A High-Rise Primer

Scope
What are High-Rises
High-Rise Construction
What are High-Rises
High-Rise Construction
Even though variations can occur, most cities consider a high-rise building as one that
is over 75 feet in height measured from ground level access to the floor level of the
highest floor intended for occupant use, not the actual height of the building. Based on
an overall review of construction methods for high-rise buildings, buildings in certain
parts of the United States are engineered differently. For example, buildings located in
California are engineered for seismic conditions which are common to that area while
the high-rise buildings in the New York region are built to withstand the wind impact on
the higher buildings. Based upon the following information obtained from the Los
Angeles Fire Department, there are approximately 1,700 high-rise buildings in the State
of California, and approximately 745 of these are in Los Angeles. The majority of the
high-rise buildings in Los Angeles are commercial occupancies. About 20 to 25 percent
are habitable, such as hotels, apartment buildings, and condominiums.
The Los Angeles Fire Department divides its high-rise buildings into two groups:
"Existing High Rise" and "New High Rise." The exact building features and functional
systems that are found in a particular high-rise building will generally be determined by
the age of the building and the various code requirements that were in effect at the time
of construction. Because all high-rise buildings are not the same and because familiarity
with construction features and functional building systems are so vitally important to the
decisions and actions that are taken during high-rise fire control operations, the need for
effective pre-incident planning cannot be over emphasized. Existing high-rise buildings
include those that were constructed prior to July 1974. Approximately 520 of the
high-rise buildings in Los Angeles fall into this category. For convenience, existing
high-rise buildings may be separated into two subgroups: those constructed prior to
1960 and those constructed between 1960 and 1974. A new high-rise building is one
that was constructed after July 1974. Approximately 225 of the high-rise buildings in Los
Angeles are new high rises.
History of Existing High-rise Construction, 1900 to 1960
Prior to 1957, all buildings in Los Angeles were limited to 150 feet in height as a
measure of earthquake safety. Several years passed after the repeal of this limitation
before taller buildings were constructed. Therefore, most p1.e-1960 high-rise buildings
are a maximum of 13 stories. The pre-1960 high rises were generally constructed with a
reinforced concrete exterior as opposed to steel "I" beam construction used today. Many
of these structures are located in the older downtown area of the city.
History of Existing High-rise Construction in Los Angeles, Post 1960
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By the end of 1957, the city adopted more stringent earthquake standards. The
150-foot restriction was repealed, and building codes lifted the restrictions limiting the
height of Type I buildings. Like the earlier existing high-rise buildings, the post-1960
group are also Type I (fire-resistive) construction. By the 1960s, the Los Angeles codes
required compartmentalization of structures. Compartmentalization subdivides the
buildings into "fire areas." These separations were designed to establish a
"compartment" to prevent fire extension and provide for life safety. Fire doors and other
fire protection assemblies are installed to protect penetrations through these separations
in order to control the spread of smoke and fire. All high-rise buildings constructed in
this era are Type I, fire-resistive construction throughout. Type I construction uses
structural members, walls, columns, beams, floors, and roofs that are noncombustible or
limit the amount of combustible materials. Type I buildings are designed to withstand
the most severe fire conditions to be expected within the building. These structures are
required to have a two-hour fire protection rating on girders and beams. The floors, stair
shaft, and elevator hoist-ways are also protected for two hours. However, instead of
using reinforced concrete, they were generally built with steel beams coated with a fire
retardant material. The floors and roof are constructed of concrete slab or steel decking
covered with concrete. The only combustible materials allowed are the interior partition
walls and office furnishings. Most high-rise buildings of this era are of the "central core"
design type. This style features elevators and stair shafts located in the center of the
building, surrounded by a corridor and outer tenant areas.
History of Existing High-rise Construction Post 1974
The construction methods and ratings are the same as post 1960 but have added the
additional use of life safety features.
The World Trade Center
The World Trade Center complex consisted of seven buildings on a 16- acre site. The
110-story twin towers, One (North Tower) and Two (South Tower), stood at the heart of
the complex to a height of 1,368 feet and 1,362 feet, respectively. At the time of their
completion in 1973, the World Trade Center Towers were the two tallest buildings in the
world. Each tower had approximately 40,000 square feet, or one acre, of office space
per floor.
Faced with the difficulties of building the World Trade Center Tower to these
unprecedented heights, a unique architectural design was employed. A hollow tube of
closely spaced perimeter columns formed the main structural component of each tower.
Each tower was supported primarily by a series of 61 rigid, closely spaced steel columns
built into the exteriors on each side. Lightweight, steel trusses extended across to a
central core. These exterior pillars supported their own weight and half the weight of the
floors. The perimeter columns supported the floor trusses. The structural integrity of the
World Trade Center depended on the closely spaced columns around the perimeter.
A cluster of columns at the center of the structure supported half the weight of the floors,
their own weight, and all the elevators and other mechanical systems. Steel trusses tied
FPM712 - A High-Rise Primer Page 2 of 23
the two sets of columns together, providing reinforcement. The central core of the
structure was not part of the main structural system of the building due to the enormous
load they bore in supporting the elevator system (each tower had 104 passenger
elevators).
The World Trade Center Towers were designed to withstand the impact of a Boeing 707
airliner. Speculation to the cause of the World Trade Center Tower collapses at the time
of this publication was most likely due to a combination of the impact from the
commercial airliner(s) and the subsequent fire accelerated by thousands of gallons of
jet fuel. Whether failure was initiated at the perimeter columns or the core is unknown at
this time. It is likely that the impact of the airliners destroyed a significant number of
perimeter columns on several floors of the building, severely weakening the entire
system. The subsequent fires, fueled by up to 20,000 gallons of aviation fuel, created
enormously high and prolonged temperatures affecting the structural integrity of the
building's structural components, subsequently weakening the infrastructure of the
building leading to the collapse of the structure. Additionally, the location of impact may
have resulted in the South Tower imploding before the North Tower. The South Tower
collapsed 56 minutes after the impact, and the North Tower collapsed 1 hour and 40
minutes after it was struck by the airliner
High-rise Fire Considerations
In the history of modern high-rise fires, there have been few documented incidents of
building collapses as a result of fire alone. The Incident Commander at a high-rise
incident is faced with more complex operational priorities than those in a smaller
structure. These operational priorities and considerations include life safety (personnel
and occupants), extinguishment, fire confinement, property conservation, personnel
accountability, and evacuation. At a high-rise fire, time is a critical element. As fire
department resources arrive on scene, the strategy developed based on the situation
will dictate the operational priorities and the overall success of emergency operations.
High-rise structures are designed to withstand "content" fires for a specific length of
time. Building design features (such as fire retardant materials) and building safety
features (such as sprinkler systems) help to contain fires or extinguish fires and prevent
the building infrastructure from being exposed to excessively high temperatures. Based
on these factors, fire departments should continue to implement standard operating
procedures for high-rise fires. Implement the following guidelines at high-rise fires:
1. Use an aggressive attack on the fire because it is the most effective means of
saving lives and facilitating rescue in a high-rise fire emergency.
2. Evaluate the location of a Command Post. Some fire departments set a minimum
of 200 feet from the structure.
3. Locate Base a minimum of 200 feet from the structure and not in proximity to the
Command Post. Consideration for the location of Base should relate to a safe
corridor for personnel approaching and entering the building.
4. Evaluate and continuously reevaluate the overall strategy through-out the
duration of the incident. Conditions will definitely change, and these changes will
FPM712 - A High-Rise Primer Page 3 of 23
impact strategic planning.
5. Consider the pressurization of all stairwells to ensure tenability for fire fighting
operations as well as evacuation.
6. Gaining control of stairwells in a spontaneous evacuation situation may require a
considerable amount of time and personnel.
7. Unless fire attack teams gain control, the fire location may be negatively
impacted.
8. Follow current department elevator policy in using only elevators that terminate
five floors below the incident area. This may provide an alternative access if fire
department personnel can ascertain that the elevator lobbies and shafts are not
threatened by fire.
9. Gaining control of an evacuation and providing information and direction to
building occupants will be greatly simplified in modern buildings that are equipped
with a public address system.
An Incident Commander faced with an incident similar to the World Trade Center Tower
fires must use the following guidelines:
10. Make an analysis of the potential collapse zone, identify a safety zone, and focus
on an immediate evacuation.
11. Consider requesting and using a technical specialist, such as the building
engineer or a Department of Building and Safety structural engineer, to assist the
Incident Commander and/or Planning
12. Section Chief in evaluating ongoing strategy and determining the overall safety of
continuing fire suppression operations.
13. Be prepared for the possibility of complete self-evacuation of a high-rise building.
If mass evacuation is occurring, resources should be assigned to coordinate and
establish safe corridors to a refuge area that will result in a minimal impact on
incident operations.
14. Use the building communications system located in the fire control room to advise
the building occupants to evacuate the building.
15. Locate Base and the Command Post at least 1,000 feet away from the building.
16. Ensure that stairwells with roof access can be opened without any special tool or
key.
17. Require building owners to provide a helispot and to keep the roof clear of any
obstructions.
18. Implement a plan for requesting helicopters to provide rooftop rescues.
19. Review department standard operating procedures and conduct building
familiarization training.
High-Rise Construction Considerations
High-rise Definition
High-Rise is a term that can be used in code definitions, for example: any building over
75 feet (23m) or 5 stories in height is considered a high-rise building. However, any tall
building that has characteristics and limited access or external characteristics of a
"classic" high rise
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should also be treated as a high-rise in relationship to fireground tactics. Also, it is likely
that buildings constructed just short of code requirements for a high rise do not have all
the fire protection and life safety features of a building that meets a high-rise code.
Pre-incident Planning
High-rise buildings are not of the same design or construction and do not have the same
types of fire protection features. Construction methods and code requirements have
changed through the years and can be a factor in fire behavior within a building. These
changes can also impact the built-in protection features that help to mitigate or control
fires within the building. Because high-rise buildings can be so different, it is critical that
fire fighting personnel be familiar with each building and the operation of the life safety
and fire protection systems that it contains. Strategy and tactics for high-rise fires are
greatly affected by the fire personnel's knowledge of the building's construction and
design features. Some of the questions that fire personnel need to be able to
answer include:
20. Are there built-in life safety or fire protection features?
21. What are they?
22. Where are they?
23. How do they operate?
24. What is the current occupancy and layout of those parts of the building affected
by the fire?
25. Is the fire floor compartmentalized?
26. Is the fire floor an open space area that will allow the fire to spread quickly?
This critical information must be gathered ahead of time through effective pre-incident
planning. The degree of fire fighting success may be measured not only by the presence
of fire safety features, but also the ability of fire fighting personnel to take advantage of
these features
Masonry Bearing Wall High-rise Construction
These older style high-rise buildings were constructed with bearing walls made of
masonry. Most of these buildings were constructed of reinforced concrete. Due to the
severe weight of the construction
materials, the walls at the bottom were many feet (meters) thick. As the building rose
and the upper levels supported less weight, the walls were tapered. These buildings are
really the epitome of what fire-resistive construction means.
Due to the concrete construction, these high-rise buildings contain much mass and
generally have operable windows. This type of a high-rise building is least likely to
collapse under fire conditions. This is due to both the mass of the bearing materials and
the supporting nature of the exterior walls. The symbol of this construction is the Empire
State Building in New York City. A B-25 bomber crashed into the building, and it suffered
only some minor structural damage and content loss on several floors from the liquid
spread of petroleum product.
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In some older cities high-rise buildings exist that have unreinforced masonry wall
construction. These buildings are prone to destruction in fires as well as a potential to
collapse in earthquakes.
"New-style" High-rise Construction
The modern method of constructing high-rise buildings is commonly called "core
construction." This method involves erecting a steel skeleton by using a column, girder,
and beam system. The elevators, stair shafts, utility shafts, etc., are placed in a core
area. Most commonly this core is found in the center of the building and is called
"center- core" construction. It should be noted that in some buildings this core will be
found on the side and called "side-core" construction. In these cases, the stairways and
elevators are located on exterior walls.
Core construction has less mass than "old-style" construction and is more vulnerable to
heat from a fire. Floors have been known to sag nearly two feet under intense fire
conditions and, in at least one case, several portions of the wall assembly fell from the
building. Codes have generated requirements to have fire resistive coatings sprayed on
steel support members that assists in maintaining the strength of the steel when it is
subjected to heat and/or flames.
Structural Framing Systems
The structural frame of a high-rise building is the skeleton of the structure that supports
not only the dead load of the building itself, but it also supports the live loads such as
occupants and building contents. The most common systems in high-rise buildings use
either of the following as the basis for forming the building skeleton:
27. Reinforced concrete (old-style)
28. Structural steel (new-style)
Both types use vertical interior and exterior columns to which lateral girders are
attached. The girders span the horizontal distance between the columns and support
structural beams. Although there is a difference in the materials used for the structural
elements in a concrete versus a steel structural frame, they serve the same function.
The construction design for high-rise buildings is based on the concept that the
structural integrity of the building must be maintained sufficiently in any potential fire.
Principal structural components have a high degree of resistiveness from heat.
However, there are a number of structural stability concerns during fire conditions with
which fire personnel must be concerned:
29. Component failure is possible under prolonged exposure to sufficient heat.
30. Failure of a floor beam is somewhat serious, but it is also localized.
31. Failure of any girder would be far more critical than a floor beam because it would
affect a significantly larger area.
32. The failure of one or two girders could cause instability of a column, potentially
leading to a progressive collapse of the framing system.
33. A column failure could result in serious structural instability. Depending on the
location of the column, it could conceivably trigger extensive collapse damage to
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the structure.
To achieve the fire protection required by building codes for Type I (fire-resistive)
construction, steel frame members in high-rise buildings are "fireproofed" by encasing
them in concrete, sheet rock, or by spraying them with a protective coating. Concrete
has the advantage of being the most permanent type of fireproofing, but its use is limited
due to the effect that it has on the dead weight of a building. Sprayed-on protective
coatings improperly applied can spall during a fire. This may leave the steel structural
member exposed and subject to failure from excessive heat.
Concrete frame structures tend to resist the effects of fire better than steel frame
structures, but they are less resistant to the effects of earthquakes. The ability of
properly designed and constructed steel frame high-rise buildings to withstand moderate
earthquakes has been proven in many parts of the world in recent years.
Exterior Walls
As stated above, the exterior walls of an "old-style" high rise are part of the bearing
members. The wall construction is reinforced concrete. These walls are very thick at
the bottom and become smaller as they rise.
The exterior walls of modern high-rise buildings are commonly prefabricated and are
typically lighter in weight than those in older buildings. In many cases, these walls are
non-load bearing and may be referred to as "curtain" walls. A complete curtain wall
consists of a panel with finished surfaces and a means for attaching it to the building
frame.
The most common method for attaching curtain walls to the building is by bolting them to
clips that are attached to the structural frame or floor slab. This method of attaching
walls often leaves a space of several inches between the end of the floor and the
exterior wall. Unless this space is sealed with an effective fire and smoke barrier, it can
provide a path for fire and smoke spread to floors above and allow water to penetrate
floors below.
The outside finish of a modern high-rise building is often referred to as the "skin" and
usually consists of decorative materials such as aluminum, stainless steel, or lightweight
concrete, with large window areas. These windows may be plain glass, tempered glass,
or decorative glass. Metal alloy frames, backed up with conventional construction, hold
the glass in place.
Windows
Ventilation complexities will usually be dependent on the type of windows installed in the
building. Inoperable windows complicate ventilation procedures. Operable windows,
used in conjunction with normal smoke removal equipment, simplifies ventilation.
High-rise residential buildings normally have operable windows made from regular plate
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glass. In addition, many high-rise apartment buildings have large sliding glass doors that
open onto balcony areas. Windows in high-rise office buildings are often inoperable.
They are typically plate glass. When broken, plate glass often produces large shards
that can cause serious injuries to those below. To reduce this risk, special "tempered"
glass windows may be required at certain locations for emergency ventilation. When a
tempered glass window is broken, it will shatter into very small pieces, providing a
degree of safety that is not offered by plate glass under the same circumstances.
Depending on applicable building codes in sealed buildings, tempered glass or operable
windows on every floor may be required. Usually, they are located in each corner of the
exterior wall and at specific horizontal intervals. These special windows are normally
required to be aligned vertically throughout the building. Tempered glass windows are
normally marked as such in one of the lower corners. A decal may be affixed in a visible
place near the window.
Instead of tempered glass for emergency ventilation, some buildings may be equipped
with special operable window panels that are secured from the inside by a tool-operated
locking device. This tool is required to be kept on the premises.
NOTE: Removal of window glass during a fire situation, whether caused by the fire or
done intentionally for ventilation purposes, can create a situation where fire can extend
up the building exterior to the floors above. Anytime glass is removed or fails,
consideration must be given to the possibility of exterior lapping.
Roofs
Roofs on high-rise buildings are required to have at least a two-hour fire-resistive rating.
In most cases, concrete construction exceeds this requirement. Careful consideration
must be given to roof configuration during pre-incident planning. Pay particular attention
to:
34. Stair shaft exits
35. Machinery rooms
36. Other obstructions that would limit certain types of ventilation activities on the roof
In many cases, all stair shafts in the building will not exit to the roof. Knowing which
stair shafts exit to the roof can be critical when moving occupants to the roof for safe
refuge or evacuation and when using stair shafts to exhaust smoke. It is also important
to know if it is possible to land a helicopter on the roof for a top-down approach to fire
fighting, for interior rescue, or to lift building occupants from the roof.
In most cases, unless the code under which the building was built required the provision
of a helipad, it will probably be impossible to land a helicopter on the roof. Various
obstructions such as machinery rooms, antennas, or lack of adequate landing space will
usually be found.
Shaft Enclosures
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Shaft enclosures in high-rise buildings are required to have a minimum of a two-hour
fire-resistive rating. Examples of shaft enclosures are stair shafts and elevator shafts.
Any vertical shaft in a high-rise building, under fire conditions, can transfer heat and
smoke to other parts of the structure. It is critical that shaft integrity be maintained.
These shafts may be used as an escape route for building occupants or as an access
route for firefighters. Failure to maintain the integrity of vertical shafts can:
37. Transfer products of combustion to remote parts of the building
38. Impede the safe exit of building occupants
39. Greatly restrict the ability of fire personnel to perform tactical operations
Shaft Systems
High-rise building stair shafts are often built into the center core. Additional stair shafts
may be on the structure's outer perimeter or elsewhere, depending on the height and
occupancy type of the building.
Besides conventional stair shafts, there are other special stair shaft types found in
high-rise buildings. The building may contain "pressurized" or "smoke-proof' stair shafts
in which a vestibule design or activation of special equipment is designed to provide a
smoke-free atmosphere within the stair shaft. In many cases, however, even though the
building has multiple stair shafts, only one stair shaft may be designed to provide this
smoke-free environment.
Some high-rise buildings feature stair shafts that are often referred to as "smoke
towers." These are either full?. or partially open to the outside atmosphere to prevent
smoke from filling the stair shaft. Some high-rise buildings have "scissor" stair shafts
that feature two sets of stairs in one column on shaft. In some cases, each set of stairs
may serve every floor, I~ut entry points at alternate floors are on different sides of the
center core. Some others are designed so that one set of stairs serves only the odd
numbered floors while the other serves only the even numbered floors. While these
subtle differences may not seem important, under fire conditions they can be
responsible for firefighters approaching the fire from a less than desirable location or can
result in fire personnel going to the wrong floor.
Doors that provide access to the stair shaft from individual floors are often locked from
the stair shaft side. This requires that fire fighting personnel have a key to provide
immediate access to the floors from the stair shaft. Lacking a key, much time can be
wasted in forcing entry to the floor. Forcing the door is often difficult due to the metal
construction of the door and jamb. It may be faster to poke a hole through the wall and
reach inside to open the door.
As a rule, stair shaft systems in high-rise buildings are not designed to handle the total
occupant load of the building simultaneously. This is further complicated by the fact that
the number of usable stair shafts may be reduced by heat, smoke, or fire department
operations. This is one of the main reasons why total evacuation of building occupants
during a high-rise fire is often impractical.
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Stair shafts in high-rise buildings should be marked at each landing with signs that
provide specific information about the stair shaft. The signs should identify the stair shaft
by name or number (for example: Stair #1, Stair #2, etc.). They should designate each
floor, and list the lower aild upper terminal points of that stair shaft (for example: B-3 to
18). The sign should also indicate whether the stair shaft provides access to the roof of
the building. This can be critical to occupants who are using the stair shaft under fire
conditions, and it can provide critical information to firefighters.
Floors
Floors in high-rise buildings are also required to have a minimum of a two-hour
fire-resistive rating. Floors are normally concrete poured ver a metal deck that remains
in place after the concrete has set. After he concrete has set, holes are bored in the
concrete to allow for the passage of various utility lines or equipment between the floors.
This procedure is called "poke-through" construction. Poke-through, if not properly
sealed around the bored holes, can seriously diminish the floor's two-hour fire
resistiveness.
While most recent codes require that poke-through openings be sealed with a material
that reestablishes the two-hour fire resistiveness in many cases, it is not done properly
or is completely overlooked. In older buildings, poke-through may not be sealed because
of the lack of code requirements when the building was built. The lack of sealing of
poke-through spaces can allow fire and smoke to travel to upper floors and provide a
path for water to travel to floors below. During a fire situation, a check must be made of
the floors above and below the fire floor to check for extension.
Floor Configuration
There are two general floor layouts in high-rise buildings. They are referred to as
"compartmentatized" and "open space." The compartmentation in high-rise buildings
is based on the concept that smaller areas are separated from other areas and can slow
down the spread of the fire. This can reduce the fire from spreading beyond the
separated area. An example of this cornpartmentation would be a typical high-rise
apartment building.
Compartmentation can be an essential design consideration in limiting the size of a
high-rise fire. Compartment separations must offer adequate fire resistivity and must
divide plenum areas above dropped ceilings. They must also prevent vertical fire travel
by protective construction features around vertical shafts and above windows. Proper
compartmentation also requires all "poke-through" openings between floors to be
properly fire-stopped.
Examples of the "open space" concept are high-rise office buildings where floors are
virtually wide open. This openness is designed to allow unrestricted movement of
employees throughout the floor. In a fire situation, however, the lack of physical barriers
will allow the fire to spread quickly throughout the floor. Open high-rise floors are divided
by partitions that extend from the floor to the dropped ceiling. These conditions do not
represent true compartmentation. Should the fire reach the open plenum area above the
FPM712 - A High-Rise Primer Page 10 of 23
dropped ceiling. it can move unrestricted through the plenum and extend into other
areas of the floor.
Ceiling Assemblies
Ceiling assemblies in high-rise buildings are usually suspended from the floor assembly
by steel wires attached to a grid of metal channels. These channels hold acoustical tiles
or other ceiling material and, in most cases, the lighting fixtures. The open space
between the suspended ceiling and the floor above is normally used for horizontal
distribution of utility services (air-conditioning ducts, electrical conduits, plumbing lines,
etc.). It often serves as a common exhaust plenum for the heating, ventilation, and
air-conditioning system (WAC).
Electrical Systems
Electrical systems in high-rise buildings can be extremely complex and very hazardous
under fire conditions. The amount of electrical power required for the normal high-rise
building operations, which includes the complex equipment used to distribute it, must be
considered when fires occur.
Much of the electrical equipment is likely to be located in the basement of the building.
This makes it susceptible to flooding from broken pipes or water used to control a fire.
The danger of working near electrical equipment when water is present is well known
and must be remembered. Sending fire personnel into electrical vaults to terminate
power to the building is usually not warranted for sel era1 reasons:
40. The shutdown procedure is usually complicated and requires specific
knowledge on how to perform it safely.
41. Randomly throwing switches in these types of situations can be extremely
dangerous. This may terminate power to equipment that should continue to
operate.
42. If power must be terminated on the floor or floors involved in the fire, it can
usually be done through sub-panels that control the electrical supply to specific
floors. Because of the high voltages and power in electrical vaults, a sudden
shutdown by unknowing personnel can cause an electrical
43. surge that can injure personnel doing the shutdown. Have a utility company or the
building engineer do the shutdown in electrical vaults.
An emergency power supply, usually provided by an motor-driven generator, may also
be found in many high-rise buildings. The building systems that receive power from the
emergency system will vary and are usually dependent on the code requirements in
effect when the building was constructed.
In older buildings, the emergency power may supply only exit lighting in the stair
shafts. I11 newer buildings, it may serve a large number of fire protection or life safety
features such as fire pumps, elevators, and smoke-removal systems. Emergency power
activation may be automatic when normal power is interrupted. or it may require manual
activation by using switches. During pre-incident planning inspections, be sure to
FPM712 - A High-Rise Primer Page 11 of 23
determine if the building has emergency power, what it supplies, and how it is activated
Elevators
Under normal conditions, elevators are the only practical method of moving between
floors in a high-rise building. Under fire conditions, elevator operation can become very
erratic and extremely dangerous. Many of the control components of elevator systems
can be affected by smoke, moisture, and heat that are present during a fire situation.
Safe use of elevators under fire conditions requires:
44. Knowledge of how elevators work
45. An understanding of what malfunctions may occur Familiarity with Standard
Operating Guidelines and their use under emergency conditions
A department-wide policy regarding the use of elevators during fire conditions should be
developed and adhered to by all department personnel.
Hoistways are the vertical shafts in which elevator cars travel. In buildings with multiple
elevators, all the elevator cars in a bank are usually in a common hoistway. Some
high-rise buildings are equipped with low-, medium-, and high-rise bank elevators, also
known as split bank, that are configured so that some elevators serve only lower floors
of the building while others serve the upper floors. It is important to know whether or not
the building does have split-bank elevators and, if so, which floors the different banks
serve. This information can be critical to making a decision about whether or not it is
safe to use the elevator system.
The hoistway is separated from each floor by a hoistway door that is opened by
movement of the elevator car door when the car is level with the floor landing. Smoke
and heat under pressure at the fire floor can enter the hoistway, even though the
hoistway doors are closed and travel up or down the hoistway. If a large volume of fire
enters the hoistway shaft, the shaft acts like a chimney and draws the fire upward where
the heat may be sufficient to ignite materials on upper floors next to the hoistway. As
heat and smoke rise within the hoisnuay, pressure will force it out the hoistway doors
onto the upper floors.
Elevator cars will burn, even to the point where hoisting cables can fail, causing the car
to fall within the shaft. If fire has penetrated an elevator car or the hoistway, it is
important that personnel be assigned to floors above and below the fire floor, including
the floor where the shaft terminates, to check the spread of fire or smoke.
Almost every high-rise building is required to be equipped with elevator emergency
service features that will automatically move the elevator cars to specific locations under
fire conditions. The feature also allows fire fighting personnel to place the elevator cars
in a "Firefighter Service" mode that provides specific safety features. Automatic recall
may be initiated whenever an alarm device is activated. Manual recall can be done
through recall switches located in a lobby control panel or a fire control room. Automatic
or manual recall of elevators is important for several reasons:
FPM712 - A High-Rise Primer Page 12 of 23
46. It prevents smoke from entering the hoistway because it keeps the car from being
held at the fire floor.
47. It reduces the possibility of occupants being trapped in an elevator car.
48. It provides fire department access to the elevator cars if a decision is made to
use them.
The decision to use elevators during a fire in a high-rise building is one that must be
tempered with good judgment. While it is true that using the elevators will speed up
initial investigation and fire control efforts, an elevator malfunction that causes response
to a non-selected floor can result in fire fighting personnel losing their lives. Therefore,
using stair shafts is the safest method of ascending to the fire floor. The decision to use
elevators should be based on assurances that the elevator lobby on any involved floor is
safe and that the elevator cars that are used are not physically capable of reaching the
fire floor (split bank). Fire personnel already on the fire floors can confirm that the
elevator lobbies at those floors are tenable.
Even when assurances are in place that elevators can safely be used, any additional
safety features or procedures should be employed. These include the use of split-bank
elevators that terminate at least five (5) floors below the lowest reported fire floor. Only
use cars that allow firefighter service. In addition, all personnel riding in elevator cars
should wear full-protective equipment and have forcible entry tools, a means of
communication, an extinguisher, and a knowledgeable firefighter assigned to operate
the elevator car.
All fire fighting personnel should be well trained in the operation of firefighter service
controls on elevator cars. The time to conduct this training or to develop department
policies regarding emergency use of elevators is not the day of the fire.
Smoke Control, Systems
Smoke and its toxic products account for more than 80% of the fire deaths in the United
States. Plastics greatly increase the volume and the toxicity of smoke. For example,
polyvinyl chloride (commonly known as PVC) produces 500 times as much smoke as
red oak. High-rise buildings, like most occupancies, have contents that are
petrochemical products that produce large amounts of smoke and toxic gases.
The forces that affect smoke movement in a high-rise building include the stack effect,
expansion, wind, and HVAC systems. Smoke control can be either passive or active in
nature. Passive smoke control measures have been in use for many years. They consist
of:
49. Barriers
50. Curtains
51. Gravity venting
52. Smoke-proof towers
53. Smoke removal shafts
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Active smoke control systems are relatively new. In addition to the methods of passive
smoke control that might be in use, active smoke control employs mechanical
assistance to route smoke in a planned manner. Active smoke control systems can be
used to control the movement in many different ways. Some of these are:
54. Stairway pressurization systems
55. Building smoke control system
56. Zone smoke control systems
57. Corridor smoke control systems
58. Elevator smoke control systems
59. Atrium smoke control systems
HVAC Systems
WAC systems are designed to provide conditioned air throughout the structure by a duct
work system. For reasons of economy and efficiency, these systems operate on the
concept of recirculating most of the air within the building. Under fire conditions, smoke
or heat can enter the system at fire floors and quickly fill other parts of the building with
contaminated air if the system is allowed to continue in operation. When smoke and
heat are pumped through the building in this manner, many occupants can be exposed
to highly toxic gases and are placed in serious jeopardy, even though they may be on
floors remote from the fire. In a high-rise building with a recirculating air handling
system, the fire may be small, but smoke spread can be a major problem.
The air handling system in most new high-rise buildings is required by code to have
dampers in the system. These dampers are smoke activated and control the spread of
fire products from the area of origin to other parts of the building. (Don't rely totally on
these dampers. In many cases, however, the building may not have dampers installed,
or they may not function properly.)
Since the spread of fire products throughout the building is so critical in life safety terms,
the best approach is to shut down the system when there is any doubt or concern that
the system is contributing to the spread. Once the fire is controlled and the safety of
building occupants has been ensured, the system can be reactivated if it has the
capability of exhausting smoke from the building.
The methods of shutting down the HVAC system vary depending on the particular
building. In some buildings, especially older ones, it may be necessary to close switches
that control system air intake fans. Many times these switches are located in machinery
rooms on upper floors of the building, or they may be located on the roof of the building.
In many newer buildings and in some older buildings that have been modified, the air
handling system will shut down automatically under fire conditions. In some cases, they
will provide exhaust capability on the fire floor and pressurization of the floors above and
below the fire floor.
Information about the air handling system in a high-rise building should be a critical part
of pre-fire planning inspections. This includes how the system operates under fire
FPM712 - A High-Rise Primer Page 14 of 23
conditions and where and how the system can be deactivated if necessary. When the
building engineer is available, it is imperative to use their assistance with the HVAC
system.
Water Supply
A variety of different water supply systems can be found in high-rise buildings. They may
include:
60. 1 inch wet standpipe systems
61. 2 -inch dry standpipe systems 2Kinch wet standpipe systems
62. Sprinkler systems
NOTE: The sizes 1 -inch and 2 -inch refer to the diameter of the fire hose
discharge connections on the standpipe system. The piping within the standpipe system
may be considerably larger than this.
The importance of the water supply systems built into high-rise buildings demands that
we have knowledge of how these systems work and what problems may be expected
with them in emergency situations. The specific types of water supply systems found in
high-rise buildings will vary with the age of the particular building and the code
requirements that were in effect at the time it was constructed. Pre-incident planning
information should include specifics on the water supply system, its capacity, and
functional components.
1 Wet Standpipe Systems
For many years, 1 inch wet standpipe systems have been used in high-rise buildings.
These systems are often supplied by the domestic water system and are intended as a
first aid device for building occupants. They have limited water volume and pressure and
inferior hoselines and nozzles. The 1 -inch wet standpipe system should not be
considered as being adequate for primary fire department attack. If the 1 %-inch system
is used for initial attack, any attached hose or nozzles should be replaced with standard
fire department equipment.
2 -Inch Dry Standpipe Systems
The 2.5 inch dry standpipe systems are used in many older high-rise buildings and, in
some cases, in new buildings that do not exceed specific heights. These systems are
relatively simple in design compared with wet standpipe systems, but they have some
important differences that must be considered.
Since they do not have a constant water supply, it is important that they be charged by
an engine company hooking to the fire department connection as quickly as possible.
This will give firefighters an available water supply for fire attack. The fire department
connections on 2 -inch dry standpipe systems typically serve only one standpipe riser.
It is critical that the riser being supplied is the same one that is used for fire attack lines.
2 -Inch Wet Standpipe Systems
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The 2 -inch wet standpipe systems are required by code in all new high rise buildings
over certain heights. These systems provide a constant supply of water under pressure
that is adequate to produce effective hose streams on each floor of the building. The
primary water supply source for these systems may be the domestic supply that can be
supplemented by an auxiliary supply kept in a holding tank in the building. The 2 -inch
wet standpipe systems differ in design.
They may serve both 1 inch and 2 -inch outlets as well as the sprinkler system, if
the building is so equipped. The necessary pressure and flow for a 2 -inch wet
standpipe system is usually provided by one or more fire pumps that serve as the
primary supply. Fire pumps for high rise buildings are usually multi-stage centrifugal
pumps. They may be powered electrically or with diesel motors. These pumps are
designed to produce the required flow at a pressure that is sufficient for working streams
at the highest point in the building. If an emergency or backup pump is required by code,
there will be a backup system that activates automatically should power to the electric
pump (s) fail. Backup pumps are usually diesel-driven. In many older high-rise buildings,
the water flow capacity in gallons per minute (liters per minute) is inadequate for the fire
potential within the building.
Because wet standpipe systems must contain sufficient pressure to produce effective
hose streams at the topmost floor of the building, the pressure within the standpipes at
lower floors must be reduced. This is normally accomplished by pressure-reducing
devices installed at each outlet. These valves are preset to provide the proper outlet
pressure for that location. Pressure-reducing valves have the advantage of being able to
supply multiple hoselines (within reason) while maintaining the proper pressure and flow
rate. These valves control the pressure but can automatically adjust to varying flows
depending on the size of the hose and nozzle or the number of hoselines. In place of a
valve, there may be orifice plates in the outlet valve barrel. Orifice plates are stainless
steel or brass washers with calibrated holes. These holes control the outlet pressure by
restricting the flow from the outlet. The plates are often tack-welded into the standpipe
valve outlet barrel. The outlet pressure from these devices is not reduced until water is
flowing. Pressure-restricting devices are yet another method of providing proper
pressure to standpipe hoselines. They reduce outlet pressure in much the same manner
as orifice plates. The pressure-restricting device allows the valve to be opened only a
predetermined distance. Firefighters who remove orifice plates or alter the setting of
pressure-restricting devices need to be aware that the outlet will then deliver increased
pressure from the system. Two drawbacks to the orifice plate and other
pressure-restricting devices are: These devices have no effect on static pressure. They
do not allow for multiple hoselines because of the limited flow
that comes through the orifice opening. If orifice plates are removed to provide for
multiple hoselines from an outlet, the pressure to the lines must be controlled at the
standpipe valve, and care must be taken when opening or closing nozzles.
Sprinkler Systems
Sprinkler systems in high-rise buildings are now required by code in virtually every area
FPM712 - A High-Rise Primer Page 16 of 23
of the country. However, there are many older high-rise buildings (maybe some in your
jurisdiction) that still do not contain sprinkler systems. There is no doubt that sprinkler
systems provide the added degree of life safetv for newer buildings that is sadly lacking
in older, non-sprinklered high-rise buildings. In some cases, retroactive legislation,
enacted as the result of tragic high-rise fires, has mandated that older high-rise buildings
be fully sprinklered. However, these cases are the exception rather than the rule.
Pre-incident planning inspections should take particular note of sprinkler systems when
present, what areas they serve, and how they can be supplemented.
Standard Operating Guidelines require initial response units to supplement any built-in
water supply system in a high-rise building during a fire. To do this effectively, fire
fighting personnel must be acquainted with the building, the water supply system, and
the location of fire department water supply inlets.
A fire department must have Standard Operating Guidelines for connecting to and
supplying the high-rise sprinkler system. Officers and pump operators must understand
the pressure and flow required to be supplied from the engine(s) supplying the sprinkler
system. Current national standards for supplying sprinkler systems should be
referenced.
Communications
When discussing problems that occur at emergency incidents, communication always
seem to be at the top of the list. High-rise fires are no exception, and communications
problems can he much more severe at a high-rise fire than one at ground level. In any
type of an emergency, good communications are vital to effective operations - maybe
even more so at a high-rise emergency.
It is a known fact that portable fire department communications equipment can be
ineffective or even completely unusable in a high rise. There are locations inside
high-rise buildings where it is virtually impossible to transmit or receive messages using
portable radios. In some cases, satisfactory communications will cease with the
movement of the radio location by only a few feet.
There is a definite correlation between portable radio effectiveness and the frequencies
on which they operate. As a rule, radio frequencies in the VHF band are very ineffective.
Those in the UHF band are fairly effective in most situations. Those in the 800
megahertz band produce the most consistent results, although they are not perfect.
Many new high-rise buildings and a number of older ones that have been retro fitted
have built-in emergency communications systems. These hardwired systems have
jacks at specific locations on every floor and, in some cases, even in the elevator cars,
which allow fire personnel at different locations within the building to communicate with
each other.
Using the system requires plugging into it with a handset or headset. A number of
FPM712 - A High-Rise Primer Page 17 of 23
handsets are normally kept on site. A built-in emergency communications system can be
used as a primary communications channel if portable equipment is not functioning
properly. It can also be used as a secondary channel to avoid overloading fire
department frequencies.
Built-in emergency communications systems are not the same in every high-rise
building. Effective use of these systems requires pre-incident planning by fire
department personnel on how the particular system works and how it would be used
during an actual emergency.
Fire Control Rooms/Stations
Most current codes require that newly constructed high-rise buildings contain a fire
control room or station within the building. The room should provide, as a minimum:
63. Specific information on alarms that have been activated.
64. The status of fire protection systems within the building.
The information available at this location can be extremely useful for determining the
exact location of a fire and the status of fire protection systems that may have activated.
These rooms or stations frequently have communications systems that allow the
transmission of emergency alarms or instructions to building occupants and firefighters
alike.
While there is much information available from a fire control room or station, it may not
be the best place to locate the IC for several reasons. If it is in a basement level, radio
communication will probably be difficult. Positioning the IC at the fire control room may
also remove that person from any face-to-face contact with other officers. In all cases,
fire department personnel should be sent to monitor the information available at the fire
control room or station and relay it to the IC. This relay can often be established by
commercial telephone from the fire control room or station to the fire department
dispatch office. As with other systems installed in high-rise buildings, fire control rooms
or stations are not all the same. Monitoring the information that is displayed in these
locations or accessing the various systems that they contain requires some prior
knowledge that can only be gained by pre-incident planning.
Life Safety
Large numbers of people can be exposed to potential danger during a high-rise fire. This
requires that immediate attention be given to the issue of life safety. The following life
safety issues must be taken into consideration by fire personnel when responding to a
high-rise fire:
65. Life safety can be enhanced by timely control of the HVAC system.
66. Failure to control smoke movement within the building can put in any lives at
great risk.
67. Evacuation takes time. Command staff must anticipate this time, and sufficient
personnel must be assigned to perform the task.
68. The behavior of occupants during a high-rise fire is largely unpredictable.
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If occupants are going to be evacuated from the building, it is critical that they use stair
shafts that are not contaminated with smoke and heat.
Fire Behavior and Fire Spread
At high-rise fires, command officers and operating forces must consider the following fire
behavior and fire spread phenomena:
69. Stack Effect
70. Negative stack effect
71. Vertical extension
72. Core construction effect
73. Fire loading
74. Heat buildup
Stack Effect
Normally, we perceive smoke as being heated and, therefore, lighter than the air
surrounding it. Thus, when we cut a hole in the roof of a small structure that is on fire,
the hot smoke and gases easily exit the structure. However, this is not so simple when
we are dealing with a fire in a high-rise building. Vertical shafts in a tall building tend to
act as a chimney or smokestack by channeling heat, smoke, and other products of
combustion upward because of convection. As this process occurs, a stratification
process also occurs in which hotter smoke moves toward the roof and the cooler smoke
stays lower. As long as the air inside the building is hotter than the atmospheric air
outside the building, ventilation will occur by having fresh air drawn in through lower
building openings and discharged through the top. This is considered the "normal" stack
effect.
Negative Stack Effect
When the outside air temperature is higher than the inside air temperature at the
building's upper levels, a negative stack effect may take place. Such a condition is more
likely to occur in warm climates. As the smoke leaves the fire area, usually by way of the
stair shafts and other vertical openings, it cools. This effect pushes the smoke down the
vertical shafts, or it settles to floors BELOW the fire. This situation may cause Staging to
be relocated farther from the fire or cause firefighters trying to reach the fire floor to use
SCBA earlier than desired.
Vertical Extension
Typical construction methods for high-rise buildings provide common avenues through
which fire may extend vertically. The three common methods of fire extension in
high-rise buildings include the following:
75. Auto extension
76. Curtain wall extension
77. Vertical shaft extension
Auto extension occurs when the fire generates enough heat to break out windows and
then fire "rolls out" of the fire floor and up the outside of the building. Heat is transmitted
FPM712 - A High-Rise Primer Page 19 of 23
to the floor above causing the window glass to break and combustibles on the floor to
ignite.
As previously discussed, most modern high-rise buildings are constructed of structural
steel. Exterior walls (curtain walls) are attached to the structure. A space is created
between the floor assemblies and the curtain wall. These spaces are supposed to be
sealed during construction. Should there be faulty installation or heavy fire conditions,
there may be vertical spread of the fire through this space. This is called curtain wall
extension.
The following features are incorporated into high-rise design and construction that
contribute to vertical fire extension:
78. Stair shafts
79. Elevator shafts
80. Electrical chase ways
81. Plumbing/electrical/data cable "poke-throughs" (holes created through floors for
cable or piping distribution)
82. Air-conditioning supply/return shafts
83. Mail chutes
84. Trash chutes
85. Access stairs (open, private stairways constructed for tenants who occupy more
than one floor of a high rise)
Core Construction Effect
A fire that reaches the plenum area around the center core of a high rise can spread in
that plenum area. Firefighters entering the fire floor and advancing on the fire may
inadvertently push the fire around the center core. This may cause the fire to circle
behind the firefighters cutting off their escape route. When fire is predicted to be in the
plenum area, firefighters entering the corridor from a stair shaft should remove the
ceiling tiles in both directions before advancing. This may allow the firefighters to see if
fire is in the plenum area. A backup hoseline should be in place and operating in the
opposite direction to protect the advancing crew(s).
Fire Loading
The quantity of fuel that is available to a fire on any given floor directly affects
firefighters' ability to gain fire control. Where fuel is limited, such as on a vacant floor, it
may be possible to mount a greater effort to keep the fire from getting by that floor.
Heat Buildup
Fire in high-rise buildings generates large quantities of heat. Unfortunately for
firefighters, this heat cannot be dissipated easily from the building. Usually, there is no
means to ventilate the building effectively. This high heat also takes its toll on the
firefighter. The higher the heat, the more one perspires. Perspiration dehydrates the
firefighter and removes energy. Re-hydration at Staging is critical.
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High-Rise Strategy & Tactics
Fire fighting concerns in high-rise buildings are similar to those in smaller structures.
The safety of occupants and fire confinement are paramount. These two missions are
accomplished with diligent search operations and aggressive movement of handlines.
Extinguishing high-rise fires requires aggressive firefighters advancing 1 -inch to 2
-inch handlines. High-rise fires are extremely labor intensive and provide many
obstacles to rapid fire extinguishment. Strategic and tactical considerations for fighting
high-rise fires must be implemented rapidly. Because of the operational problems
involved in controlling a vertically extending fire, containment on the floor of origin must
be the main objective.
Studies reveal that flashover can occur at 10 minutes, and the loss of elevators typically
occurs approximately 20 minutes into the operation. The cause of elevator failure is
run-off water from hoselines entering the elevator shafts and shorting out electrical
contacts. Water usage at serious high-rise fires will result in elevator loss.
If possible, enough resources to handle the incident should be in place at the 20-minute
mark. Serious high-rise fires require a minimum of three handlines. When necessary,
this allows parallel lines on the fire floor and a line on the floor above to cover extension.
Poorly vented fires, fire load, large exposed areas, fire environment, fire floor location,
and unreliable water supply dramatically increase operational problems in high-rise
buildings. The fire environment may be severely affected by the following:
86. Floor construction with drop ceilings
87. Heavy, sealed windows
88. Intense heat and smoke
89. Limited means of ventilation
Water delivery must be maximized to attain the most effective cooling action. The
height of the fire area requires the fire service to rely on an unreliable means of
transportation during fire fighting operations. Access to the fire floor can be delayed
when a fire is above ground. Firefighters are at the mercy of elevators and the
probability that they will not operate properly during fire operations. The task of multifloor
ascent via stairwells will slow down operations considerably.
Strategic Operating Guidelines
The following are suggested basic Strategic Operating Guidelines that may be used at a
high-rise fire. They are listed in order of importance. Locate the fire. Determine the fire
floor location(s) as rapidly as possible. All future actions hinge on this vital piece of
information. Determine the specific fire floor (if possible) or the floors on which smoke is
reported from any information that is available to you in the building lobby. Frequentlv,
(especially during off business hours) specific fire floor information will not be available
other than a report of smoke on numerous floors (e.g., 20th to 35th floors). Verify the fire
floor information received from responsible occupant/building management personnel or
fire control or alarm display panel. Firefighters will have to interpret what the alarm panel
FPM712 - A High-Rise Primer Page 21 of 23
is indicating such as activated heat detectors, smoke detectors, or sprinkler heat
activation.
Relocation of occupants or evacuation. During the early fire stages, especially if there is
a rapid spread of fire products to floors above the fire area, it may be best to relocate
occupants from upper floors to safe refuge areas below the fire, rather than attempting
to evacuate them from the building. When this is done, it is critical that the occupants be
placed in areas that will not be subject to smoke or heat from the fire. If a decision is
made to evacuate the building, begin the process of controlling evacuation as soon as
possible. This may be difficult as occupants of numerous floors may have self-initiated
evacuation causing almost a mob scene or near panic in stair shafts or lobby. An
escape route from the area must be maintained, and responsible personnel such as
police, floor wardens, or building security must remain along the route to prevent panic.
As well, due to large floor areas or maze-like corridors, occupants on the fire floor may
be unaware of the fire until it is too late to evacuate. The search of large areas will be
required. As soon as possible, search and evacuate the floor above the fire.
Access, identify, and gain control of the building systems. These systems include the
following:
90. Elevators
91. HVAC systems
92. Communications equipment
93. Fire pumps
Confine and extinguish the fire. Experience indicates any serious fire will require a large
commitment of personnel and equipment because of extensive logistic problems and a
need for frequent relief of personnel. Judicious placement of hose streams will
facilitate the confinement and extinguishing phase. Companies must be intimately
familiar with high-rise buildings in their districts. Engine companies that are aware of the
location of standpipe- equipped stairwells will accelerate procedures required to place
water on the fire. Smoke or severe fire conditions may exceed fire suppression capacity
or delay entry to the fire floor. This can occur even when two handlines are operating.
Critical decisions will have to be made by the IC when the fire is beyond the control of
initial attack methods. The following options are available for consideration:
94. Operate a large-caliber water appliance into the fire area from the stairwell on the
fire floor.
95. Open the floor below or ceiling above the fire floor, and direct water into the fire
area. (This is very difficult to facilitate.)
96. Prevent radiant or conductive heat ignition by flooding the floor above the fire with
hoselines operating from the stairwell. This procedure will not be effective on
hidden fire.
Control extension to floors above. The number of personnel and hoselines needed for
deployment on the floor above to accomplish this will vary depending on the size of the
building and the severity of the fire conditions.
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