Aerodynamics Lab Manual 2010-2014

Aerodynamics Lab manual
INTRODUCTION
Aerodynamics:
Aerodynamics is the branch of fluid mechanics dealing with air motion and reaction of a
body moving within that of air.
Aerodynamic centre:
The point in the chord line about which pitching moment is constant. It will not vary with
angle of attack.
Airfoil:
The cross section of any surface which can produce aerodynamic lift from the
atmosphere.
Angle of attack:
Angle between the free stream wind direction and chord line.
Angle of incidence:
Angle between the chord line and longitudinal axis of the airplane.
Centre of pressure:
The point at which the total resultant pressure force acts.
Chord:
It is the straight line joining the leading and trailing edge of an airfoil section.
Drag:
It is an aerodynamic force opposing the direction of motion. Drag is inevitable to
minimize completely but its effect can be reduced to some extents. It can be due to surface
viscosity friction drag!" pressure differences due to shape of an object form drag!" lift acting on
a finite wing induced drag! and other energy loss mechanism in the flow such as wave drag to
shockwaves and in efficiencies
in engines.
Drag coefficient (CD:
It is defined as drag divided by dynamic pressure multiplied by reference area.
#D $ Drag%Dynamic pressure x &eference area!
Dynamic pressure:
It is product of density and s'uare of velocity divided by two.
!ift:
It is force acting perpendicular to the direction of flight. (orce generated by an airfoil
section acting at right angles to airstream flowing past it. In level flights lift should be e'ual to
the weight of aircraft.
!ift coefficient:
#) $ )ift%Dynamic pressure x &eference Area
1
Department of Aeronautical Engineering
NACA Airfoil:
These airfoils are wing cross sections designs invented by *A#A organization.
"ressure Coefficient:
It is a non dimensional form of pressure.
#tall:
*ormally the lift increases with the increase in angle of attack. +hen angle of attack is
reached to a certain value" the flow over the upper surface of the wings separates from the body
and the lift starts decreasing even with increase in the angle of attack and this condition decrease
in lift with increase in angle of attack! is called stall.
#treamline:
The imaginary line along which the tangent at every point will give velocity at that
direction.
$ing loading:
+ing loading $ The total weight of aircraft%,pan area of wing.
$ing span:
It is the total length of the wing measured from wing tip to wing tip!
Aspect ratio:
&atio of span to chord of an airfoil. -ence a high aspect ratio wing has great span and
narrow chord and vice . versa.
%oundary layer:
The thin layer adjacent to the body where velocity varies from zero on the body and /.00
12 on the edge of the boundary layer.
2
#TUD& O' $IND TUNN(!
AI):
To study about the subsonic wind tunnel 345! of suction type.
D(#CRI"TION:
+ind tunnel is a facility for creating a uniform wind of known value in a test section
where fluid flow phenomena can be investigated" models" of Aircrafts etc." can be tested from
their performance" and also students training%teaching in fluid mechanics%aerodynamics. The
facility can also be used for industrial aerodynamics testing and simulation studies on many of
fluid problems.
T*( 'ACI!IT&:
The line fetch of facility is given in figure 5. The main part of the tunnel are -oney comb
section" screens" contraction cone" test section" diffuser" safety screens" fan section" fan" motor
and speed control drivers. The dimension and specification of the facility is given below.
#"(CI'ICATION:
Type of tunnel 6 )ow speed" open circuit7suction type.
Test section size 6 #ross section 78//mmx8//mm
)ength . 5///mm
3aximum speed 6 9/m%sec
(an 6 Axial flow fan" 3aximum rpm 5://"
*umber of blades ;" ,pinner is provided
#ontraction &atio 6 065
,ettling #hamber 6 5mx5m
-oney #omb ,ize 6 ;:mmx;:mm
,creens 6 Two sections <mesh and 5;mesh
)AIN "ART# AND 'UNCTION:
The subsonic wind tunnel consists of mainly honey comb" inlet mesh screen" diffuser"
axial flow fan" and motor with speed control unit.
IN!(T DUCT:
Inlet duct effuser! is aerodynamically contoured section with contraction area ratio 065.
The inlet starts dimension of 0//mmx0//mm contoured to 8//mmx8//mm. The axial and
lateral turbulence are reduced and smooth flow of air entering the test section is achieved by
installing the honeycomb and screens for most efficiency and efficiencies of the air inlet.
The ratio of length to wall size of the honey comb is maintained as per the recommended
standards. The wire mesh is also fixed to smoother the flow further. This is particularly" useful
for obtaining laminar flow. The duct is secured to the test section by flange. The provision is also
3
made for easy removal of diffuser and diffuser for possible separation from the test section" when
re'uired. It is also highly smothered and painted.
T(#T #(CTION:
The central portion in the tunnel is the test section sandwiched between the inlet duct and
the diffuser using the flange. It has s'uare 8//mmx8//mm cross sectional inside" and length
5///mm
This test section has been designed to provide the space for setting up of experimentation
and visualization" and ready access to the experiments region. The test section is also printed
with = >erspex windows two on each side. ?ne wooden window is also provided for mode
mounting. A hole" a plug is provided on the wooden window" the plug can be rotated and the
rotation angle read out from an angular scale" around the plug. This plug can there be used to
rotate the model in the pitch direction.
DI''U#(R:
The downstream portion of the tunnel is diffuser. To the end of this is attached on axial
flow fan. The diffuser starts with 8//mmx8//mm s'uare section at the test section end and
enlarges to =@/mm diameter round at the fan drives end. It is flanged and bolted to the test
section.
A+IA! '!O$ UNIT:
Axial flow unit consist A# 3otor and variable speed A# drive. The ; bladed propellers
are connected to the motor through keyways. A# motor is connected to the variable drive which
is used to vary the speed of the propellers from 5// rpm to 5:// rpm.
"RO"(!!(R#:
The propeller should ideally be situated as for as possible from both ends of the working section"
so as not to cause more turbulence than necessary. It is usually placed in a section whose area of
cross section is some 5.: to @ times that of working or test section. The propeller must be of
variable speed and sometimes the blades of variable pitch" to give good speed control in the
tunnel.
ATTAC*)(NT#:
#)O,( -(N(RATOR:
This unit is meant for creating the streamlined dense white smoke in the direction of air
flow and across the model. All accessories are provided for completion of this unit.
A smoke rake can be inserted in the contraction #3# for visualizing flow pattern on the
blocks. (or flow visualization it is advised to keep one side block to see the smoke with contrast
of the black background. The user of the tunnel may keep a black paper or a black painted
plywood sheet of appropriate size which fits exactly the side wall. The block color must let be
shining. This would enhance line flow visualization which would enable to take good pictures.
)U!TI TU%( )ANO)(T(R#:
This 3anometer is used for studying the pressure distribution across the various models.

4
(+"(RI)(NT . /
CA!I%RATION O' #U%#ONIC $IND TUNN(!
AI)
To estimate the test section speed characteristics of the subsonic wind tunnel with respect
to the &>3 of the drive motor and calculate the energy ratio of the tunnel.
A""ARATU# R(0UIR(D
,ubsonic wind tunnel with electronic speed control" >itot . static tube" A tube water
manometer" Thermometer" Aneroid barometer.
T*O(R&
The speed at the test section is measured with the help of a pitot static tube. The static and
total pressure tappings are connected to the two limbs of the A tube water manometer.
The speed measurement in a subsonic wind tunnel is based on the BernoulliCs e'uation
for incompressible flow viz.
psDE Fv
@
$ po
+here ps $ static pressure of the stream *%m
@
po $ total pressure *%m
@
v $ velocity of flow m%s
$ density of air kg%m
8
The air density is to be estimated every time from the e'uation of state $>%&T
> $ Barometric pressure *%m
@

& $ Gas constant @<9 *7m % Hg
o
H
T $ Ambient temperature
o
H.
The difference between the total pressure and static pressure is given by the reading of
the A tube manometer in millimeters of water column. This should be converted to pressure in
* % m
@
" 5 mm of -@? $ 0.<5 * % m
@
!
@ po . ps!
Then 1 $ 77777777777777 m%s

5
(+"(RI)(NT 1 O%#(R2ATION#
The tunnel is run at different &>3 of the motor and the corresponding value of the test
section speed is estimated from the reading of the manometer.
%arometer reading:
= >%&T kg % m
8
Temperature6
o
H.
,l.*o &>3 3anometer &eading mm of -@?
po 7 ps
* % m
@
(/ mm of *3O
4 567/ N 8 m
3
@ po .ps!
1 $ 7777777777777 m%s

5.
@.
8.
=.
:.
;.
9.
<.
0.
5/.
CA!CU!ATION O' (N(R-& RATIO
6
Test section Hinetic Inergy % sec
Inergy ratio $ 777777777777777777777777777777777777777
Inergy input to the tunnel
E A1max! 1
@
max
$ 777777777777777777777
->x9=;x Jf
+here Jf $ fan efficiency $ /.< assumed!
A $ area of test section m
@
E A1
8
max
$ 777777777777777777777777
->x9=;x J
f
R(#U!T# AND DI#CU##ION
A graph of &>3 against velocity is plotted.
Inergy &atio of the tunnel $
0U(#TION# TO %( AN#$(R(D
5. +hat is the basic purpose of wind tunnel testingK
@. +hat is &eynolds number and how is it important in wind tunnel testingK
8. +hat is i! Total pressure ii! ,tatic pressureK
In which direction is each of these measured in a stream that is flowingK
(+"(RI)(NT . 3
7
"R(##UR( DI#TRI%UTION O2(R #)OOT* C&!IND(R
AI)
To plot the pressure distribution over smooth and rough circular cylinders and infer the
effects of flow separation on bluff shapes.
A""ARATU# R(0UIR(D
,ubsonic wind tunnel with electronic speed control" smooth and rough cylinder models"
angles of attack changing mechanism" multi channel water manometer.
%A#IC T*O(R&
#ircular cylinder is a bluff body which means that its major drag is the one due to flow
separation and the wake behind the body. The drag is less if the width of the wake is less and
vice versa.
+hen there is flow over the circular shape there is favorable pressure gradient from the
front stagnation point $ /
o
deg! to the highest point $ 0/deg!. Then adverse pressure
gradient exists up to the theoretical! rear stagnation point $ 5</deg!. But the flow separates
due to energy wastage on account of viscous friction in the boundary layer and the adverse
pressure gradient. (or a smooth cylinder the flow separation occurs almost immediately prior to
$ 0/deg point and for a rough cylinder the boundary layer which becomes turbulent on account
of surface roughness delays separation. #onse'uently the wake width is less for a rough cylinder"
resulting in lower drag compared to a smooth cylinder.
(+"(RI)(NTA! "ROC(DUR(
The smooth cylinder model which has just four pressure tappings at 0/ deg intervals is
mounted in the wind tunnel. The pressure tappings are serially connected to the limbs of the
manometer. The tunnel is run and the readings of the pressure are taken along with the limb
which is open to atmosphere. The static pressure from the pitot . static tube is also noted.
The model is rotated by every 5: deg using the angle of attack change mechanism and the
readings are again noted. Thus pressure at $ /" 5:
o
" 8/
o
etc." up to 5</
o
will be recorded.
,imilar procedure is followed after mounting the rough cylinder model in the tunnel test
section and the pressure readings at every 5:
o
of the model location are noted along with the
stream static pressure from the pitot . static tube.
8
CA!CU!ATION
The pressures are non 7 dimensionalised in the form of pressure coefficient #p! defined
by
pi 7 ps
#p $ 777777777777777
E 1
@
+here pi is pressure at any angular location on the model
ps $ static pressure of the stream
E 1
@
$ dynamic pressure of the stream
$ po 7 ps where po $ total pressure of the stream.
#p values are estimated for every and tabulated for smooth and rough cylinders.
TA%!( &>36 777777 ps 777777L po 7 ps $ 7777777
,l.*o deg p
i
p
i
7 p
s
p
i
. p
s
#p $ 777777777
p
o
. p
s

5.
@.
8.
=.
:.
;.
9.
<.
0.
5/.
9
Mraph of 1s #p is plotted for smooth cylinder
0U(#TION#
5. +hat will be the plot of 1s #p for a cylinder in ideal flow zero viscosity!K
@. +hat is DCAlembertCs paradoxK
8. ,ketch the pressure distribution round a circular cylinder in ideal flow and in real flowK
10
(+"(RI)(NT . 9
"R(##UR( DI#TRI%UTION O2(R #&))(TRIC A(RO'OI!
AI):
To plot the pressure distribution over a symmetric aerofoil.
A""ARATU# R(0UIR(D:
,ubsonic wind tunnel" ,ymmetric aerofoil model" multichannel manometer" pitot 7 static
tube.
"ROC(DUR(:
The symmetric aerofoil model is provided with pressure tappings on the upper and lower
surfaces at specified chord locations. It is mounted in the wind tunnel first at zero angle of attack.
The pressure tappings are serially connected to the limbs of the multichannel manometer. The
tunnel is run at a convenient &>3 and the pitot . static tube as well as the static pressure
readings are noted. The readings on the multichannel manometer are recorded along with that of
a tube open to atmosphere.
The angle of attack of the model is changed and again the readings on the manometer are
recorded.
CA!CU!ATION:
The pressure recorded at different locations of the aerofoil is reduced to pressure
coefficients. The #p values for each angle of attack are plotted as #p 1s x%c for upper and lower
surfaces.
O%#(R2ATION#:
atm. pressure6 77777777* % m
@
Temperature6 77777777777777777777777
o
H
$ p %&T $ 777777777Hg % m
8
#hord # of model $ 77777777777777777777 m.

@ po . ps! m%s.
&>36 777777777777777 Test section speed $ 77777777777777777

* . , vc
N $ No T%To!
O
$ 77777777777777 $ 77777777777 &eynolds no $ 7777777 $ 777777777
m
@

11

$ / deg P $ 777777777777deg
,l.*o x%c p
pi . ps
Cp 4 :::::::::
po . ps
5.
@.
8.
=.
:.
;.
9.
<.
0.
5/.
The area under the curve of #p upper and #p lower gives the lift coefficient #).
$ / deg #) $ 7777777777777777777
$ 77777 deg #) $ 77777777777777777777
If #) at $ / deg is not zero" reasons for the discrepancy must be given!

The #p distribution on the aerofoil for $ / deg and $ 77777 deg are also plotted.
0U(#TION#:
5. +hat is induced dragK
12
(+"(RI)(NT . ;
"R(##UR( DI#TRI%UTION O2(R CA)%(R(D A(RO'OI!
AI):
To plot the pressure distribution over a cambered aerofoil.
A""ARATU# R(0UIR(D:
,ubsonic wind tunnel" cambered aerofoil model" multichannel manometer" pitot 7 static
tube.
"ROC(DUR(:
The cambered aerofoil model is provided with pressure tappings on the upper and lower
surfaces at specified chord locations. It is mounted in the wind tunnel first at zero angle of attack.
The pressure tappings are serially connected to the limbs of the multichannel manometer. The
tunnel is run at a convenient &>3 and the pitot . static tube as well as the static pressure
readings are noted. The readings on the multichannel manometer are recorded along with that of
a tube open to atmosphere.
The angle of attack of the model is changed and again the readings on the manometer are
recorded.
CA!CU!ATION:
The pressure recorded at different locations of the aerofoil are reduced to pressure
coefficients. The #p values for each angle of attack are plotted as #p 1s x%c for upper and lower
surfaces.
O%#(R2ATION#:
atm. pressure6 77777777* % m
@
Temperature6 77777777777777777777777
o
H
$ p %&T $ 777777777Hg % m
8
#hord # of model $ 77777777777777777777 m.

@ po . ps! m%s.
&>36 777777777777777 Test section speed $ 77777777777777777

* . , vc
N $ No T%To!
O
$ 77777777777777 $ 77777777777 &eynolds no $ 7777777 $ 777777777
m
@

13

$ / deg P $ 777777777777deg
,l.*o x%c p
pi . ps
Cp 4 :::::::::
po . ps
5.
@.
8.
=.
:.
;.
9.
<.
0.
5/.
The area under the curve of #p upper and #p lower gives the lift coefficient #).
$ / deg #) $ 7777777777777777777
$ 77777 deg #) $ 77777777777777777777

The #p distribution on the aerofoil for $ / deg and $ 77777 deg are also plotted.
0U(#TION#:
5. +hat are two dimensional and three dimensional modelsK
@. Draw the lift curve for symmetrical and cambered airfoil.
14
(+"(RI)(NT: <=
'ORC( )(A#UR()(NT U#IN- $IND TUNN(! %A!ANC(
AI):
To study the lift and drag characteristic of symmetrical aerofoil *A#A //5<.
A""ARATU# R(0UIR(D:
)ow speed wind tunnel
,ymmetrical airfoil
'OR)U!A:
#) $ )%5%@Fv
@
s #d $ D%5%@Fv
@
s
+here"
) )ift kgf!
D Drag kgf!
#d #o7efficient of drag
Q Air density 5.@@:kg%m
8
g 0.<5 m%sec
v tunnel velocity m%sec 8m%sec
A Airfoil plan from area
"ROC(DUR(:
5. >repare the wind tunnel for operation and check the vertical installation power
supply" condition of the tunnel and its cleanliness. The preparation procedure to
be strictly followed.
@. The safety precautions are to be followed strictly.
8. #alibrate the lift drag balance as per the procedure.
=. (ix the symmetrical airfoil on the test section firmly.
:. ,witch on the digital strain indicator and allow it for two to three minutes run to
warm up.
;. Balance the lift drag indicator to zero using the balance
9. ,et the velocity as per the re'uirements with the help of rpm knob. *ote down the
reading for lift and drag forces at /
/
angle and record the reading
<. #alculate the lift drag co7efficient at different angle of attack and plot the graph.
TA%U!AR CO!U)N:
15
"oint no Angle of
attack
!ift (kgf C! Drag (kgf Cd !8D
/
3
9
;
=
>
?
7
5
/<
//
/3
)OD(! CA!CU!ATION#:
-RA"*:
#) vs
#D vs
)%D vs
R(#U!T#:
Thus the lift and drag characteristic of symmetrical aerofoil *A#A //5< was studied
graph was plotted.
(+"(RI)(NT : <>
'!O$ 2I#UA!I@ATION ("ATT(RN U#IN- #)O,( -(N(RATOR
16
AI):
To visualize the flow pattern of various models by using smoke generator.
A""ARATU#:
)ow speed wind tunnel" smoke generator facility or a smoke generator" different model.
T*(OR&:
(low visualization has played on important role in understanding fluid dynamics
phenomenon. ?ne of the widely used methods of flow visualization in the form of smoke
visualization techni'ue. In this procedure a dense smoke is made to pass through in the test
section continuously.
The white smoke in a cloud of particles. The cloud is approximately same as that of air.
The particles sizes are e'ually distributed. This is more than sufficient to closely monitor the
flow pattern.
It is important to understand the significance of flow visualization. The flow phenomenon
is understood through fundamental terms called streamlines" streak lines and path lines.A
streamline is defined as a line which is at all points tangential to the velocity vectors.
A streak lines is defined as the line joining the instantaneous position of a succession of
particles originating from one point.A path line is defined as line depicting the track of a single
fluid particle.,ince in the case of flow visualization by smoke where the smoke is introduced into
the flow at a fixed point" the observed line is a streak line.
T*( I)"ORTANT CO)"ON(NT# O' A #)O,( -(N(RATOR:
17
5. Ilectric #onsole
@. Drain
8. Ilectrical -eating #oil
=. Ret
:. ,moke generator glass and ,moke *ozzle
;. >ressurized Air from the Blower
9. >ressurized Air from the Blower
<. ,moke to the #ontroller
0. Distribution )ine
5/. )i'uid paraffin reservoir
55. >araffin
5@. Blower
O"(RATION:
#heck all the connectors of the tube are correctly connected to the respective points. (ill
the li'uid paraffin in the container to the re'uired level. This reservoir can be raised or lowered
so that the level can alter. The heater facility is included and can be altered depending on the
re'uirement. A correct adjustment of the heater coil insures the properly heating of the li'uid
paraffin. By switching on the blower the coil air passes in the mixing channel" forms a dense
smoke and enters in the test section.
"R(CAUTION#:
5. Do not switch on the heater without the li'uid paraffin in the reservoir.
@. Do not generate the smoke when it is not re'uired.
8. )ong breathing of the smoke is very disturbing
=. ?verheating of coils may not produce smoke.
:. A balanced of correct heating controlling the blower speed will generate the correct
amount of smoke in the test section.
R(#U!T#:
Thus the flow pattern of various models was visualized by using smoke generator.
(+"(RI)(NT : <?
'!O$ 2I#UA!I@ATION %& $AT(R '!O$ C*ANN(!
18
AI):
To visualize the flow over a wedge" airfoil placed in a fluid steam and to draw the flow
pattern.
A""ARATU# R(0UIR(D:
+ater tunnel"
Airfoil
+edge"
Aluminum >owders.
T*(OR&:
An interesting experimental analogy which is normally met as a flow visualization
techni'ue is in the water tunnels. In this tunnel model is placed in the middle passage to visualize
the flow. -oney combs are placed in three passages and the side walls are placed at the end of
the tunnel to avoid the swirl. The flow visualization methods can be employed to achieve the
following6
/6 OAserBation and plotting of the streamlines in a steady floC:
The techni'ue of dye and smoke injection are easily employed to trace the path of
the injected particles. ,ince the path lines coincide with the streamlines in a
steady flow" the instantaneous picture provides a streamline pattern. In unsteady
flow" some information can be gained by taking the snaps at regular intervals of
time.
36 OAserBation of streamlines in a surface floC:
Tufts are generally employed at the surface" their directions as well their function
observed.
96 (stimation of the surface friction:
&ate of sublimation of a solid layer of naphthalene or a li'uid film is correlated
with the surface shear stress. ,meared oil or oil7dye
mixture remains sticking on a surface until the point separation. If
now" a fine powder is blown from the inlet" it will stick on the oil and
leave a permanent record of the separation point.
;6 TurAulent miDing in the floC:
The extent or turbulent mixing can be estimated by the intensity of smoke or color
distribution and diffusion in the flow.
=6 'ormation and location of shocks:
?bservation of the occurrence of shockwave and its intensity is very important in
passages such as nozzles and in external flow such as over aerofoil
"ROC(DUR(:
19
a! The wedge or airfoil is taken and placed inside the mid section of the water tunnel
b! -oney combs are placed properly in the three passages of the tunnel.
c! 3otor must be ?* to rotate the propeller and the rpm can be controlled by means
of control valve.
d! *ow" flow pattern can visualized by injecting aluminum powder and the pattern
can be drawn.
e! ,imilarly" the flow pattern for the various shapes also be visualized and the flow
pattern can be drawn for various incidence.
R(#U!T:
Thus the flow visualize over a wedge" airfoil placed in a fluid steam and to draw the flow
pattern was studied
(+"(RI)(NT: 7
CA!I%RATION O' A #U"(R#ONIC $IND TUNN(!
20
AI)
To obtain the 3ach number distribution along the length of the nozzle of a
supersonic wind tunnel.
(0UI")(NT
3iniature supersonic wind tunnel" dryer" air compressor" mercury manometer" pressure
distribution windows for the tunnel with pressure tappings.
T*( )INIATUR( #U"(R#ONIC $IND TUNN(!
The miniature supersonic wind tunnel consists of air inlet" settling chamber" contraction
and a contoured" two dimensional convergent7divergent nozzles. The flow is let out into the
atmosphere after the test section. There is no second throat and diffuser to save power since
the tunnel is already very small.
There is provision to mount pressure gauge in the settling chamber to know the blowing
pressure. Air storage in the air compressor is at 5/ atmospheres and the blowing pressure is 8
atm.
The test section is of size ; mm x 8/ mm and is designed to give a 3ach number of @./.
There is a transition piece after the contraction to convert the circular passage into a one that
of a rectangular cross section. The nozzle has been designed based on the method of
characteristics.
3ajor portions of the tunnel are made of brass" the transition piece is of aluminum and
the normal test section windows are of high 'uality glass. The pressure distribution windows
are of >erspex.
#,(TC* O' T*( )INIATUR( #U"(R#ONIC $IND TUNN(!
(+"(RI)(NTA! "ROC(DUR(
21
SETTLING
CHAMBER
TEST
SECTIO
N
PRESSURE GAUGE
NOZZLE BLOCK
AIR
EXIT
CONTRACTION

AIR
INLET
SPECIFICATION:
MACH NUMBER =
20
TEST SECTION SIZE
6 !! " 30
!!
The pressure distribution windows are fitted to the test section. The pressure tappings are
serially connected to the limbs of a mercury manometer. The tappings cover a total of 5@
locations from the subsonic portion of the nozzle" throat to the supersonic portion and the test
section. There are ; holes on each window and the holes are staggered to obtain 5@ locations.
The air is blown through the tunnel at 8atm gauge = atm. abs! and the pressure readings
are noted on the mercury manometer for different locations of the test section.
If po is the settling chamber absolute pressure and p is the absolute pressure
corresponding to a location along the nozzle" then the 3ach number at that location is given
by the isentropic flow relation.
po E 75
77777777 $ 5 D 7777 3
@
!
E % E 75

p @
+here" E is the ratio of specific heats for air and is 5.=.
This expression can be used to estimate the 3ach number along the nozzle and the 3ach
number distribution can be plotted6

)AC* NU)%(R DI#TRI%UUTION A!ON- T*( NO@@!( (T*(OR&
22
NOZZLE BLOCK
PRESSURE TAPPINGS
NOZZLE BLOCK
#ISTANCE ALONG NOZZLE
1
2
M
M
0
Discrepancies between the theoretically predicted pressure distribution and the one
obtained by experiment can attributed to
i! Imperfection in nozzle contour due to manufacture and erosion.
ii! Mrowth of boundary layer along nozzle wall and either lack of or inade'uate
boundary layer correction.
iii! (luctuations in incoming flow.
iv!3oisture present in air if the dryer is not used or if the dryer is not effective.
v! )eaks in the tunnel from outside to inside.
The dryer is used to remove moisture in the incoming air which will otherwise condense
in the test section leading to two7phase flow air and water! and wrong results. The dryer has
silica jelly to absorb the moisture.

(+"(RI)(NT . 5
#U"(R#ONIC '!O$ 2I#UA!I#ATION $IT* #C*!I(R(N #&#T()
AI)
To visualize the shock waves and expansion waves over bodies kept in supersonic flows.
(0UI")(NT
3iniature supersonic wind tunnel" two mirror schlieren system" blunt and sharp nosed
bodies.
D(#CRI"TION O' T*( #C*!I(R(N #&#T()
,chlieren system is one of the three basic flow visualization systems used in supersonic
wind tunnels developed by Toeppler" the other two being the shadowgraph techni'ue by Dvorak
and the Interferometer system developed by 3ach P Sender.
23
The Merman word T,chlierenC means TlinesC or TstriationsC. ,chlieren method is based on
the well known optical principle that the refractive index is proportional to the density of the
medium.
There are single lens" twin lens and single % twin mirror schlieren systems available but
the most commonly used system employs two concave mirrors and is referred to as the Ttwo
mirror schlieren systemC.
)ight from a point source located at the focus of a long focal concave mirror is allowed to
pass through the transparent windows of a supersonic wind tunnel. Another long focal concave
mirror converges the incident parallel rays at a knife edge and finally the rays fall on a ground
glass screen.
+hen the tunnel is not running the air at the test section has the same density every
where. The rays passing through the test section undergo the same order of refraction and finally
converge at the knife edge. There will be uniform illumination on the screen. The knife edge can
be inserted or withdrawn to control the brightness on the screen.
+hen the tunnel is run" the presence of the model in supersonic flow produces
shockwaves compression! and rarefaction waves expansion!. The density undergoes changes as
the flow passes through these waves. As a result the light rays passing through the test section
undergo different orders of refraction and finally" after reflection from the second mirror some of
the rays will dig deep into the knife edge and will be stopped. ,ome others will skip the knife
edge and add to the illumination on the screen. There will therefore be dark and bright patches on
the screen that can be interpreted as shock waves and expansion waves.
CONC!U#ION
24
SCREEN
LIGHT
SOURCE
MIRROR I
GLASS $IN#O$ O%
$IN# TUNNEL
MIRROR
II
%LO$
MO#EL
LAY OUT OF A TWO MIRROR SCHLIEREN
SYSTEM
A sharp nosed body kept in a supersonic flow will have the leading edge shocks attached
to the body.
The leading shock remains detached from a blunt nosed body as the flow does not have
enough kinetic energy to negotiate the radius.
"R(CAUTION#
The knife edge must be properly set to allow the correct order of illumination on the
screen" neither too bright nor too dim.
The tunnel must be well sealed. Any leakage will spoil the entire flow pattern on the
model.
Initial alignment of the mirrors must be tested for sensitivity of the system by keeping a
slightly warm body in the field and making adjustments in viewing the waves.
A colored grating with yellow" green and red gratings can replace the knife edge. In this
case the shockwaves and expansion waves will be in different colors against a third! background
colors and facilitates better viewing.
(+"(RI)(NT . /<
-(N(RATION O' !I'T AND TI" 2ORTIC(#
AI):
To generate lift on three dimensional wing using blower and study the effect of tip vortices
on small ratio wings.
A""ARATU# R(0UIR(D:
5. Blower balance unit
@. )oad cell with indicator
8. ,mall aspect ratio airfoil model
T*(OR&
25
TI" 2ORTIC(#:
The high pressure air in the bottom of the wing tip will come to the low pressure region in
the top of wing. The upcoming air will create vortices at the tip of wing. This is called tip
vortices.
INDUC(D DRA-:
The tip vortices at wing tip will cause a downward velocity named as a downward because
of downwash. There will be a drag on the wing is called induced drag because of downwash"
some of angle of attack is in effective which is called induced angle of attack.
D(#CRI"TION
Blower balance e'uipment has been designed as an experimental unit to study the co7
efficient of lift and co7efficient of drag for different aspect ratios of the model. The test rig
essentially consists of axial blower handling the air as the medium of flow and is driven by A#
motor. The test rig has provisions for varying the parameters viz speed in turn flow and head.
The specially designed A# electric drive facilities the accurate calculations of input horsepower
to blower.
Aspect ratio$b
@
%s +here b$breath of the model"
,$ Area of the model span!
#"(CI'ICATION#:
5. Blower Type6 a! Axial with circular duct for delivery and ,uction!
b! ?perated at ;/-z
@. 3otor 6 A# motor with thyristor speed controller A# drive!
8. Drive 6 A# type.
=. Ilectrical input to the console6 single ph @@/1" A# supply with neutral and earth

"ROC(DUR(:
5. Heep the small aspect ratio wing model in the test area provided in the blower balance unit.
@. ,et the model to re'uired angle up to @/U V!
8. ,witch on the console
=. ,witch on the blower motor and rotate the speed regulator knob to full speed.
:. *ote down the lift" drag and air velocity for zero angle of attack.
;. &epeat the experiment for different angle of attack.
9. Then lift coefficient and drag coefficient is calculated using the formula.
<. The plot of #) 1s 2 P #D 1s 2 is done on the graph.
NOT(:
26
5. During the adjustment of angle the direction of angle positive towards top and negative
towards down.
@. The experiment is conducted using suction flow.
(ormula Ased6

#o7efficient of lift #l$ @)%F1
@
,!

#o7efficient of drag #d$ @D% F1
@
,!
+here b$ breadth of the model
Q$ Density of air$5.5kg%m
8

,$ Area of the model span!
1$ 1elocity of air m%sec
D$ Drag force in kg
)$ )ift force in kg.

Density of air6 F$>%&T
&>3
27

Aerodynamics Lab Manual 2010-2014

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