals have the allele
combinations re'uired to survive and produce offspring?
!he population goes e5tinct.
3. +an articles about the rise of antibiotic9resistant bacteria claim that overuse of
antibiotics creates resistant strains. How is this incorrect?
Within populations of bacteria- random mutations are constantl occurring. E5posure to
antibiotics does not cause such mutations- but it does cause the death of the bacteria that
do not inherit alleles that confer resistance.
6. E5plain how harmful recessive alleles can persist in populations- even though the
prevent homo?gous individuals from reproducing.
Harmful recessive alleles can 0hide1 behind dominant alleles in the hetero?gous
condition of balanced polmorphisms- especiall if the hetero?gote individual carries
some advantage ;e.g.- in sickle cell anemia where individuals resist malaria<.
A. Fraggles are mthical- mouselike creatures that live underground beneath a large
vegetable garden. .f the 1BB Fraggles in this population- G2 have green fur- and 16 have
gra fur. * dominant allele F confers green fur- and a recessive allele f confers gra fur.
*ssuming Hard8Weinberg e'uilibrium is operating- answer the following 'uestions. ;a<
What is the fre'uenc of the gra allele f ? ;b< What is the fre'uenc of the green allele
F? ;c< How man Fraggles are hetero?gotes (Ff)? ;d< How man Fraggles are
homo?gous recessive (ff)? ;e< How man Fraggles are homo?gous dominant (FF)?
;a< !he fre'uenc of the gra allele is B.2. ;b< !he fre'uenc of the green allele is B.6.
;c< !he number of hetero?gotes is 2G. ;d< !he number of homo?gous recessive
individuals is 16. ;e< !he number of homo?gous dominant individuals is )6.
G. .ne spring- a dust storm blankets the usuall green garden of the Fraggles in gra. !he
green Fraggles therefore become visible to the #orgs- who tend the gardens and tr to kill
the Fraggles to protect their crops. !he gra Fraggles- however- blend easil into the
dust background. How might this event affect microevolution in the Fraggles? What
mode of natural selection does this represent?
!he homo?gous recessive condition ;gra< has a better chance of survival and will
therefore have greater reproductive success. !heir numbers will increase in future
generations. !his represents directional selection.
H. Describe e5amples of directional- disruptive- and stabili?ing selection other than those
mentioned in the chapter.
+an e5amples possible. %elow are a few:
Directional: increasing pesticide resistance- increasing bod si?e in horse evolution
Disruptive: banding or no banding patterns in &ake Erie water snakes- different bod
shapes in cichlid fish from the same cohort in *frican lakes
,tabili?ing: clutch si?e in birds- anatomical structures in alligators and horseshoe crabs
1B. How does se5ual selection maintain se5ual dimorphism?
/f a trait seems harmful but somehow increases an individual4s reproductive success- it
will become more common in the population.
11. .ne of the most striking e5amples of convergent evolution occurs among animals that
permanentl live in caves. *mong other shared traits- man of these species are eeless.
Develop a hpothesis to e5plain how an eeless species could evolve from an ancestral
population with ees. How does our hpothesis compare to how &amarck might have
e5plained it?
!he allele for eelessness is recessive but is carried in the population b a few
hetero?gous individuals. /n ever generation there would be a chance that some
offspring receive the recessive allele from both parents ;homo?gous recessive<. /n
normal environments- these offspring would be at a selective disadvantage and most
would not breed. /n a cave- the would not be at a disadvantage and could live to mate. /f
two homo?gous recessive individuals mate- then all of their offspring are homo?gous
recessive ;eeless<. !he allele fre'uenc of the population slowl shifts toward recessive(
a larger percentage of each successive generation would be eeless. &amarck might have
suggested that in the cavefish did not use their ees and so the lost them. !his loss was
passed on to their offspring.
Pull It Together
1. What is the biological definition of evolution?
!he biological definition of evolution is the change of allele fre'uencies in a population
over time.
2. *dd the terms genotype, phenotype, allele frequencies, founder effect, bottleneck
effect, and sexual selection to this concept map.
0Evolution1 leads with 0alters1 to 0*llele fre'uenc1. 07onrandom mating1 leads with
0is not seen in nature due to1 to 0,e5ual selection1. 0Founder effect1 and 0%ottleneck
effect1 lead with 0are specific tpes of1 to 0#enetic drift1. 0+utation1 leads with 0alters
an organism4s1 to 0#enotpe1- which leads with 0partl determines1 to 0Ihenotpe1.
). How does each mechanism of evolution change allele fre'uencies in a population?
;,ee Figure 11.2B< 7atural selection changes allele fre'uenc b selecting against alleles
that reduce the chance of survival and selecting for alleles that enhance the chance of
survival. +utation changes allele fre'uenc b introducing new alleles. #enetic drift
changes allele fre'uenc b chance. 7onrandom mating changes allele fre'uenc b
selecting for traits that other mates find attractive. #ene flow changes allele fre'uenc
b moving alleles from one population to another.
2. Describe the three modes of natural selection.
Ihenotpes with a range of e5pressions in a population- from common to e5tremes- are
sub"ect to selective pressures. Directional selection chooses for one e5treme or against
one e5treme of a phenotpe. Disruptive selection chooses against the average phenotpe-
leaving different e5tremes of a phenotpe in the population. ,tabili?ing selection chooses
against the e5treme phenotpes in the population- leaving the average phenotpe.